This document discusses four philosophical schools of thought - Idealism, Realism, Naturalism, and Pragmatism - and their views on reasoning, knowledge, and the ideal state. It summarizes each view's perspective on when reasoning ability develops (age of reason) and who has the ability to reason. While the philosophers disagreed on some details, they all recognized the importance of reasoning for both individuals and leaders in achieving an ideal, well-functioning state.

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Age of Reason
by Tayyaba Riaz
Iqra University
Philosophy as a word is derived from two Greek words “Philos” and “Sophia” which means love
of wisdom. Every act, if purposeful and logical, will acquire some productive outcomes. There
are three branches of philosophy
• Metaphysics,
• Epistemology,
• Axiology.
Different philosophers have put forward their thoughts and logics about reality (Metaphysics)
and values (Axiology) also about knowledge (Epistemology) as source to know reality and
values.
Education is an actual attempt to conscious all mankind about the reality of world and their
existence in it. As well about values and how much they value in their life? So basically
Education is a practical side of philosophy. Identification of “proper sources of knowledge” is
desirable for this attempt of stirring inhabitants on earth about the reality of world and their prior
position in it.
Knowledge especially with regard to its methods, validity, scope and the distinction between
justified belief and opinion, will be considered useful only when it is gained through reasoning.
Although every school of thought has it own means to acquire reasons or justifications but none
have denied its utility and authenticity. As a result, it can be without doubt affirmed that:
Reasoning has been admired by every philosopher while defining source of knowledge and they
accepted the importance of reasoning in every action that took place. More interestingly they all
have given their own methods for achieving reasoning and made age specifications, for an
ultimate end that is “an Ideal State”. This specification of age and ability tagging for
“Reasoning” by different philosophies and its relation to an eventual goal of an ideal state which
has to be achieved by education can be analysed under following headings:
i. Idealism: -
Plato the chief advocate of Idealism has put forward a thought that:
a. Idea is an only reality, he has given preference to mind over matter and nothing is real
except an idea in the mind (Metaphysics)

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b. All knowledge includes a mental grasp of ideas and concepts. (Epistemology)
c. Values are deep rooted in reality. (Axiology)
He has put forward an idea of ideal state where education will cater people that are divided into
three categories on the bases of qualities:
o Gold (Virtue of wisdom Intellect Philosopher)
o Silver (Virtue of Courage Emotion Soldier)
o Bronze (Virtue of moderation Appetite Craftsman)
He has promoted his idea of an ideal state and importance of a philosopher through an example
of state as a ship which is headed by a philosopher king in book VI of the Republic. It likens:
“the governance of a city-state to the command of a naval vessel - and ultimately argues that the
only men fit to be captain of this ship are philosopher kings, benevolent men with absolute
power who have access to the Form of the Good.”
At next, he has reserved reasoning for an education of philosopher this can be noticed in his
example of the divided line:
• The visible world: AB represents shadows and reflections of physical things, and BC the
physical things themselves. These kinds of knowledge are the illusion of our ordinary,
everyday experience and belief.
• The intelligible world: CD, involving mathematical reasoning, (DE)
philosophical understanding, is the "higher" of divisions.
According to him this above mentioned “philosophical understanding” can be gained
through dialect that actually means "engaging in dialogue". He proposes dialectic in the middle
and later dialogues as the genuine knowledge and art of philosophers. He recommends dialectics
because Socrates favored truth as the highest value, proposing that it could be discovered
through reason and logic in discussion.
Sweet end that: He has allowed reasoning after 30 years with a thought that proper reasoning is
a serious concern for a philosopher so philosopher has to be good at head and according to him
for a philosopher it is an appropriate age to start involving in reasoning since he got authority on
content either to accept or reject the reasons while having dialogue or Dialectic.

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Bitter end that:
Age: age of reason has been thirty years here question arises about skillfulness for reasoning
which requires
Quick recall
Counter opponents
Posing questions
beside authority on content for getting true knowledge if one is not in practice to employ
reasoning for acquiring knowledge from beginning years of education than how can one enjoy
feasibility of reasoning?
Ability: he has considered rest of the people least competent to get involve in any sort of or level
of reasoning and want them to confine to be good at hand either soldier (whom has to fight so
only needs skillfulness) or craftsman (whom has to be skillful in producing goods and trading
them). According to him a philosopher king is enough to ensure the prosperity of the state.
ii. Realism: -
Aristotle being proponent of Realism has presented change view of looking
towards the matters and according to him:
a. Reality is composed of Matter means body and Form means mind. (Metaphysics)
b. Knowledge comes through senses and experience. (Epistemology)
c. Values derived from nature and he believes that a thing has esthetic value to the
extent it harmonizes with beauty of nature. Behaviour is what that is socially and
rationally accepted. (Axiology)
For him education is an only source for the establishment and stability of an ideal state. And
goal of education is identical to goal of man. He considered it is essential for self-realisation
man. The supreme good is happiness. The happy man, the good man is a virtuous man but virtue
is acquired precisely through education. Ethics and education merge one into the other. His
ethical works are manuals on art of living. There are two categories of virtues activities
Intellectual Virtue Moral Virtue
a. by birth a. result of habit
b. through teaching
Here Aristotle has been more concerned about habits and want that the ruler of the state to let the
habits be perfect as well skillfulness, e.g. he has been annoyed with musicians who use to play

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best just to get appreciation or get money rather than striving for perfection so he insist to let the
manual workers to strive for excellence.
At next, he is maintaining the idea about age specification done by his teacher Plato. In his
presented ideal state he also has reserved reasoning for the king or philosopher. The king or
philosopher should not get involved in a verbal debate or reasoning about world of ideas but get
answers through the rational study of material present in this physical world and this will lead
him to the final cause or form and for the sake he has put forward his:
a. Dependant theory
b. Causality theory
Sweet end that: he has preferred scientific studies also. Secondly he has bothered about
excellence in work of Craftsman and Traders also. He found it an ultimate responsibility of king
legislator
Bitter end that:
Age: of reason has been similar to Plato’s suggested one.
Again question arises about skillfulness for reasoning. If not practicing reasoning from early
years of education then mastery in it as a skill for acquisition of knowledge at age of thirty, is
doubtful.
Ability: while considering it higher cognitive activity and every one in not fit to reason in
productive manner just similar to his teacher he has been asking “king to be wise” and least
bothered about reasoning capacity of the rest of the people and excellence that he has been
asking for among craftsman is just keep them busy with their work with head and heart and this
spare time to the legislator for philosophical work. He has insisted to the legislator to be careful
in developing habits of people and keenly deploy education to train habits of spending leisure
time. And this will ensure virtue and harmonized the ideal state. Again one man show:
philosopher has authority to plan even the leisure hours of the people to whom he is ruling. And
this urge for excellence is not for betterment of that type of the society members but to facilitate
the ruler.
iii. Naturalism: -
Rousseau being sponsor of Naturalism has presented distinct view of looking
towards the realities and according to him:
a. Material is the only reality of the world. (Metaphysics)
b. Nature is first and foremost source of knowledge than comes material and last
humans.(Epistemology)

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c. Values are created in terms of specific needs and all real values exist in nature. Man
lives in society to meet some of his needs. (Axiology)
For him establishment of an ideal state is relatively favoring individuals and for him education
is a right of every citizen and education is not mere production of state servers and reproduction
of society. Every individual has right to have his own reasoning to act in life whether having or
not any leading position in state and he has stated this as a concept of “General will”. He has
opposed the brought-up of a child on the General will of society and he has advocated the
personal will of a child to be nourished and then society must have few mutual interests that will
be commonly accepted by every citizen. He wants all individual to master reasoning skill to
accept or reject any of the idea or matter. For it he asked educators to provide such circumstances
that enables learner to reason without having any pressure or insist of teacher or society in
acceptance or rejection of any reality and value.
Sweet end that:
Age and Ability: is not a barrier for reasoning. He has given preference to every individual,
right from an age of 6; he has allowed being involved actively in reasoning. He considered
reasoning as a birth right of every learner. This freedom to reason enables the individual to
notice his value and placement in this world then only he can contribute positively in society.
Bitter end that: an only criticism is that he has considered the productivity of reasoning for
individual’s self appraisal and have least to offer as a direct contribution of reasoning in civil
matters.
iv. Pragmatism: -
Dewey being an advocate of Pragmatism has brought things back to society that
were taken away by Rousseau and he has proposed:
a. Reality is an outcome gained through an experience or event. (Metaphysics)
b. Truth is not absolute but determined by consequences arrived at by inquiry, testing,
questioning etc.
c. Primarily focused on values. Determination of values will be done by own
experiences.(experiences are changing at every moment) so absolute values for one
cannot be absolute for the others as well absoluteness of values similar values is not
constant for similar individual in every circumstances.
For Dewey concept of an ideal state as a “democratic society” can be gained through education
with a liberty to choose reality and values according to personal usefulness but at a time it not be
challenging others liberty and all have to live with mutual understanding about the liberty and its
limitation when interacting with the rest of the world. This balance of personal and civic life is a
core idea of appreciation that can be credited to Dewey.

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Sweet end that:
Age and ability: Dewey has maintained age and ability factor
a. among learners has allowed every individual to reason right from the day he/ she enters
in the school and
b. within a learner, since change is occurring at every moment so experience is a chained
process every new experience disclose new reality for the reason learner must have
freedom to choose those new realities in short experience is a continuous process of
reconstruction knowledge and change the appearance of reality and give birth to new
reality. These are the ideas separates him from Rousseau’s in freedom of choice.
Bitter end that:
This permission of accepting new realities and value will shake the structure of society and
instead of reconstruction of society everyone will his/ her definition. This will bring in a situation
of confrontation where society’s preservation will be on threat at the arrival of new findings by
every learner because reconstruction is not an only purpose of education. This freedom of
seriously requires a keen watch else it will bring dispersion rather than prosperity. It must assure
balance in preservation and reconstruction or reform at any level.
Conclusion:
After analyzing four schools of thought and their specifications about age and ability it
can be said that despite of limitations every philosophy whether its Idealism, Realism,
Naturalism or Pragmatism has contributed in guiding about the structure of education such as
Plato has put forward the importance of reasoning for a head of the state, Aristotle has added
about the utility of scientific reasoning for the head of the state, Rousseau by insisting for equal
opportunity of reasoning for every individual for living his life and at last Pragmatism who has
advocated that reasoning is necessary for every individual for welfare of self as well for the
welfare of State, at a time.
References:
1. Foundations of American Education, 6th
Edition, 2010, Pearson Education INC.
2. Prospectus: quarterly review of Education (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education, 1999, vol. 24, no
½, 1994, p. 29-42.
3. Prospectus: quarterly review of Education (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education, 1999, vol. 23, no
½, 1993, p. 39-51.