Your coffee franchise cleared for business in all three countrie.docx

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Your coffee franchise cleared for business in all three countries (Saudi Arabia, Mexico, and China). You now have to develop your global franchise team and start construction of your restaurants. . You invite all of the players to the headquarters in the United States for a big meeting to explain the project and get to know one another since they represent the global division of your company. In preparation for the meeting, you want to avoid cultural silos, while ensuring all parties engage with each other and a generative climate is created. You are concerned with the following two issues. Substantively address each in a two part paper, applying Beyond the Book, MUSE, Intellipath and library resources to support your reasoning Part 1: Effective communication with participants Discuss the national cultural profiles of Saudi Arabia, Mexico, and China that are relevant in cross-cultural business communications. Refer back to Unit 2 Hofstede cultural dimensions, as well as the political, economic, legal, and ethical systems and other variables relevant to global business communication. What are the implications of the cultural variables for your communication with the team representative from each country in the face to face meeting? Address Hall’s high and low context regarding verbal and non-verbal communication. The United States is a low context culture, while each country is high context. Tip: Write at least one substantive paragraph for each country Part 2: Effective communication among participants What are examples of barriers and biases in cross-cultural business communications that may impact the effectiveness of communication among the meeting participants? Consider ethnocentrism, communication apprehension, and culture shock. What are some of the issues you should be concerned about regarding verbal and nonverbal communication for this group to avoid misinterpretations and barriers to communication? Identify 3-5 mistakes made during business negotiations that could inhibit the team from building strong relationships? Consider and direct and indirect styles. ...

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Tip: Write at least one substantive paragraph for each country
Part 2: Effective communication among participants
What are examples of barriers and biases in cross-cultural
business communications that may impact the effectiveness of
communication among the meeting participants? Consider
ethnocentrism, communication apprehension, and culture shock.
What are some of the issues you should be concerned about
regarding verbal and nonverbal communication for this group to
avoid misinterpretations and barriers to communication?
Identify 3-5 mistakes made during business negotiations that
could inhibit the team from building strong relationships?
Consider and direct and indirect styles.

Similar to Your coffee franchise cleared for business in all three countrie.docx

Your abilities in international management have been recognized, and your consulting assistance has been requested. The company Quasimoto Enterprises has been approached by a reputed Chinese firm that wants exclusive production and selling rights for one of its new high-tech products. The company has been looking for a strategic partner for the production of this product to reduce costs. Hence, Quasimoto Enterprises is very interested in exploring the possibility of developing relationships with this Chinese firm. This deal is very critical to growth of Quasimoto in the international market. Both parties are anxious and preparing for their first meeting in a month’s time to move this deal forward. This is the first time Quasimoto is doing business with China, and this is also the case with the Chinese firm. The bold question below is my part of the project That i need you to complete. It has to be 5 double space written pages plus reference page Disregard the other two question and, its not my responsibility. I just added it to the email for you to have a full understanding of the what assignment is. What does Quasimoto Enterprises need to know about Chinese bargaining behaviors to strike the best possible deal with this company? What should the Chinese firm know about American bargaining behaviors to strike the best possible deal with your company? In your small group, develop a strategic plan for the negotiation and conflict resolution for Quasimoto's executive team for its first meeting with the Chinese. Also, develop a negotiation and conflict resolution plan for the Chinese firm for its first meeting with the Americans. Please note that because this is an important business deal for both companies, both of your plans should include the bargaining behaviors of both countries. Are there any similarities between their bargaining behaviors? Can they have a win-win deal? APA format is mandatory (in text and in the reference section). There are two main types of databases accessible in the library, through “FIND ARTICLES & BOOKS.” Keep in mind that the most popular databases are: ABI Inform Global, Academic Search Premier, and Business Source Premier. As a student, you must steer away from inferior Web sites with anonymous writers, articles found on consultant Web sites, materials on sites like QuickMBA.com, MarketingProfs.com, etc. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias most often repeat the information from your text. Acceptable Internet resources include among others government sites (especially for statistics). You are not permitted to use any open-source Web site in this course. Present your findings as a 5 -7 pages Word document formatted in APA style. Submitting your assignment in APA format means, at a minimum, you will need the following: 1. TITLE PAGE. Remember the Running head: AND TITLE IN ALL CAPITALS 2. ABSTRACT. A summary of your paper…not an introduction. Begin writing in third person voice. 3. BODY. The body of your paper begins on t.

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atify and describe the cult alue dimensions that help ural profile of a country iad affect organizational processes: power distance. quently arise out of garding time, change, material f fre- values and orientations re- ancertainty avoidance, individualism, and mascu- In his later research, Hofstede explored the encept of long-term versus short-term orientation . Managers can use research results and personal obser vations to develop a character sketch, or cultural profile, of a country. This profile can help managers anticipate how to motivate people and coordinate work processes in a particular international context. piscussion Questions What is meant by the culture of a society, and why is it im portant for international managers to understand it? Do you notice cultural differences among your classmates? How do e differences affect the class environment? How do they 3-3. Di Discuss how the Internet and culture interact. Which most affects the other, and how? Give some examples Discuss collectivism as it applies to the Japanese workplace. 3-4. affect your group projects? s does it affect? uss the types of operational conflicts that could occur in an international context because of different attitudes toward time, change, material factors, and individualism hat managerial functi Discuss the role of Islam in cross- cultural relations and business operations. 3-5. Give examples relative to specific countries. plication Exercises Develop a cultural profile for one of the countries in the fol- 37. In small groups of students, lowing list. Form small groups of students and compare your findings in class with those of another group preparing a profile for another country. Be sure to compare specific findings regarding religion, kinship, recreation, and other subsystems. What are the prevailing attitudes toward time, change, mate- ial factors, and individualism? nv A frican country ing the four dimensions of power distance, uncertaint ance, masculinity, and individualism for one of the countries in comparison to the United States. (Your inst assign the countries to avoid duplication.) Present yo to the class. Assume you are a U.S. manager of a subs foreign country and explain how differences on these are likely to affect your management tasks. What s you have for dealing with these differences in the w Solution Culture of a society means the way people do things living in a society. This varies from place to place to a large level. People living in a society will have different cultures, customs, behaviours, language which can become a barrier if not tackled in the right way. It is important for an international manager to understand it because of the trend of globalising the business in international market. When the business is expanded to different places problems are faced to understand the culture of that place and adjust to make variations according to the existing culture of the place. For example the most important cultural barrier c.

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4/6/2019 Print https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS600.12.2?sections=sec2.4&content=content&clientToken=645de495-bd8d-1c0d-d131-e70506179497&np=sec… 1/6 2.4 International and Intercultural Interpersonal Communication Learning Objective # 4: What additional challenges are present in international and intercultural interpersonal communication? Conducting business in today's modern business environment presents exciting opportunities for businesses and individuals. Markets and sales expand as new social contacts are made and undiscovered cultures are explored, both within a nation's boundaries and with potential customers in other countries. Many U.S. companies recognize the existence of two distinct potential advantages present due to cultural differences within the nation's borders. First, a rich pool of new employees with diverse perspectives and interests infuses energy into a company's operations. Second, many cultural groups, including Hispanics and Asian Americans, offer valuable target market segments that may be reached. International business programs often begin with expansion into countries with many of the same cultural conditions, such as a Canadian �irm selling products in the United States. Soon, however, an international program can move into countries with different languages and cultures. In both circumstances, effective business communication involves understanding of—and adaptation to—cultural nuances and differences. Cultural Dimensions To understand individual communication while accounting for cultural differences, take note of the primary types of cultural differences. For years, the most widely-cited dimensions of culture have been those proposed by Geert Hofstede, as displayed in Table 2.11. (More detail can be found at: http://www.geert-hofstede.com (http://www.geert-hofstede.com) .) Table 2.11: Hofstede's value dimensions of culture Power Distance Distance between leaders and followers; authoritarian versus collaborative relationships Individualism or Collectivism Value of personal status versus loyalty to the group Masculinity-Femininity Male-dominated society versus more equal status between genders Uncertainty Avoidance Risk-taking versus risk-avoidance societies Short- or Long-Term Orientation Immediate versus long-term, strategic outcomes Power distance affects communication patterns between individuals and in group settings. A culture exhibiting high power distance is one in which managers are far less approachable by low-ranking employees. In such a culture, rank affects patterns of collaboration. Use of formal language becomes more likely in higher power distance cultural settings. Conversely, in low power distance cultures, l.

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1000 words only due by 5/3/14 at 12:00 est this is a second part to this assignment due at a different time Part 1 Your fast-food franchise has been cleared for business in all 4 countries (United Arab Emirates, Israel, Mexico, and China). You now have to start construction on your restaurants. The financing is coming from the United Arab Emirates, the materials are coming from Mexico and China, the engineering and technology are coming from Israel , and the labor will be hired locally within these countries by your management team from the United States. You invite all of the players to the headquarters in the United States for a big meeting to explain the project and get to know one another. The people seem to be staying with their own groups and not mingling. What is the cultural phenomenon at play here (what is it called/ term)? How do you explain the lack of intercultural communication and interaction? What do you know about these cultures—specifically their economic, political, educational, and social systems—that could help you in getting them together? What are some of the contrasting cultural values of these countries? You are concerned about some of the language barriers as you start the meeting, particularly the fact that the United States is a low-context country, and some of the countries present are high-context countries. Furthermore, you only speak English, and you do not have an interpreter present. How will this affect the presentation? What are some of the issues you should be concerned about regarding verbal and nonverbal language for this group? What strategy would you use to begin to have everyone develop a relationship with each other that will help ease future negotiations, development, and implementation? .

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918 Riders to the Sea CATHLEEN (slowly and clearly) An Id.docx

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8B20M017 Teaching Note SOBEYS—PROJECT SUNRISE: RESPONDING TO DISRUPTION R. Chandrasekhar wrote this teaching note under the supervision of Professor Andreas Schotter as an aid to instructors in the classroom use of the case Sobeys—Project Sunrise: Responding to Disruption, No. 9B20M017. This teaching note should not be used in any way that would prejudice the future use of the case. Copyright © 2020, Ivey Business School Foundation Version: 2020-02-07 In January 2017, Michael Medline was appointed chief executive officer (CEO) of the Canadian grocer Sobeys Inc. (Sobeys), which was experiencing financial difficulties. Medline was tasked with saving Sobeys from near insolvency and planning strategically for the company’s core grocery business. He devised an interim growth plan called Project Sunrise, which had two main objectives: quickly relieving Sobeys of its troubled financial situation and preparing for the long-term industry disruption that was becoming prevalent, both locally and globally. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Students can assess Medline’s road map for the execution of Project Sunrise and learn how to develop and apply a long-term plan for a company facing industrywide disruption. After completion of this case, students will be able to accomplish the following objectives:  Evaluate the priorities for action identified by the CEO.  Develop an action plan for the company to avoid bankruptcy.  Develop an action plan for the company to manage the imminent industry disruption. POSITION IN COURSE This case is suitable for courses in undergraduate, graduate, and executive education programs. It can be used in courses that focus on strategy, change, managing disruption, turnarounds, and competitive repositioning. RELEVANT READINGS  Dymfke Kuijpers, Virginia Simmons, and Jasper van Wamelen, “Reviving Grocery Retail: Six Imperatives,” McKinsey & Company, December 2018, accessed December 21, 2019, www.mckinsey.com/industries/retail/our-insights/reviving-grocery-retail-six-imperatives. This publication may not be transmitted, photocopied, digitized, or otherwise reproduced in any form or by any means without the permission of the copyright holder. Reproduction of this material is not covered under authorization by any reproduction rights organization. i1v2e5y5pubs Page 2 8B20M017  Vinay Couto, John Plansky, and Deniz Caglar, Fit for Growth: A Guide to Strategic Cost Cutting, Restructuring, and Renewal (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2017).  Gavin Parker, Thomas Jensen, Pascale Morillon, Bill Urda, and Stephanie Halgren, “How to Become a Customer-Centric Grocer,” Boston Consulting Group, April 6, 2017, accessed July 12, 2019, www.bcg.com/en-ca/publications/2017/retail-winning-strategies-retail-transformation-how-to-become- a-customer-centric-grocer.aspx.  Donald Sull, Stefano Turconi, Charles Sull, and James Yoder, “Turning Strategy into Results,” MIT Sloa.

8B20M017 Teaching Note SOBEYS—PROJECT SUNRIS.docx

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875 words Include citations for all unoriginal ideas, facts, or definitions in an APA-formatted reference list. Do not use Wikipedia, Quora, Yahoo Questions or other crowdsourced websites as references. Visit the American Civil Liberties Union Supreme Court Cases website to see civil liberties cases that the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled on, organized by term. Select one of the cases on civil liberties that interests you. Provide an analysis that addresses the following: The civil liberty that is addressed in the case, including the text of the amendment from the Bill of Rights An explanation of the Supreme Court's involvement, including the following: The importance of the ruling (why it is significant) How the case moved through the lower courts to eventually be heard by the Supreme Court The powers granted to the Supreme Court by the constitution that allowed them to rule on the case .

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81 Journal of International Studies © Foundation of International Studies, 2015 © CSR, 2015 S ci en ti fi c P ap er s Wuhan, Li Suyuan, Adnan Khurshid Ocean University of China China [email protected] Abstract. Th e main reason of this study is to test the interest rate impact on investment in Jiangsu Province of China. Jiangsu has the largest quantity of investment in China. For long run, nexus Johansen Co-integration test is employed. Whereas, vector er- ror correction model (VECM) is used to fi nd short run association over the period of 2003-2012. Th e results indicate that there is a long-term relationship association among variables. It has negative relation in the long run but positive in short run. Th is research also produces suggestions that will help in terms of interest rate policy as well as improving investment that promotes economic growth in Jiangsu Province. Keywords: Interest rate, investment, Jiangsu Province, VECM JEL Codes: E40, E20, C22 INTRODUCTION Changes in interest rates can refl ect the basic situation of the operation of macro economy; it also eff ects all the macroeconomic variables such as GDP, price level, the level of employment, international balance of payments, the rate of economic growth, etc. Obviously the interest rate is an important economic variable that plays an important role in both macro and micro economy activity. Th erefore, a change in interest rates is one of the main factors to judge the macroeconomic situation and the interest rate trend analysis is the main method to predict the macroscopic economic situation. Western economists believe that the market rate of interest, the total social savings and investment are closely linked. Th erefore, the current interest rates aff ect the investment activities. At the same time, current interest rates also aff ect the scale of investment in the future by adjusting the savings. If the interest rate rises, bond prices fall, if the interest rate falls, bond prices rise. Th e infl uence of interest rate on investment scale is operate as the opportunity cost of investment on total investment, Under the condition of unchanged in investment income, the rising interest rates increase the cost of investment and then inevitably cause lower income investors to withdraw from the area of investment, so that the demand for investment is reduced. However, falling interest rates means that investment costs decline, thereby stimulating investment and the total social investments increase. Received: February, 2015 1st Revision: April, 2015 Accepted: May, 2015 DOI: 10.14254/2071- 8330.2015/8-1/7 Th e eff ect of interest rate on investment; Empirical evidence of Jiangsu Province, China Wuhan, Li Suyuan, Adnan Khurshid “Th e eff ect of interest rate on investment; Empirical evidence of Jiangsu Province, China”, Journal of International Studies, Vol. 8, No 1, 2015, pp. 81-90. DOI: 10.14254/2071-8330.2015/8-1/7 Journal .

81Journal of International Studies© Foundation .docx

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8/29/16 f_ch02.docx: 45 Chapter 2 From Public Regulation to Private Enforcement How CSR Became Managerial Orthodoxy Richard P. Appelbaum The safety and well-being of workers across our supply chain is the Responsible Sourcing group’s top priority, which is why Walmart suppliers are contractually required to sign our Standards for Suppliers before they’re approved to produce merchandise for sale at Walmart. These Standards for Suppliers make clear our fundamental expectations for suppliers and factories regarding the treatment of workers and impact on the environment. Suppliers are also required to display our Standards for Suppliers in the local language in all factories where products are made for us, so workers know our expectations of suppliers and factory management. —Walmart 2014 Global Responsibility Report, Statement on Compliance and Sourcing Walmart, the world’s largest corporation in 2015, invests in “comprehensive social audits across our global supply chain.” Its factory audits—reportedly often unannounced—are conducted by “independent accredited and internationally recognized auditing firms.” Factories are then said to be reaudited every six to twenty-four months, based on the results. This comprehensive auditing system is designed to verify that factories “meet or exceed” Walmart’s standards, which include assurance that all labor is voluntary, prohibitions against child labor, requirements that hours are 8/29/16 f_ch02.docx: 46 not excessive (and are consistent with local laws or regulations), and that factories provide safe and healthy working conditions (Walmart 2014). On November 24, 2012, a fire at the Tazreen Fashion apparel factory in Dhaka, Bangladesh, claimed 112 lives and injured 200 others, making it the deadliest factory fire in the history of a country long plagued by factories fires. Workers found themselves trapped by the absence of safe and accessible fire exits, windows blocked by iron grills, a lack of adequate fire preparedness training, and the fact that the building was at the time under construction: five additional stories were being added to the original three-story structure, even as garment production continued as usual. In this unsafe environment, ten workers perished on Tazreen’s fifth floor, where they were sewing Walmart’s Faded Glory shorts. Walmart, one of the many companies producing garments at the factory (Maquila Solidarity Network 2012b), 1 claimed it was unaware that its Faded Glory shorts were being sewn at Tazreen through a subcontracting arrangement. Yet the factory’s owner reported that Walmart’s local office had audited the factory a year earlier, finding only problems with excessive overtime. A Walmart spokesperson confirmed this, acknowledging that the company had conducted at least two inspections in 2011, but claiming that Walmart had stopped production “many months before the fire” (Yardley 2012). .

82916 f_ch02.docx 45 Chapter 2 From Public Regulat.docx

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8.1 What is the difference between RFC 5321 and RFC 5322? 8.2 What are the SMTP and MIME standards? 8.3 What is the difference between a MIME content type and a MIME transfer encoding? 8.4 Briefly explain base64 encoding. 8.5 Why is base64 conversion useful for an e-mail application? 8.6 What is S/MIME? 8.7 What are the four principal services provided by S/MIME? 8.8 What is the utility of a detached signature? 8.9 What is DKIM? No Copy Paste striclty .

8.1 What is the difference between RFC 5321 and RFC 53228.docx

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8. On the likely aftermath and long term effects of the coronavirus outbreak on business and society (Module 12) This discussion board is devoted to the likely aftermath and long term consequences of the coronavirus for business and society. We will be posting some reading material related to this topic in Module 12. respond 1 Effects of the Coronavirus Outbreak on Business and Society The coronavirus outbreak has not only led to a massive loss of life globally but also altered social and economic structures in a manner that will persist for a long time. As the pandemic continues devastating communities across the globe, wealth has emerged as the best defense against catastrophes. Wealthy individuals have invested in systems that allow them to work from home to minimize interactions and avoid contracting the virus (Bonacini et al., 2021). Less wealthy individuals cannot afford to stay at home because most of them rely on daily wages to meet their basic needs. Additionally, low-income earners might not avoid interactions because most of them live in places with crowded housing. Moreover, Covid-19 has increased the health burden on low-income earners while decreasing job opportunities. Therefore, the pandemic is likely to exacerbate the economic inequality in society because the rich are amassing more wealth while the poor are suffering from high unemployment. Besides increasing inequality, the pandemic will transform working habits in the future owing to company responses to regulations aimed at curbing the virus’s spread. At the onset of Covid-19, governments established regulations to restrict people's movement. These rules have changed business practices, promoting working from home and demonstrating the importance of technology in the corporate world. The change from working in offices to operating from home is likely to be permanent because most employers are beginning to question the purpose of a workplace. Over time, companies will establish effective policies to facilitate working from home, making it the new norm in business. Likewise, organizations will embrace technology more to serve customers who have shifted to online shopping to decrease physical interactions. Reference Bonacini, L., Gallo, G., & Scicchitano, S. (2021). Working from home and income inequality: Risks of a ‘new normal’ with COVID-19. Journal of Population Economics, 34 (1), 303-360. respond 2 ong Term Effects of COVID-19 on Business and Society As we can and have seen, there have been and will continue to be long-term effects on how COVID-19 can and will impact business and society moving forward. Businesses will likely see a resurgence of possible re-closings. Depending on where you're located in our country, many businesses that were able to re-open may have to close again due to sparks in new COVID-19 cases. While it seems more people are no becoming vaccinated, the likelihood of this is still very evident. Many companies have learned from ini.

8. On the likely aftermath and long term effects of the coronavi.docx

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8 pages Select an agency of the US government and a specific public policy issue. Discuss, in detail, the mission and vision of the agency. Why did you select this particular agency? Broadly describe a current issue that your selected agency trying to solve. Make sure that you address the following questions: What is the issue? What evidence is there that it is an issue? What are the players (both institutions and individuals)? What are the possible solutions proposed? What solution was selected and why? What are the political implications of the public policy? How does it impact our democratic system? Are there any constitutional issues? Please make sure that your paper has a thesis sentence and a conclusion. .

8 pagesSelect an agency of the US government and a specific pu.docx

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8 pages Select an agency of the US government and a specific p.docx

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8-1 Discussion: Immigration Laws It is a violation of the immigration laws to “bring” an illegal alien into the United States. Can a defendant who does not essentially or technically cross the border with an illegal alien be found guilty under these laws? What must the prosecution prove? Review the posts of your fellow learners and respond to at least two. In your response posts, you must do one or more of the following: Ask an analytical question. Offer a suggestion. Elaborate on a particular point. Provide an alternative opinion supported with research. Be sure to support your initial post and follow-up posts with scholarly examples from the module readings and additional literature where appropriate. You must cite all references according to APA style. To complete this assignment, review the Discussion Rubric document. .

8-1 Discussion Immigration LawsIt is a violation of the immigra.docx

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776! CHAPTER 26 Rococo to Neoclassicism: The 18th Century in Europe and America appealed greatly to Watteau’s wealthy patrons, whom, even as he was dying from tuberculosis, he still depicted as carefree and at leisure in his most unusual painting, Signboard of Gersaint (!"#. 26-7B). François Boucher. A$er Watteau’s death brought his bril- liant career to a premature end at age 36, F%&'()"* B)+,-.% (1703–1770) rose to the dominant position in French painting, in large part because he was Madame de Pompadour’s favorite artist. Although Boucher was an excellent portraitist, his success rested primarily on his canvases depicting shepherds, nymphs, and god- desses gracefully cavorting in shady glens engulfed in pink and sky-blue light. Cupid a Captive (!"#. 26-8) presents a rosy pyramid of infant and female /esh set o0 against a cool, leafy background, with /uttering draperies both hiding and revealing the nudity of the 1gures. Boucher used the full range of Italian and French Baroque devices—the dynamic play of crisscrossing diagonals, curvilinear forms, and slanting recessions—to create his master- ful composition. But he dissected powerful Baroque curves into a multiplicity of decorative /ourishes, dissipating Baroque drama into sensual playfulness. Lively and lighthearted, Boucher’s artful Rococo In Pilgrimage to Cythera (!"#. 26-7), luxuriously costumed lovers make a “pilgrimage” to Cythera, the island of eternal youth and love, sacred to Aphrodite. (Some art historians think that the lovers are returning from Cythera rather than having just arrived. Watteau provided few clues to settle the question de1nitively.) 2e elegant 1gures move gracefully from the protective shade of a woodland park 1lled with play- ful cupids and voluptuous statuary. 2e poses of the 1gures, which blend elegance and sweetness, are hallmarks of Watteau’s style, both in ambitious multi1gure compositions such as Pilgrimage to Cythera and in single-1gure studies such as L’Indi!érent (!"#. 26-7A). Watteau prepared his paintings using albums of draw- ings in which he sought to capture slow movement from di3cult and unusual angles, searching for the smoothest, most poised, and most re1ned attitudes. As he experimented with nuances of posture and movement, Watteau also strove for the most exquisite shades of color di0erence, de1ning in a single stroke the shimmer of silk at a bent knee or the shine appearing on a glossy surface as it emerges from shadow. 2e haze of color, the subtly modeled shapes, the gliding motion, and the air of suave gentility tinged with nostalgia 26-7B WATTEAU, Signboard of Gersaint, 1721. 26-7 A!"#$!% W&""%&', Pilgrimage to Cythera, 1717. Oil on canvas, 49 30 ( 69 4 120. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Watteau’s fête galante paintings depict the outdoor amusements of French upper-class society. The haze of color suited the new Rococo taste and was the hallmark of the Royal Academy’s Rubénistes. 26-7A WATT.

776! CHAPTER 26 Rococo to Neoclassicism The 18th Century in E.docx

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8 | New Scientist | 4 January 2020 THE tropics are the most biodiverse regions on Earth. Now there is evidence that they are also the main source of evolutionary innovation and diversity. Complex animals have dominated Earth for 541 million years, a time span called the Phanerozoic eon. Huge numbers of species have evolved and gone extinct during this time, in a complex story that includes fish, giant reptiles and whales. However, in the 1980s palaeontologist John Sepkoski analysed the overall pattern of evolution in the sea, where the fossil record is best. He concluded that marine evolutionary history could be broken down into three supergroups, which he called “great evolutionary faunas”. The first group was dominated by trilobites, which resembled woodlice, and bristle worms; the second by shellfish-like creatures called brachiopods; and the third by molluscs, which have persisted to the present day. Other animals like land mammals probably followed similar patterns, but their fossil record isn’t complete enough for us to know. Now, by analysing nearly 18,300 marine genera from the Phanerozoic fossil record, Alexis Rojas-Briceno of Umeå University in Sweden and his colleagues have found that the evolution of complex marine life is best described using four great groups of fauna, not three (bioRxiv, doi.org/dg98). The first supergroup existed between 541 and 494 million years ago, spanning the Cambrian explosion in which many animal groups first emerged. As in the original analysis, trilobites dominated. The second supergroup, dubbed the Palaeozoic, lasted from 494 to 252 million years ago. Creatures with hard outer shells were now widespread, including brachiopods. This phase ended when the end- Permian extinction wiped out almost all complex life on Earth. This matches Sepkoski’s analysis, but the new study splits his third great fauna into two. In this version, the third supergroup is called the Mesozoic. It began in the wake of the Permian extinction and ended 129 million years ago, in the middle of the dinosaur era. This time cephalopods, the group that includes squid and octopuses, were the rulers. The fourth and final supergroup, the Cenozoic, is still dominant today. During this time, clams and snails have made up much of the diversity. The team found that all four supergroups originated in the tropics, then expanded through the oceans. This is in line with the idea that the tropics are hotbeds of evolutionary innovation, which has been promoted by David Jablonski at the University of Chicago. It may be that the warmer temperatures and ample sunlight ensure there is plenty of food to nourish a multitude of species. However, John Alroy at Macquarie University in Australia isn’t convinced. “I have always been sceptical about the out-of-the-tropics hypothesis, because they have never seriously dealt with sampling biases, as far .

8 New Scientist 4 January 2020THE tropics are the most.docx

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7 HYPOTHETICALS AND YOU TESTING YOUR QUESTIONS 7: MEDIA LIBRARY Premium Videos Core Concepts in Stats Video · Probability and Hypothesis Testing Lightboard Lecture Video · Hypothesis Testing Difficulty Scale (don’t plan on going out tonight) WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS CHAPTER · Understanding the difference between a sample and a population · Understanding the importance of the null and research hypotheses · Using criteria to judge a good hypothesis SO YOU WANT TO BE A SCIENTIST You might have heard the term hypothesis used in other classes. You may even have had to formulate one for a research project you did for another class, or you may have read one or two in a journal article. If so, then you probably have a good idea what a hypothesis is. For those of you who are unfamiliar with this often-used term, a hypothesis is basically “an educated guess.” Its most important role is to reflect the general problem statement or question that was the motivation for asking the research question in the first place. That’s why taking the care and time to formulate a really precise and clear research question is so important. This research question will guide your creation of a hypothesis, and in turn, the hypothesis will determine the techniques you will use to test it and answer the question that was originally asked. So, a good hypothesis translates a problem statement or a research question into a format that makes it easier to examine. This format is called a hypothesis. We will talk about what makes a hypothesis a good one later in this chapter. Before that, let’s turn our attention to the difference between a sample and a population. This is an important distinction, because while hypotheses usually describe a population, hypothesis testing deals with a sample and then the results are generalized to the larger population. We also address the two main types of hypotheses (the null hypothesis and the research hypothesis). But first, let’s formally define some simple terms that we have used earlier in Statistics for People Who (Think They) Hate Statistics. SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS As a good scientist, you would like to be able to say that if Method A is better than Method B in your study, this is true forever and always and for all people in the universe, right? Indeed. And, if you do enough research on the relative merits of Methods A and B and test enough people, you may someday be able to say that. But don’t get too excited, because it’s unlikely you will ever be able to speak with such confidence. It takes too much money ($$$) and too much time (all those people!) to do all that research, and besides, it’s not even necessary. Instead, you can just select a representative sample from the population and test your hypothesis about the relative merits of Methods A and B on that sample. Given the constraints of never enough time and never enough research funds, with which almost all scientists live, the next best strategy is to take a portion of a lar.

7 HYPOTHETICALS AND YOU TESTING YOUR QUESTIONS7 MEDIA LIBRARY.docx

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