776! CHAPTER 26 Rococo to Neoclassicism: The 18th Century in Europe and America
appealed greatly to Watteau’s
wealthy patrons, whom, even as
he was dying from tuberculosis,
he still depicted as carefree and
at leisure in his most unusual
painting, Signboard of Gersaint
(!"#. 26-7B).
François Boucher. A$er Watteau’s death brought his bril-
liant career to a premature end at age 36, F%&'()"* B)+,-.%
(1703–1770) rose to the dominant position in French painting, in
large part because he was Madame de Pompadour’s favorite artist.
Although Boucher was an excellent portraitist, his success rested
primarily on his canvases depicting shepherds, nymphs, and god-
desses gracefully cavorting in shady glens engulfed in pink and
sky-blue light. Cupid a Captive (!"#. 26-8) presents a rosy pyramid
of infant and female /esh set o0 against a cool, leafy background,
with /uttering draperies both hiding and revealing the nudity
of the 1gures. Boucher used the full range of Italian and French
Baroque devices—the dynamic play of crisscrossing diagonals,
curvilinear forms, and slanting recessions—to create his master-
ful composition. But he dissected powerful Baroque curves into a
multiplicity of decorative /ourishes, dissipating Baroque drama into
sensual playfulness. Lively and lighthearted, Boucher’s artful Rococo
In Pilgrimage to Cythera (!"#. 26-7),
luxuriously costumed lovers make a “pil-
grimage” to Cythera, the island of eternal
youth and love, sacred to Aphrodite. (Some
art historians think that the lovers are
returning from Cythera rather than having
just arrived. Watteau provided few clues to
settle the question de1nitively.) 2e elegant
1gures move gracefully from the protective
shade of a woodland park 1lled with play-
ful cupids and voluptuous statuary. 2e
poses of the 1gures, which blend elegance
and sweetness, are hallmarks of Watteau’s style, both in ambitious
multi1gure compositions such as Pilgrimage to Cythera and in
single-1gure studies such as L’Indi!érent (!"#. 26-7A).
Watteau prepared his paintings using albums of draw-
ings in which he sought to capture slow movement from di3cult
and unusual angles, searching for the smoothest, most poised, and
most re1ned attitudes. As he experimented with nuances of posture
and movement, Watteau also strove for the most exquisite shades of
color di0erence, de1ning in a single stroke the shimmer of silk at a
bent knee or the shine appearing on a glossy surface as it emerges
from shadow. 2e haze of color, the subtly modeled shapes, the
gliding motion, and the air of suave gentility tinged with nostalgia
26-7B WATTEAU, Signboard of
Gersaint, 1721.
26-7 A!"#$!% W&""%&', Pilgrimage to Cythera, 1717. Oil on canvas, 49 30 ( 69 4 120. Musée du Louvre, Paris.
Watteau’s fête galante paintings depict the outdoor amusements of French upper-class society. The haze of color suited the new
Rococo taste and was the hallmark of the Royal Academy’s Rubénistes.
26-7A WATT.
Organic Name Reactions for the students and aspirants of Chemistry12th.pptx
776! CHAPTER 26 Rococo to Neoclassicism The 18th Century in E.docx
1. 776! CHAPTER 26 Rococo to Neoclassicism: The 18th Century
in Europe and America
appealed greatly to Watteau’s
wealthy patrons, whom, even as
he was dying from tuberculosis,
he still depicted as carefree and
at leisure in his most unusual
painting, Signboard of Gersaint
(!"#. 26-7B).
François Boucher. A$er Watteau’s death brought his bril-
liant career to a premature end at age 36, F%&'()"* B)+,-.%
(1703–1770) rose to the dominant position in French painting,
in
large part because he was Madame de Pompadour’s favorite
artist.
Although Boucher was an excellent portraitist, his success
rested
primarily on his canvases depicting shepherds, nymphs, and
god-
desses gracefully cavorting in shady glens engulfed in pink and
sky-blue light. Cupid a Captive (!"#. 26-8) presents a rosy
pyramid
of infant and female /esh set o0 against a cool, leafy
background,
with /uttering draperies both hiding and revealing the nudity
of the 1gures. Boucher used the full range of Italian and French
Baroque devices—the dynamic play of crisscrossing diagonals,
curvilinear forms, and slanting recessions—to create his master-
ful composition. But he dissected powerful Baroque curves into
a
2. multiplicity of decorative /ourishes, dissipating Baroque drama
into
sensual playfulness. Lively and lighthearted, Boucher’s artful
Rococo
In Pilgrimage to Cythera (!"#. 26-7),
luxuriously costumed lovers make a “pil-
grimage” to Cythera, the island of eternal
youth and love, sacred to Aphrodite. (Some
art historians think that the lovers are
returning from Cythera rather than having
just arrived. Watteau provided few clues to
settle the question de1nitively.) 2e elegant
1gures move gracefully from the protective
shade of a woodland park 1lled with play-
ful cupids and voluptuous statuary. 2e
poses of the 1gures, which blend elegance
and sweetness, are hallmarks of Watteau’s style, both in
ambitious
multi1gure compositions such as Pilgrimage to Cythera and in
single-1gure studies such as L’Indi!érent (!"#. 26-7A).
Watteau prepared his paintings using albums of draw-
ings in which he sought to capture slow movement from di3cult
and unusual angles, searching for the smoothest, most poised,
and
most re1ned attitudes. As he experimented with nuances of
posture
and movement, Watteau also strove for the most exquisite
shades of
color di0erence, de1ning in a single stroke the shimmer of silk
at a
bent knee or the shine appearing on a glossy surface as it
emerges
from shadow. 2e haze of color, the subtly modeled shapes, the
gliding motion, and the air of suave gentility tinged with
7. e
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Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May
not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
WCN 02-200-203
PURPOSE OF ASSIGNMENT
The University has a need to develop an Object-Oriented
Parking System. Each assignment will build towards creating
the parking system.
· The University has several parking lots and the parking fees
are different for each parking lot.
· Customers must have registered with the University parking
office in order to use any parking lot. Customers can use any
parking lot. Each parking transaction will incur a charge to their
account.
· Customers can have more than one car, and so they may
request more than one parking permit for each car.
· The University provides a 20% discount to compact cars
compare to SUV cars.
8. · For simplicity, assume that the Parking Office sends a monthly
bill to customer and customer pays it outside of the parking
system.
· Each week you will need to submit an updated Class Diagram
along with the other deliverables for the assignment.
The goal of this assignment is to create ParkingOffice and
ParkingLot classes that demonstrate the use of Java Generics
and Collections. You will also need to lookup the Java Enum
type and use it to describe the type of the car.
ASSIGNMENT INSTRUCTIONS
Develop Java code for the ParkingOffice, ParkingLot and
Money classes, and the CarType enum, shown in the diagram
below. The data attributes and methods are provided as a guide,
please feel free to add more as you feel necessary. Explain your
choices in the write-up. Note that the ParkingLot and Money
classes should be immutable; once created with values they
cannot be modified.
Class: Money
· Data Attributes
· amount : long
· currency : String
Enum: CarType
· Values
· COMPACT
· SUV
Class: ParkingLot
· Data Attributes
· id : String
· name : String
· address : Address
· Behaviors
· getDailyRate(CarType) : Money
Class: ParkingOffice
· Data Attributes
· parkingOfficeName : String
9. · listOfCustomers : List<Customer>
· listOfParkingLots : List<ParkingLot>
· parkingOfficeAddress : Address
· Behaviors
· getParkingOfficeName() : String
· register(Customer) : void
Create a 500-word write-up that explains your assignment. You
may address some of the below questions.
1. What did you find difficult or easy?
1. What helped you?
1. What you wish you knew before?
1. Outline any implementation decisions and the reasoning
behind those.
1. Include screenshots of the successful code compilation and
test execution.
FORMATTING AND STYLE REQUIREMENTS
· Write-ups should be between 400 and 500 words.
· Where applicable, refer to the UCOL Format and Style
Requirements (Links to an external site.) on the Course
Homepage, and be sure to properly cite your sources
using Turabian Author-Date style citations (Links to an external
site.).
·
·
·
·
·
· Rubric
Programming Rubric
Programming Rubric
Criteria
Ratings
Pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeCode
Functionality and Efficiency
10. The class(es) created meet the design specification and
therefore accomplishes the task at hand. It/they are written with
proper OOP techniques applied. The class(es) are set up with
proper interfaces so they can collaborate with other classes and
execute the necessary tasks. The code compiles without errors.
60.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeCode Testing
The test code is written to test the class(es) and is designed and
implemented properly.
20.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeCode Quality
The code contains only the necessary variables. Variable names
are meaningful. The code is well-formatted, easy to read and
appropriately commented. The code includes proper error and
exception handling.
10.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeWrite-Up
The write-up summarizes lessons learned and any difficulty the
student may have encountered. It also outlines any
implementation decision and reasoning behind those.
Screenshots of the successful code compilation and test
execution are included.
10.0 pts
Total Points: 100.0
(the Dutch Republic), Sweden, and France expanded their
author-
ity. Spanish and Danish power diminished. In addition to recon-
!guring territorial boundaries, the Peace of Westphalia in
11. essence
granted freedom of religious choice throughout Europe. "is
agree-
ment thus marked the abandonment of the idea of a united
Chris-
tian Europe, and accepted the practical realities of secular
political
systems. "e building of today’s nation-states was emphatically
under way.
"e 17th century also brought heightened economic compe-
tition to Europe. Much of the foundation for worldwide mercan-
tilism—extensive voyaging and geographic exploration,
improved
mapmaking, and advances in shipbuilding—had been laid in the
previous century. In the 17th century, however, changes in
!nancial
systems, lifestyles, and trading patterns, along with expanding
colo-
nialism, fueled the creation of a worldwide marketplace. In
1609, the
Dutch founded the Bank of Amsterdam, which eventually
became
the center of European transfer banking, with Amsterdam
usurping
Antwerp as the richest center of commerce in Europe. By
establish-
ing a system in which merchant !rms held money on account,
the
bank relieved traders of having to transport precious metals as
pay-
ment. Trading practices became more complex. Rather than
simple
reciprocal trading, triangular trade (trade among three parties)
facilitated access to a larger pool of desirable goods. Exposure
to an
12. ever-growing array of goods a#ected European diets and
lifestyles.
Tea (from China) and, later, co#ee (from island colonies)
became
popular beverages over the course of the 17th century. Equally
explosive was the growth of sugar use. Sugar, tobacco, and rice
were
slave crops, and the slave trade expanded to meet the demand
for
these goods. Traders captured and enslaved Africans and
shipped
them to European colonies and the Americas to provide the
requi-
site labor force for producing these commodities.
"e resulting worldwide mercantile system permanently
changed the face of Europe. "e prosperity generated by interna-
tional trade a#ected social and political relationships,
necessitat-
ing new rules of etiquette and careful diplomacy. With
increased
disposable income, more of the newly wealthy spent money on
art,
signi!cantly expanding the market for artworks, especially
small-
scale paintings for private homes (see “"e Art Market in the
Dutch
Republic,” page 747).
FLANDERS
In the 16th century, the Netherlands had come under the crown
of Habsburg Spain when Emperor Charles V retired, leaving the
Spanish kingdoms, their Italian and American possessions, and
the Netherlandish provinces to his only legitimate son, Philip II
(r.
1556–1598). (Charles bestowed his imperial title and German
13. lands
on his brother.) Philip’s repressive measures against the
Protestants
led the northern provinces to break from Spain and establish the
Dutch Republic. "e southern provinces remained under Spanish
control and retained Catholicism as their o$cial religion. "e
polit-
ical distinction between modern Holland and Belgium more or
less
re%ects this original separation, which in the 17th century
signaled
not only religious but also artistic di#erences.
Painting
"e major artistic media of 17th-century Flanders (the Span-
ish Netherlands) were prints and illustrated books and oil paint-
ings. Flemish Baroque painters retained close connections to the
Baroque art of Catholic Europe. By contrast, the Dutch schools
of
painting developed their own subjects and styles, consistent
with
their reformed religion and the new political, social, and
economic
structure of the Dutch Republic.
Peter Paul Rubens. "e greatest 17th-century Flemish painter
was P&'&( P)*+ R*,&-. (1577–1640), a towering !gure in the
his-
tory of Western art. Rubens built on the innovations of the
Italian
Renaissance and Baroque masters to formulate the !rst truly
pan-
European painting style. Rubens’s art is an original and
powerful
synthesis of the manners of many masters, especially
14. Michelangelo,
Titian, Carracci, and Caravaggio. His style had wide appeal, and
his
in%uence was international. Among the most learned
individuals
of his time, Rubens possessed an aristocratic education and a
cour-
tier’s manner, diplomacy, and tact, which, with his facility for
lan-
guage, made him the associate of princes and scholars. He
became
court painter to the dukes of Mantua (descended from
Mantegna’s
patrons); friend of King Philip IV (r. 1621–1665) of Spain and
his
adviser on collecting art; painter to Charles I (r. 1625–1649) of
England and Marie de’ Medici (1573–1642) of France; and
perma-
nent court painter to the Spanish governors of Flanders. Rubens
also won the con!dence of his royal patrons in matters of state.
"ey o/en entrusted him with diplomatic missions of the highest
importance.
To produce a steady stream of
paintings for a rich and powerful inter-
national clientele, Rubens employed
scores of assistants. He also became
a highly successful art dealer, buying
and selling contemporary artworks
and classical antiquities for royal and
aristocratic clients throughout Europe,
who competed with each other in
amassing vast collections of paintings and sculptures. One of
those
collections became the subject of a painting by Rubens and J)-
B(*&01&+ '1& E+2&( (1568–1625): Allegory of Sight (340.
15. 25-1A).
Rubens’s many enterprises made him a rich man, able to a#ord a
magni!cent townhouse in Antwerp and a castle in the
countryside.
Rubens, like Raphael, was a successful and renowned artist, a
con-
sort of kings, a shrewd man of the world, and a learned
philosopher.
Elevation of the Cross. When he was 23 years old, Rubens
departed Flanders for Italy and remained there from 1600 until
1608. During these years, he studied the works of Italian
Renais-
sance and Baroque masters and laid the foundations of his
mature
style. Shortly a/er returning home, he painted Elevation of the
Cross (340. 25-2) for the church of Saint Walburga in Antwerp.
Later moved to the city’s cathedral, the altarpiece in the form of
a
triptych is one of numerous commissions for religious works
that
Rubens received at this time. By investing in sacred art,
Flemish
churches sought to a$rm their allegiance to Catholicism and
Span-
ish Habsburg rule a/er a period of Protestant iconoclastic fervor
in
the region.
Rubens’s interest in Italian art, especially the works of Michel-
angelo and Caravaggio, is evident in the Saint Walburga
triptych.
"e choice of this episode from the passion cycle provided
Rubens
with the opportunity to depict heavily muscled men in unusual
poses straining to li/ the heavy cross with Christ’s body nailed
20. is
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Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May
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WCN 02-200-203
580! CHAPTER 20 Late Medieval and Early Renaissance
Northern Europe
Rogier’s extraordinary ability to represent !esh and fabric
rivaled Jan van Eyck’s, and few painters, not even Jan, have
equaled
him in rendering passionate sorrow as it vibrates through a
"gure
or distorts a tearstained face. Rogier’s depictions of the agony
of
loss in Deposition and of the terror of the damned in Last
Judgment
(#$%. 20-13A) are among the most moving and unforgettable
images
in religious art. It was probably Rogier whom Michelangelo had
in
mind when, according to the Portuguese painter Francisco de
21. Hol-
landa (1517–1584), the Italian
master observed, “Flemish paint-
ing [will] please the devout better
than any painting of Italy, which
will never cause him to shed a
tear, whereas that of Flanders will
cause him to shed many.”1
and dramatically confronting the viewer, but the setting of the
Cru-
ci"xion in a box is unrealistic, as is the size of the cross, the
arms of
which are not wide enough for Jesus’s hands to have been
nailed to
them. &e painting, with the artist’s crisp drawing and precise
mod-
eling of forms, resembles a strati"ed relief carving, and the
viewer
may wonder if this is a painting of the biblical event or a
painting of
a shrine representing the event. In any case, a series of lateral
undu-
lating movements gives the group a compositional unity, a
formal
cohesion that Rogier strengthened by depicting the sorrowful
anguish that many of the "gures share. Present are the Virgin,
sev-
eral of her half-sisters, Joseph of Arimathea, Nicodemus, Saint
John
the Evangelist, and Mary Magdalene. &e similar poses of Christ
and his mother further unify the composition, evoke the shape
of
the crossbows in the corner tracery, and re!ect the belief that
Mary
su'ered the same pain at the Cruci"xion as her son.
22. 20-13A VAN DER WEYDEN,
Last Judgment, ca. 1443–1451.
ART AND SOCIETY
The Artist’s Profession in Flanders
As they did in Italy (see “Artistic Training,” page 434), guilds
controlled
artistic production in Flanders. To pursue a craft, individuals
had to
belong to the guild representing that craft. Painters, for
example,
sought admission to the Guild of Saint Luke, the patron saint of
painters
because Luke made a portrait of the Virgin Mary (FIG. 20-1).
The patron
saint of the metalworkers’ guild was Saint Eligius (FIG. 20-14),
who was a
goldsmith before devoting himself to the Church and eventually
becom-
ing bishop of Tournai.
The path to eventual membership in the guild began, for men, at
an early age, when the father apprenticed his son in boyhood to
a mas-
ter, with whom the young aspiring painter lived. The master
taught the
fundamentals of his craft—how to make implements, prepare
panels
with gesso (plaster mixed with a binding material), and mix
colors, oils,
and varnishes. Once the youth mastered these procedures and
learned
to work in the master’s traditional manner, he usually spent
several years
23. working as a journeyman in various cities, observing and
absorbing
ideas from other masters. He then was eligible to become a
master and
could apply for admission to the guild. Fees could be very high,
espe-
cially if an artist was not a citizen of the same city, as was the
case,
for example, when Petrus Christus of Baerle purchased
citizenship in
Bruges in order to join that city’s painters’ guild. Sometimes,
an art-
ist seeking admission to a guild would marry the widow of a
member.
(A woman could inherit her husband’s workshop, but could not
run it.)
Guild membership was essential for establishing an artist’s
reputation
and for obtaining commissions. The guild inspected paintings to
evalu-
ate workmanship and ensure that its members used quality
materials. It
also secured adequate payment for its artists’ labor.
Women had far fewer opportunities than men to train as artists,
in
large part because of social and moral constraints that forbade
women
to reside as apprentices in the homes of male masters.
Moreover, from
the 16th century, when academic training courses supplemented
and
then replaced guild training, until the 20th century, women
would not
as a rule expect or be permitted instruction in figure painting,
because
24. it involved dissection of cadavers and study of the nude male
model.
Flemish women interested in pursuing art as a career—for
example,
Caterina van Hemessen (FIG. 23-16)—most often received
tutoring from
fathers and husbands who were professionals and whom the
women
assisted in all the technical procedures of the craft. Despite
these
obstacles, membership records of the art guilds of Bruges and
other
cities reveal that a substantial number of Flemish women were
able to
establish themselves as artists during the 15th century. That
they suc-
ceeded in negotiating the difficult path to acceptance as
professionals is
a testament to both their tenacity and their artistic skill.
20-14 P!"#$% C&#'%"$%, A Goldsmith in His Shop, 1449. Oil
on
wood, 39 30 ( 29 100. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
(Robert Lehman Collection, 1975).
Once thought to depict Eligius, the patron saint of goldsmiths,
Christus’s
painting, made for the Bruges goldsmiths’ guild, is more likely
a genre
scene of a couple shopping for a wedding ring.
1 ft.
30702_ch20_rev03_566-591.indd 580 07/06/18 4:23 pm
29. 742! CHAPTER 25 The Baroque in Northern Europe
of War is a chaotic scene !lled with twisting, straining,
foreshort-
ened male and female bodies, but Rubens used the commission
from the Medici duke as an opportunity to express his desire—
as a diplomat as well as a citizen-painter—for peace in an age
when war was constant. Consequences of War is a commentary
on the "irty Years’ War (see “Rubens on Consequences of War,”
page 743).
Marie de’ Medici. Rubens’s interaction with royalty and aris-
tocracy provided the Flemish master with an understanding of
the
ostentation and spectacle of Baroque (particularly Italian) art
that
appealed to the wealthy and privileged. Rubens, the born cour-
tier, reveled in the pomp and majesty of royalty. Likewise,
those
in power embraced the lavish spectacle that served the Catholic
Church so well in Italy. "e magni!cence and splendor of
Baroque
imagery reinforced the authority and right to rule of the
highborn.
Among Rubens’s royal patrons was Marie de’ Medici, a member
of the famous Florentine banking family and widow of Henry IV
(r. 1589–1610), the !rst Bourbon king of France. She commis-
sioned Rubens to paint a series of huge canvases memorializing
and glorifying her career. Between 1622 and 1626, Rubens,
work-
ing with amazing creative energy, produced with the aid of his
many assistants 21 historical-allegorical pictures and three por-
traits designed to hang in the queen’s new palace, the
30. Luxembourg,
in Paris. (Today, they are on display in a huge exhibition hall in
the Louvre, the former palace of the kings of France.) Remark-
ably, each of the paintings, although conceived as an instrument
of royal propaganda to #atter the queen and impress her sub-
jects and foreign envoys, is also a great work of art—a supreme
testimony to Rubens’s skill and the talents of his small army
of assistants.
!gures, showed his prowess in representing foreshortened
anatomy
and the contortions of violent action. Rubens placed the body of
Christ on the cross as a diagonal that cuts dynamically across
the
picture while inclining back into it. "e whole composition
seethes
with a power that comes from strenuous exertion, from power-
ful muscles taut with e$ort. "e tension is emotional as well as
physical, as re#ected not only in Christ’s face but also in the
fea-
tures of his followers. Bright highlights and areas of deep
shadow
inspired by Caravaggio’s tenebrism (%&'(. 24-17, 24-17A, 24-
17B,
and 24-18), hallmarks of Rubens’s work at this stage of his
career,
enhance the drama.
"e human body in action, draped or undraped, male or
female, would remain the focus of Rubens’s art throughout his
long career. "is interest, combined with his voracious intellect,
led
Rubens to copy the works of classical antiquity and of the
Italian
masters. During his last two years in Rome, Rubens made many
black-chalk drawings of great artworks, including !gures in
31. Michel-
angelo’s Sistine Chapel frescoes (%&'. 22-17) and the ancient
marble
group (%&'. 5-89) of Laocoön and his two sons. In De
imitatione
statuarum (On the Imitation of Statues), a treatise Rubens wrote
in
Latin, the artist stated: “I am convinced that in order to achieve
the
highest perfection one needs a full understanding of the
[ancient]
statues, indeed a complete absorption in them; but one must
make
judicious use of them and before all avoid the e$ect of stone.”2
Consequences of War. Once Rubens established his repu-
tation, commissions from kings, queens, dukes, and other elite
patrons throughout Europe soon followed. One of these commis-
sions was Consequences of War (%&'. 25-3), which Rubens
painted
in 1638 for Ferdinando II de’ Medici, the grand duke of
Tuscany
(r. 1621–1670). Like Elevation of the Cross (%&'. 25-2),
Consequences
25-2 P!"!# P$%&
R%'!(), Elevation
of the Cross, from
Saint Walburga,
Antwerp, 1610.
Oil on wood, center
panel 159 1 780 *
119 1 120, each wing
159 1 780 * 49 110.
Antwerp Cathedral,
Antwerp.
36. bl
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Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May
not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
WCN 02-200-203
Flanders 579
“Framed Paintings,” page 578) reinforce this identi!cation.
Across
the top, Jan wrote “As I can” in Flemish using Greek letters.
One
suggestion is that this portrait was a demonstration piece
intended
for prospective clients, who could compare the painting with the
painter and judge what he “could do” in terms of recording a
faith-
ful likeness. Across the bottom appear the date and a statement
in
Latin: “Jan van Eyck made me.” "e use of both Greek and Latin
suggests that the artist viewed himself as both a learned man
and a
37. worthy successor to the fabled painters of antiquity.
Rogier van der Weyden
When Jan van Eyck began work on the
Ghent Altarpiece, Rogier van der Weyden
(#$%. 20-1) was an assistant in the work-
shop of Robert Campin (#$%. 20-8), but the
younger Tournai painter’s fame soon eclipsed
Campin’s and eventually rivaled Jan’s. Rogier’s
renown rested on his skill in recording indi-
vidual features and character in his portraits
(#$%. 20-12A) and especially on the dynamic
compositions of his narrative works, which
stress human action and drama. He concen-
trated on Christian themes, especially those
episodes in the life of Jesus that elicited pow-
erful emotions—for example, the Cruci!xion and Pietà (the Vir-
gin Mary cradling the dead body of her son)—moving observers
deeply by vividly portraying the su&erings of Christ.
Deposition. One of Rogier’s early masterworks is Deposition
(#$%. 20-13), the center panel of a triptych commissioned by
the
archers’ guild of Louvain for the church of Notre-Dame hors-
les-
murs (Church of Our Lady—the Virgin—outside the [town]
walls).
Rogier acknowledged the patrons of this large painting by
incorpo-
rating the crossbow (the guild’s symbol) into the decorative
trac-
ery in the corners. Instead of creating
a deep landscape setting, as Jan van
Eyck might have, Rogier compressed
the !gures and action onto a shallow
38. stage with a golden back wall, imitat-
ing the large sculptured shrines so
popular in the 15th century, of which
Jacques de Baerze’s Retable de Champ-
mol (#$%. 20-3) is one of many Nether -
landish examples (compare #$%'. 20-21
and 20-22). "e device admirably
served his purpose of expressing max-
imum action within a limited space
patrons became interested in the reality (both physical and
psycho-
logical) that portraits could reveal.
In the 15th century, Flemish patrons eagerly embraced the
opportunity to have their likenesses painted. "e elite wanted to
memorialize themselves in their dynastic lines and to establish
their
identities, ranks, and stations with images far more concrete
than
heraldic coats of arms. Portraits also served to represent state
o(-
cials at events they could not attend. Royalty, nobility, and the
very
rich would sometimes send artists to paint the likeness of a pro-
spective bride or groom. For example, when young King
Charles
VI (r. 1380–1422) of France sought a bride, he dispatched a
painter
to three di&erent royal courts to make portraits of the
candidates.
But prosperous merchants also commissioned portraits for their
homes. An early example of secular portraiture is Jan van
Eyck’s dif-
!cult-to-interpret depiction of the banker Giovanni Arnol!ni (see
“Giovanni Arnol!ni and His Wife,” page 577).
39. Man in a Red Turban. Whatever the intended meaning of
Giovanni Arnol!ni and His Wife, the painting is representative
of the growing importance of secular portraiture as an income-
producing artistic genre in 15th-century Flanders. In Man in a
Red Turban (#$%. 20-12), the man whom Jan van Eyck
portrayed
looks directly at the viewer. "is is the !rst known Western
painted
portrait in a thousand years where the sitter does so. "e level,
composed gaze, directed from a true three-quarter head pose,
must have impressed observers deeply. "e painter created the
illu-
sion that from whatever angle a viewer observes the face, the
eyes
return that gaze. Jan, with his considerable observational skill
and
controlled painting style, injected a heightened sense of
speci!city
into this portrait by including beard stubble, veins in the
bloodshot
le) eye, and weathered, aged skin. Although a de!nitive
identi!ca-
tion of the sitter has yet to be made, most art historians consider
Man in a Red Turban a self-portrait, which Jan painted by
looking
at his image in a mirror (as he depicted himself in the mirror in
the
Arnol!nis’ home; #$%. 20-11). "e inscriptions on the frame (see
20-13 R!"#$% &'( )$% W$*)$(,
Deposition, center panel of a triptych
from Notre-Dame hors-les-murs,
Louvain, Belgium, ca. 1435–1442.
Oil on wood, 79 2 580 + 89 7
44. pu
bl
is
he
d
pr
od
uc
t.
Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May
not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
WCN 02-200-203
S�26-1a The Enlightenment fascination
with classical antiquity gave rise to the art
movement called Neoclassicism. In this
painting, Kauffman chose a classical sub-
ject and clothed her figures in Roman garb.
S�26-1b Kauffman’s heroine is Cornelia,
mother of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus,
political reformers during the Roman
Republic. The portraits of the mother and
her sons are based on ancient statuary.
S�26-1c The painting is an Enlightenment exemplum
virtutis (“example of virtue”). When a visitor shows Cor-
49. d
pr
od
uc
t.
Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May
not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
WCN 02-200-203
You will be responsible for answering this question with the
required number of examples and historical periods.
Please respond to the following question in 400-500 words.
Your short essays should be well-organized, thoughtful analyses
that engage the course material. Your responses must discuss
specific works of art/architecture and provide ample visual
evidence from the textbook to support your argument. Use the
lecture notes and textbook for support, but you do not need to
consult outside sources. Your response will run through
TurnItIn software, so be sure to cite the textbook, when
necessary.
Question:
Over the course of the five hundred years we have studied this
semester, representations of the human body have changed
drastically. Throughout the semester, we have examined the
depiction of the human body in a variety of media, such as
painting, sculpture, and photography.
Please choose four examples and discuss the changing modes of
showing the human body by considering qualities such as
medium, realism, movement, etc. in relation to the
50. culture/society in question. Your four examples must come from
four different stylistic periods (with at least one, but not more
than two, coming from the first half of the semester) and one
must not be a painting. Each of the four examples must be
identified by artist, title, date, medium, and cultural/historical
period.
4 Examples:
Rogier van der Weyden, Deposition, center panel of a triptych
from Notre-Dame hors-les-murs, Louvain, Belgium, ca. 1435–
1442. Oil on wood, 79 2 580 × 89 7 180. Museo del Prado,
Madrid.
Peter Paul Rubens, Elevation of the Cross, from Saint
Walburga, Antwerp, 1610. Oil on wood, center panel 159 1780
× 119 1120, each wing 159 1780 × 49 110. Antwerp Cathedral,
Antwerp.
AngelicA KAuffmAn, Cornelia Presenting Her Children as Her
Treasures, or Mother of the Gracchi, ca. 1785. Oil on canvas,
39 40 × 49 20. Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond
(Adolph D. and Wilkins C. Williams Fund).
François Boucher, Cupid a Captive, 1754. Oil on canvas, 59 60
× 29 100. Wallace Collection, London.
SAMPLE ESSAY
Question: Discuss the approach to and meaning of realism in
Baroque art using at least three examples.
“During the 17th century, Europe experienced yet another
prominent evolution in art history with the onset of Baroque art,
in which “artists embraced dynamism, theatricality, and
elaborate ornamentation…to spectacular effect” (Kleiner).
While Renaissance art focused on mathematical and scientific
51. elements, Baroque art shifted its attention to the theatrical
experience created by each piece. Realism in Baroque art is
characterized by the depiction of more normal, everyday subject
matter which otherwise could have even been deemed too
inappropriate. Artists approached realism in Baroque art
through the incorporation of religious propaganda, sensual
ecstasy, and even violence that is in reality common in life.
“Prime examples of the theatrical and dramatic themes in
Baroque art lie in Gianlorenzo Bernini’s sculptures, such as the
emotional David from the Villa Borghese as well as Ecstasy of
Saint Teresa in the Cornaro Chapel. In David, the spectator is
drawn in by the immense amount of movement contained in the
stationary sculpture. In his depiction of David and Goliath’s
spar, “Bernini selected the most dramatic of an implied
sequence of poses…[and] David moves out into the space
surrounding it…” (Kleiner). The amount of emotion illustrated
in David’s facial and bodily expressions is almost
overwhelming, especially because of the stress and anger shown
through his pinched eyebrows and his pose that suggests he
turning his muscular body to deliver a powerful blow to his
opponent. Such realism is unparalleled to anything seen in
previous sculptures. Similarly, in Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, the
subject matter is passionate and sensual. Teresa is portrayed in
a blissful state that may have previously been deemed
inappropriate but is realistic. In the same way that Bernini
humanized David’s anger, Teresa’s feeling of ecstasy is almost
written on her face through her thrown back head, closed eyes,
and her loose posture. As common in this period, Teresa’s
feelings are dramatically displayed. Although Bernini uses
marble to create his sculptures, his sculptures are as fluid in
their movements as paint can be.
“Additionally, realism is seen in Baroque art through
Caravaggio’s piece Calling of Saint Matthew. Caravaggio
reduces religious and “sacred subjects to…human dramas played
out in the harsh and dingy settings of his time and place”
(Kleiner). Specifically, the setting of the piece is familiar in
52. that it is a realistic tavern. The realism is amplified in
Caravaggio’s use of his own elements, chiaroscuro that
contrasts dark and bright colors and tenebrism that causes the
figures to emerge from a shadow, as if they are truly on a
theatrical stage. While Bernini’s sculptures were dynamic in
their movement, Caravaggio’s paintings have dynamic
movement and meaning in the various lightings he creates. The
ray of light in Calling of Saint Matthew illuminates the tax
collectors and is what beckons them to convert to Christianity.
This piece can be considered religious propaganda in that it
promotes the conversion to Christianity, which was a very
prominent agenda of many people during this period of time.
Similar to how Bernini drew in the viewers of his pieces,
Caravaggio leaves a space empty in the background, inviting the
spectators to the stage of his painting to join the tax collectors
in religious conversion.
“Overall, the Baroque period in art history was one of new,
dramatic, and dynamic works that covered a broader range of
subjects that could be considered more realistic. The level of
complexity and emotion in every piece is unparalleled to
previous eras, allowing Baroque art to live up to the irregularity
suggested by its name.”