By; Don Passey* Department of Educational Research, University of Lancaster

1. Technology enhancing learning: analysing
uses of information and communication
technologies by primary and secondary
school pupils with learning frameworks
Don Passey*
Department of Educational Research, University of Lancaster
Successive national policy in England has striven to develop uses of information and communication
technologies (ICT) to support teaching and learning, and has promoted the adoption of ICT in
schools over a period of some 25 years (since the ‘Microcomputer in schools initiative’ of 1981). The
current level of deployment of ICT in schools is high. Not only are current levels higher than ever
before, but the diversity of forms of ICT have also increased. These high levels and wide diversity
create challenges for teachers, in terms of understanding how to select appropriate uses of ICT to
support learning most effectively in specific situations. A clear need is for teachers to know how each
form of ICT supports precise aspects of learning, in each subject area, topic and activity. Teachers
need to consider the forms of technological resources that are accessible, how these specifically work
within learning environments in classroom (and other) settings, and how uses of resources match
social, behavioural, emotional and cognitive needs of pupils. This article offers a perspective of the
pedagogical needs of teachers, by considering a particular selection of learning technologies, how
these are used within learning environments, and how it is possible to view their impact on pupil
cognition. A set of starting frameworks, through which to analyse impact, is considered, and the
findings from example sets of case studies indicate how uses of ICT have been focused by teachers,
and where potential forms of impact have arisen. The findings indicate a need for more detailed data
gathering, both to provide evidence that will offer a greater insight into specific aspects of learning
that are supported when certain forms of ICT are used, and to give an indication of gaps in learning
focus that might arise. From the results of the analyses presented, implications for policy, practice,
evaluation and research are highlighted and discussed.
Keywords: Evaluation of learning uses and impacts; Implications for ICT uses; Learning
and ICT; Learning frameworks; Learning impact gap analysis
*Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YN, UK.
Email: d.passey@lancaster.ac.uk
The Curriculum Journal
Vol. 17, No. 2, June 2006, pp. 139 – 166
ISSN 0958-5176 (print)/ISSN 1469-3704 (online)/06/020139–28
ª 2006 British Curriculum Foundation
DOI: 10.1080/09585170600792761

2. Introduction
The greatest increase in levels of ICT resources and access to ICT in schools in
England has occurred since 1998. Stevenson (1997) suggested that the impact of
ICT in schools would only be recognized if there was a willingness to take ‘a leap of
faith’. That ‘leap of faith’ was implemented through two successive major national
policies: the National Grid for Learning (NGfL) initiative; and the ‘ICT in Schools’
initiative. A number of evaluation and research studies into impacts and effects of
ICT in schools had been undertaken prior to these initiatives (notably the ImpacT
study, reported by Watson, 1993), and the studies that looked at uses of integrated
learning systems (ILSs) (reported in NCET, 1994, 1996; Wood, 1998). The more
recent NGfL and ICT in schools initiatives have been accompanied by a series of
evaluation and research studies, exploring ongoing implementation and outcomes
(with reports from, for example, Somekh et al., 2001, 2002a, 2002b; Harrison et al.,
2002; Cox et al., 2003a, 2003b; Pittard et al., 2003; Passey & Rogers, 2004;
Underwood et al., 2005). This existing research literature provides a useful back-
ground, context and detail when considering the impact of ICT on learning
(summarized by Becta in their recent review, 2005). The body of research examining
the impact of ICT on learning, learners, teaching and education, undertaken over a
number of years (but particularly since 1998), offers a fundamental level of
understanding, providing wide and general indicators of outcomes and impacts
(especially when considered in the context of other national studies, notably Becta,
2001a, 2001b, 2003a, 2003b; Ofsted, 2001, 2002, 2004). Over the past seven years or
so the focus of national educational initiatives (including ICT) has driven research
activity in directions that have focused more on uses of ICT in primary and secondary
schools, and most frequently to consider:
. whether attainment has been enhanced, and to what extent it has been enhanced,
as judged by outcomes of national assessment tests and methods;
. which aspects of subject attainment or subject needs have been supported;
. whether particular individual technologies have been used in effective and worth-
while ways;
. whether particular approaches to uses of ICT have been effective or worthwhile.
Research and evaluation studies show that ICT can have an impact upon learning
when that learning is measured by subject attainment. For example, Harrison et al.
found that:
A statistically significant positive association between ICT and National Tests for English
was found at Key Stage 2. Positive associations were also found for mathematics at Key
Stage 2, although they were not as striking and not statistically significant. . . . A statisti-
cally significant positive association between ICT and National Tests for science was
found at Key Stage 3, but there were no other clear-cut associations at Key Stage 3. . . . At
Key Stage 4, there was a statistically significant positive association between ICT and
GCSE science and in GCSE design and technology. (Harrison et al., 2002, p. 2)
140 D. Passey

3. However, the extent to which ICT itself led to impact, and the extent to which other
factors contributed, has not been clearly identified, although the role of other factors
is recognized. Studies where pupils have used ICT on its own (that is, without teacher
intervention or support), have rarely identified an enhancement of attainment beyond
an initial period of time (teachers and observers have reported a matter of a few
months with some forms of ILS, for example). Becta found that:
Analysis of the Ofsted data on quality of ICT use reveals that attainment is even higher
when high levels of ICT resource are combined with ‘Good’ ICT teaching. On average
69% of pupils in schools with ‘Very good’ ICT resources attained at least five GCSEs.
When ‘Very good’ resources are combined with ‘Good’ ICT teaching, this proportion
rises to 72%. (Becta, 2001b, p. 8)
As Cox et al. stated:
There is a strong relationship between the ways in which ICT has been used and pupils’
attainment. This suggests that the crucial component in the appropriate selection and use
of ICT within education is the teacher and his or her pedagogical approaches. Specific
uses of ICT have a positive effect on pupils’ learning where the use is closely related to
learning objectives. (Cox et al., 2003a, p. 3)
They went on to say that:
Studies show that the most effective uses of ICT are those in which the teacher and the
software can challenge pupils’ understanding and thinking, either through whole-class
discussions using an interactive whiteboard or through individual or paired work on a
computer. If the teacher has the skills to organize and stimulate the ICT-based
activity, then both whole-class and individual work can be equally effective. (Cox et al.,
2003b, p. 3)
In cases where pupils experience appropriate ICT use, the critical actions of the
teacher in supporting learning have been identified in a range of studies. Ofsted
stated, for example, that:
Evidence also shows a clear place for pupils’ use of ICT across subjects where the learner
is using ICT purely as the medium for learning and where prior learning in ICT capability
is not utilized. The gains in such experiences include being able to control the pace and
order of learning and the clarity of exposition through animated graphics or video clips.
The role of the teacher in this activity paradoxically becomes more significant; the mix of
human and computer interactions is the telling factor. (Ofsted, 2004, p. 8)
The role of motivation in enhancing learning is often reported by teachers. A number
of studies have highlighted the enthusiasm that can be generated and stimulated when
ICT is used, and the forms of motivation arising have been shown in some specific
studies positively to enhance learning. Passey and Rogers (2004, p. 3), in a study that
looked at motivational impacts arising from uses of ICT, concluded that: ‘ICT use by
pupils and teachers in the case study schools led to positive motivational outcomes,
Technology enhancing learning 141

4. supporting a focus upon learning and the tackling of learning tasks’. Many studies do
not, however, clearly show ‘where’ ICT supports learning, that is, which specific
aspects of learning processes are supported; or ‘how’ learning is supported,
particularly in terms of how each form of ICT can enhance learning, and how
different forms of ICT can be used across subjects or topics, so that the total or
combined impacts enhance a range of key learning processes. Where studies have
looked at specific software or ICT applications, it is also not clear how these impacts
fit with ICT uses in other situations or at other times. It is clear, for example, that the
same form of ICT is not necessarily used throughout a number of learning activities.
In talking about forms of activity that use ICT to offer potential creative approaches
for pupils, for example, Loveless states that:
These activities are not always discrete or sequential and there can be synchronicity in
their expression and overlap of applications for different purposes. Examples of such
activities range from using simulations and adventure games to explore the question ‘what
would happen if . . . ?’, to publishing hypertext stories or constructing avatars to meet and
interact in three-dimensional, virtual worlds. (Loveless, 2002, p. 4)
Some studies have indicated that teachers focus on a few applications of ICT, to
support certain specific learning activities or processes. Passey and Rogers, for
example, reported that: ‘Positive motivational outcomes were most frequently found
when ICT was used to support engagement, research, writing and editing, and
presentation of work’ (2004, p. 3).
With regard to a selection of appropriate forms of ICT to meet the learning
objectives within specific learning environments, there are two key issues for teachers:
diversity of resources and inclusion of all pupils. When teachers consider resource
diversity, the two main elements upon which they focus are the forms of accessible
hardware and the forms of available software or resources. Often teachers are now in a
position of being able to select from a range of different forms of hardware and,
as a consequence, to select and establish a distinctive learning environment
from a possible range—for example, by selecting use of an interactive whiteboard
in a classroom, or use of a set of laptops with wireless access within a classroom, or
use of a computer suite outside the classroom, or use of a resource area with a
number of desktop computers. Although there is a range of studies that have looked
at the uses and impact of individual forms of hardware (for example, uses of laptops,
by Rockman et al., 1997 and Passey et al., 2000), teachers do not have access to
information about the criteria on which to base selection, across the range at their
disposal, to match specific learning objectives that they have set for particular
activities. Similarly, the range of software and resources available to teachers has
increased dramatically over the last eight years, and schools can select from a wide
choice—for example, commercial online or networked resources that cover a wide
subject range, such as those offered by Espresso or Learn Premium or Education
City; more specific commercial software such as Colour Magic; resources that are
freely available via the Internet, such as BBC jam resources; or those produced and
offered by regional broadband consortia. Again, a number of studies have focused on
142 D. Passey

5. uses of individual ranges or pieces of software, for example, the studies on integrated
learning systems, noted earlier, or on uses of the Internet (Scrimshaw, 1997), or on
uses of interactive resources in Latin and Japanese (Denning & Fisher, 2002).
The current hardware and resource diversity can pose a major challenge for
teachers, since selection of both hardware and software to meet specific pupil and
group needs demands an understanding of the potential specific impacts of each of
these different resources, and how they might be appropriately focused in terms of
social, behavioural, emotional and cognitive needs of pupils. Considering inclusion
offers an additional challenge beyond this: when pupils have specific learning needs,
teachers report, for example, that they sometimes produce their own resources, or
modify the uses of existing resources to suit particular circumstances. Some special
schools, for example, produce and offer resources on their own websites, such as
those on the Priory Woods School website, or they modify resources such as BBC
digital video clips, as indicated later in this article.
Without precise intelligence about the potential impacts of specific forms of ICT,
about the ‘where’ and ‘how’ these are impacting on learning processes, teachers are
not likely to be able to focus easily on those key aspects that will enable them to
replicate what others have done and, as a consequence, support particular learning
outcomes. In parallel with this lack of focus on how ICT might enhance specific
learning processes, the focus of evaluation activity for the major ICT in schools
initiatives, which has looked at impacts and outcomes of ICT in schools nationally
over the past few years, has not offered or led to:
. a precise definition of each significant educational domain, so that impact across
each domain, but also impacts within specific elements or aspects of each domain,
can be considered, identified and quantified;
. a view of which cognitive and metacognitive aspects of learning have been
supported, and whether some have not been supported or engaged to the same
extents through the uses of ICT;
. an overview of uses and outcomes across the breadth of possible technologies, with
evidence about specific impacts of each technology on learning, and how an un-
derstanding of the impacts of each technology across the entire range of technologies
could be used to develop an integrated approach, so that the widest possible range of
cognitive and metacognitive aspects of learning could be supported;
. the opportunity to set up ongoing studies that have offered schools ways to focus
on identified limitations, so that impacts could be measured when such gaps have
been addressed;
. a review of the relationship of impacts in specific aspects of each domain to the
assessment methods employed.
To inform at a more detailed level, an approach is needed that defines each significant
educational domain more precisely, in ways that can provide intelligence that is of
value to policy-makers and teachers, giving ideas about approaches and uses that
would be worthy of focus. Such intelligence should offer teachers and policy-makers
Technology enhancing learning 143

6. specific reasons for focus, and offer ideas about the pedagogy that teachers could
employ, and about those aspects that might have been missed or where there are
identified weaknesses. This article considers how the learning domain might be de-
fined more precisely, and uses a number of selected taxonomies and categorizations of
learning to analyse two sets of data. From the analysis, it is possible to start to explore
some of the issues arising when impacts are identified more specifically, and to con-
sider implications for future evaluation practices. As Bransford et al. say:
A scientific understanding of learning includes understanding about learning processes,
learning environments, teaching, sociocultural processes, and the many other factors that
contribute to learning. Research on all of these topics, both in the field and in labo-
ratories, provides the fundamental knowledge base for understanding and implementing
changes in education. (Bransford et al., 2000, p. 233)
For the purposes of this present article, a deliberate focus has been taken. While it is
recognized that social constructivism and sociocultural processes are important views
of learning, the scope has been narrowed, and the aspects considered within the
analyses presented are largely focused through a cognitivist perspective. This means,
for example, that many of the insights of these ‘social’ views of learning are neglected,
most notably those relating to collaboration (see, for example, McCormick, 2005).
The analyses look at a specific selection of learning technologies, how they are used
by teachers and pupils within learning environments, and how impact on pupil
cognition can be considered through a selected range of frameworks.
A simple learning framework to evaluate uses to support learning
For the purposes of evaluating impacts of ICT on learning, a simple learning frame-
work can be used, with a minimal range of features. To be of value, a framework of
this form needs to cover a sufficient width of features to provide a useful distinction
between a number of possible identifiable outcomes. A simple framework proposed
and used initially in a recent research study (Passey & Rogers, 2004), was based on
one particular categorization of learning and learning processes. Learning can be
defined as the act of acquiring knowledge, skills, ideas or understanding over and
above those which exist already. Learning can be thought of as a set of possible
actions—an addition of ideas or skills, a reordering of ideas, or an acquisition of
concepts, for example. The act of learning requires learners to be involved in three
distinctive sets of processes (according to, for example, Child, 1973):
. internalization: the processes which enable ideas or knowledge to enter the mind
from an external source;
. internal processes: those processes which enable the ideas or knowledge acquired to
be compared or contrasted or integrated in some way with those which already
exist;
. externalization: the processes which enable ideas or knowledge or skills to leave the
mind and to be recognized by others.
144 D. Passey

7. Based on this categorization, a simple learning framework (shown in Figure 1) was
used as part of a national study for the Department for Education and Skills (DfES)
in England (Passey & Rogers, 2004). Evidence gathered from the 17 schools
involved, 76 teachers interviewed and 33 lessons observed indicated that direct uses
of ICT by teachers tended in many cases to be concerned with internalization
processes to the greatest extent, and with internal cognitive processes to the least
extent.
These findings supported the notion that there is currently a bias in terms of the
specific aspects of learning where applications of ICT are focused by teachers. This
skewing, towards specific aspects of learning processes, appears to be due, at least in
part, to teachers responding to particular strands of research evidence (to the work of
Gardner, 1991, for example, which looks at implications of learning and multiple
intelligences, and is often cited by teachers as being a basis for their renewed focus of
attention on appropriate but different ways to stimulate learning). As a result of this
renewed focus, many teachers ensure that ICT is used to support a range of sensory
engagement routes or internalization processes; at the same time, teachers have not
necessarily been led to consider any more strongly the potential impact that ICT
might have on internal cognitive processes.
Essentially, the simple learning framework identified those categories where ICT
was being used, and where ICT was not being used to the same extent. It is
reasonable to expect that ICT might have an impact on that area where it was used
most (in this case, internalization). If ICT is not used to support certain processes
(internal cognitive processes, in this case), then it is more difficult to see how ICT
could have an impact in that area. The framework offers a way to consider ‘where’
and ‘how’ assessment of impact might be focused, and what outcomes might be more
specifically identified. If assessment focuses on those aspects where ICT is not being
used—the outcomes of internal cognitive processes, in this case—then it is much
more difficult to be clear that ICT can have a direct impact on outcomes.
Creating a more detailed learning framework
To create a more detailed framework (to identify impacts more specifically), the three
sets of learning processes identified in Figure 1 need to be detailed to greater
extents. In the frameworks shown in this article, the selection of taxonomies or
categories to define aspects more precisely is not based on a known or predetermined
Figure 1. A simple learning framework for evaluating uses of ICT (Passey & Rogers, 2004,
p. 26)
Technology enhancing learning 145

8. appropriateness to tasks undertaken; rather, likely or possible taxonomies have been
selected to serve the purpose of demonstrating how uses of ICT might be specifically
focused in certain ways. In particular, those ways of categorizing aspects of learning
that are most familiar to teachers have been used. Other taxonomies or categorizations
could be considered, and a wide range of others, with possible suggestions for
appropriateness, are reviewed in Moseley et al. (2005), for example. Their review of
forms of categorization considers a possible interplay of cognitive, social, emotional
and societal dimensions of learning. However, for the frameworks presented here, a
cognitive dimension is considered primarily, although social dimensions are
considered in terms of pupil and teacher interactions within a learning environment,
and an identification of instances where pupils actively participate (when chanting
together, for example).
Considering what greater detail within a learning framework might be included, in
terms of internalization, a width of sensory routes and forms of engagement are
considered increasingly by teachers, especially when they access multimedia
resources in classrooms. Many teachers now consider how different forms of
sensory engagement routes can be stimulated, and often consider this in terms of
the categories (or a sub-set of the categories) proposed by Gardner (1991):
linguistic; logical/mathematical; musical; kinaesthetic; spatial/visual; interpersonal;
and intrapersonal.
In terms of internal cognition, there is a range of possible ways to categorize forms
of knowledge handling, thinking and subject learning. A knowledge handling
framework, which is still regarded as being helpful by many teachers and researchers
in this respect, is the original categorization offered by Bloom (1952). (It should be
noted that the categorization was later updated and expanded to consider other
dimensions; see Anderson et al., 2001.) Bloom proposed a taxonomy of knowledge
handling skills in six categories: knowledge acquisition; comprehension; application;
analysis; synthesis; and evaluation. Within the overall arena of knowledge handling,
teachers are fundamentally concerned with subject knowledge—and the curriculum,
programmes of study, and guidance provided as schemes of work in England are all
defined in terms of subject knowledge—whether that knowledge be in the subject area
of mathematics or history, or in ICT itself. However, teachers in England are
encouraged to consider and integrate thinking skills into teaching and learning
activities, particularly those associated with creativity (as shown on the DfES
Thinking Skills web-pages, on the National Curriculum pages, for example).1
This
source lists, for example, a number of key thinking skills that should be considered in
any subject area: searching all topics; generating ideas; developing ideas; hypothesiz-
ing; applying imagination; and seeking innovative alternatives.
In terms of externalization—of making skills or knowledge or ideas external to the
individual—more precise categories that are often seen in this context in classrooms
include: writing; reporting (verbally); speaking (discussing points with the teacher);
presenting; drawing; completing items that the teacher or someone else has created
(using games or activities, for example); and moving or manipulating items in some
way (on-screen or on an interactive whiteboard, for example).
146 D. Passey

9. Taking into account the forms of categorization selected and described above, a
more detailed learning framework can be constructed as shown within Table 1. This
more detailed framework can be used to identify how particular applications of
ICT have been adopted, and how their uses have been focused by teachers within
classrooms.
Identified learning outcomes using the more detailed learning framework
The evidence that was summarized using Figure 1 covered a wide range of different
applications of ICT. To consider impact that arises from a narrower range of ICT
applications, a specific set of ICT resources will be used for analytical purposes. The
analysis will take an existing set of evaluation records, reported as an element of
an evaluation of Espresso networked resources,2
undertaken for Cumbria and
Lancashire Education Online (CLEO) (Passey, 2005a). This study explored how
multimedia networked ICT-based resources were used by teachers and pupils to
support learning. Evidence was gathered in 31 separate classrooms, where networked
resources were used with Key Stage 1 and 2 pupils (aged 4 to 11 years). The
multimedia networked resources were in the form of video clips, still imagery
with auditory tracks, text with auditory tracks, and interactive games and activities.
At each key stage, and in each subject area (literacy, numeracy, science and citizen-
ship, for example), a specific range of resources was provided, deemed appropriate to
the age group and their learning needs (as specified by National Curriculum
subject programmes of study and schemes of work). These resources were accessible
to teachers and pupils through their own school networks, on desktop computers
and, in most cases, through interactive whiteboards. In addition to lesson
observations, evidence was gathered through 36 key teacher interviews and 54 pupil
interviews.
Lesson observations gathered details about the objectives and structure of lessons;
the forms of ICT being used and how they were deployed; how and when Espresso
resources were used; the forms of teacher and pupil interactions; how resource access
and interventions were managed; observable impacts on learning and teaching as
indicated by pupil and teacher responses and outcomes; and suggested possible
reasons why the networked resources led to outcomes within specific contexts.
Teacher interviews gathered details about the range of resources that teachers used;
the frequency of use; those felt to offer most ‘value’ in terms of both teaching and
learning; and the reasons why they felt that specific identifiable learning outcomes
had arisen. Pupil interviews gathered details about the range of resources used; the
frequency of use; those felt to offer most ‘value’ in terms of both teaching and
learning; the reasons why they felt that resources had helped their learning; and
whether they felt there were any impacts on behaviour, attendance or interest.
In all cases, teachers integrated the use of the networked resources into learning
activities. Thus, the ICT resources were included as elements within every learning
activity observed—and each learning activity involved aspects of internalization,
internal cognitive processing and externalization. However, the resources were not
Technology enhancing learning 147

10. Table1.Usesofnetworkedresourcesin31lessonscategorizedthroughamoredetailedlearningframework
Learningaspect
Frequency
within
classroom
sessions
observed
Frequency
where
ICTwas
directly
involvedComments
Internalization3131ICTwasuseddirectlytosupportinternalizationprocesses
SensorystimulusVisual3131Thenetworkedresourceswerestrongintermsofvisualpresentation
Auditory2222Mostresourceshadauditoryelements,butwerenotusedinsome
lessons
Kinaesthetic33Althoughmostteacherswereusinginteractivewhiteboards,few
involvedpupilstouchingthemdirectly
Emotional44Someresourceswereselectedbyteacherstoengagepupilsatan
emotionallevel
Social33Someresourceswereintheformofsongs,andpupilsparticipated,
singingasagroup
Textual55Althoughthetextualelementswereoftenstrong,theseaspectswere
notoftenused
Musical44Musicwasusedinsomeresources,butnotoftenusedasameansto
engage
Interpersonal190Teacherdiscussioninvolvedindirectuseofresources,withthefocus
ofattentionontheteacherratherthanontheICT
(continued)
148 D. Passey

11. Table1.(Continued)
Learningaspect
Frequency
within
classroom
sessions
observed
Frequency
where
ICTwas
directly
involvedComments
Internalcognitiveprocessing3131AlthoughICTwasuseddirectlytosupportinternalcognitive
processes,thiswasoftenatalowknowledgehandlinglevel
Subjectknowledge
(definedbyDfES
categories)
Searching33Inonlyalimitednumberofcasesweretheresourcesusedbypupils
forsearching
Generatingor
developingideas
1717Manyresourceswereusedbyteacherstostimulateideas(often
visually)
Hypothesizing00Noinstanceswereobservedwhereteachersfocusedon
hypothesizing
Imagining33Inafewcases,teachersaskedpupilstoimaginewhatmightbe
Gainingskills60Theteacheridentifiedthemethodsthatpupilsshouldusetogain
specificskillsinsomecases
Gaining
understanding
3030Inthevastmajorityofcases,resourceswereusedtosupporta
gainingofunderstanding
ICTknowledgeSkills11TherewasverylimitedfocusontheuseoftheresourcestogainICT
skills
Understanding00NoobservedusesfocusedonagainingofICTunderstanding
(continued)
Technology enhancing learning 149

12. Table1.(Continued)
Learningaspect
Frequency
within
classroom
sessions
observed
Frequency
where
ICTwas
directly
involvedComments
Knowledgehandling
(definedbyBloom
categories)
Acquisition3131Theresourceswereusedtosupportanacquisitionofknowledge,of
specificfacts
Comprehension240Teacherquestioningwasusedtocheckunderstanding,andto
supportcomprehension
Application60Teacherquestionsformalizedtheneedforpupilstoengageinthis
formofknowledgetransaction
Analysis70Teacherquestionsformalizedtheneedforpupilstoengageinthis
formofknowledgetransaction
Synthesis30Teacherquestionsformalizedtheneedforpupilstoengageinthis
formofknowledgetransaction
Evaluation40Teacherquestionsformalizedtheneedforpupilstoengageinthis
formofknowledgetransaction
Externalization318InonlyafewcaseswasICTuseddirectlyforexternalization
purposes
MotorstimulusWriting110ICTwasnotusedasamediumforwriting
Reporting00Noinstancesofreportingwereobservedinanylessons
Speaking150Speakingwasconcernedwithdirectdiscussionwiththeteacher
Presenting00Noinstancesofpresentingwereobservedinanylessons
Drawing00Noinstancesofdrawingwereobservedinanylessons
Completing55Insomecases,thenetworkedresourcesofferedactivitiesthatpupils
neededtocompleteusingtheICT
Moving33Inafewcases,teachersencouragedpupilstomoveitemsonorto
touchtheinteractivewhiteboards
150 D. Passey

13. involved directly in all learning aspects (only indirectly in some cases), and resources
were used in different ways to support each specific learning aspect. The analysis of
the uses of the networked resources in the 31 separate classrooms, using the more
detailed learning framework, is shown in Table 1. It is clear from these records that
the networked resources were used to support some specific aspects of learning more
than others.
In Table 1, in the right-hand column, those aspects of learning where ICT
(networked resource) use was indirectly involved are shaded (that is, the activity as a
whole involved uses of the ICT but, for that particular aspect, the ICT resources were
not directly involved), while those not shaded show that the ICT use was direct.
A number of conclusions can be drawn:
. The resources were used to stimulate visually to a very large extent. In terms of the
forms of networked resources provided, i.e. the extensive use of video clips and
still imagery with auditory tracks, this would have been expected. Auditory forms
of internalization were also often used, but uses of resources to stimulate through
other sensory routes were much less frequently observed. There was a low level of
kinaesthetic use, even though most classrooms had interactive whiteboards.
Teacher discussion—an interpersonal form of sensory stimulus—was involved a
great deal. This might also have been expected, as the networked resources
covered certain subject topics in ways that engaged pupils largely as a whole-class
group, but observations indicated that teacher discussion was much more focused
on encouraging pupils to think about and discuss learning strategies, and upon
open discussion, rather than on closed questioning. However, the ICT was not
used directly when interpersonal routes were used—the focus was on the teacher,
with the teacher focusing discussion away from the networked resources.
. In terms of subject knowledge, gaining understanding was the aspect that was
focused on most, with some resources used to generate or develop ideas. It could
be argued that this outcome matches an expected focus, given the age range of
the pupils. No resources were used to support hypothesizing, and limited use was
made for searching, imagining, or gaining skills (although these uses were
possible). A limited focus on some aspects suggests that resources in this sample
were not necessarily being used to stretch pupils educationally in some ways.
. There was very limited use of resources to develop ICT knowledge. However, this
outcome indicates that there was not a great deal of focus on ICT skills and
knowledge to support an ICT curriculum, but that the focus was on a wider
subject- or topic-based curriculum.
. The knowledge handling skills involved were mainly at the levels of acquisition
and comprehension. This outcome suggests overall that teaching was focused on
more basic subject knowledge and skills (although this could be argued as an
expected outcome for this age group). The more limited focus on higher order
levels of knowledge handling skills suggests that these online resources were not
being used to extend learning as much as they might. On the occasions where this
did happen, teachers provided and defined these opportunities.
Technology enhancing learning 151

14. . Forms of externalization were mainly concerned with speaking and writing. Some
limited use of games and activities involved pupils in completion exercises,
limited use of on-screen or interactive whiteboard resources enabled pupils to
move objects, and there was no use of verbal reports, presentations or drawing
identified. This outcome suggests that certain forms of externalization methods
were selected or adopted, involving methods that perhaps offered a more
immediate outcome, by recording notes, or discussing points to establish levels of
understanding.
. This form of learning framework has identified a range of affordances offered by
the ICT resources, and could be used as a means to compare and assess appro-
priate uses of ICT in any lesson. However, if used in this way alone, there is a risk
that missed opportunities are not revealed (which might arise in instances where
teacher knowledge, skill or understanding are limited, for example). The out-
comes suggest that a balanced approach is likely to be most supportive; teachers
need to identify affordances and appropriate uses, as well as identifying possible
gaps and missed opportunities.
Overall, this analysis indicates that these networked resources were used in these
lessons to support certain forms of sensory engagement, and low levels of knowl-
edge handling skills in terms of internal cognitive processes. The analysis indicates
that the networked resources were used to only a limited extent to support
externalization. Involvement by pupils with other aspects of learning processes were
dependent upon the teacher. In looking at potential impacts of ICT in this context,
therefore, it could be argued that the assessment of impact should specifically be on
engagement and certain forms of internalization, and on low level knowledge
handling, since these were the areas where ICT was directly involved. It could be
argued further that, in these cases, ICT would not be expected to have a large
impact on higher level knowledge handling, or on supporting certain forms of
externalization.
Considering the depth of a detailed learning framework
If learning frameworks can provide a more detailed view of the potential impacts of
ICT on learning, then a key question to ask must be the extent of detail that could be
of ultimate value. The level of detail in which a learning framework could be
developed needs, for evaluative purposes, to match the potential for those who would
use the outcomes—to cover pedagogical needs of teachers, teacher trainers, policy
needs of policy-makers and support needs of advisors, for example. Certainly it would
be possible to detail a learning framework to a far greater extent than in the cases of
either of the examples shown above. For example, internalization covers three distinct
processes: attention (a focus by the learner on the ‘new’ knowledge or ideas); sensory
stimulus (the ways or forms in which the new skills or knowledge are recognized by the
learner); and acquisition or reception (the point at which these new skills or knowledge
impinge upon the consciousness). Each of these aspects could be covered in more
152 D. Passey

15. detail when evaluating the uses of ICT such as networked resources. However, the
data gathered and used for the example analysis undertaken above provides
insignificant detail to consider in any depth the aspects associated with attention
(although teachers reported that the networked resources actively maintained the
attention of pupils), or acquisition or reception. Considering the detail in other
evaluation studies, the evaluation of internalization is mainly limited currently to
the identification of outcomes that are concerned with sensory stimuli rather than
offering details about attention or acquisition.
The range of internal cognitive processes could also be detailed to a far greater
extent. The National Curriculum pages on the DfES website referred to earlier list a
range of thinking skills which should be encountered by pupils as a part of the
curriculum: information processing; reasoning; enquiry; creativity; and evaluation—
along with those identified by Moseley et al. (2005) noted earlier. These could be
incorporated into a detailed learning framework, and it is possible to consider the
role, for example, of learning by rote, or learning by accident, as well as learning as an
act of conscious thinking. Internal processes cover a range of cognitive activities:
retention (the point at which new ideas are held in the mind, and how forms of sensory
stimulus have been involved and support this process); rehearsal (the ways in which
‘new’ knowledge or skills are compared or contrasted with those which exist already,
and how forms of sensory stimulus have supported or enable this process); recall
(the ability to recognize, identify and refer to the new skills or knowledge in an
existing or new context, and the forms in which knowledge or skills are held); working
or short-term memory (where new ideas or skills are held in an existing context for a
limited time); and long-term memory (where ideas and skills are held for longer periods
of time and where they are often associated with other existing ideas or concepts). It is
clear that evaluation studies that explore uses of ICT do not provide details at this
level. Some evidence can be gathered from pupil and teacher reports about
self-perceptions of impacts upon memory, for example, but detailed methods have
not been applied specifically to measure or understand such impacts to any greater
extent. As a consequence, our knowledge and understanding of the processes
involved when forms of ICT are used to support learning are limited. How to use
forms of ICT to support memorization in the shorter or longer term, for example,
have not been explored in ways that will support teachers in their endeavours to help
pupils remember.
Using those forms of learning aspects categorized and considered above, a further
level of detail can be placed within a learning framework (shown in Figure 2, by
taking the first two columns of Table 1 and relating them to the aspects in the
previous paragraph). It is not clear how far further detail would be of value in iden-
tifying more exactly the uses and potential impacts of ICT on teaching and learning.
It is clear, however, that inadequate levels of detail within a learning framework can
limit understanding, and potentially devalue or undervalue certain forms of ICT.
Taking one element of this third framework, this point can be easily exemplified.
Using the 31 lesson observations from the evaluation study analysed previously,
further aspects of learning activity can be identified, which were positively supported
Technology enhancing learning 153

16. by the use of these networked resources. The observed frequency of uses of the
networked resources to support concept formation, and reconstruction of ideas (on
the right-hand side of Figure 2), is shown in Table 2.
The evaluation data indicated that the ICT resources were being used directly to
support both concept formation (particularly through the use of video resources), and
the reconstruction of ideas (where pupils needed to observe, take notes or reform
Figure 2. A more detailed learning framework to evaluate uses of ICT
154 D. Passey

17. ideas in particular ways). These results suggest that the ICT was being used in these
cases to focus on some aspects that teachers might well find difficult to handle in
other ways, and where the uses of imagery, especially moving imagery, were
particularly important. Concept formation and the reconstruction of ideas are
significant elements in terms of learning, and clearly the use of networked resources
to support these processes is of particular value.
Evaluating uses of digital video clips to support learning using
the detailed framework
The networked resources used for the analysis presented above comprised a mixture
of different forms of ICT—video clips, still imagery with auditory tracks, text with
auditory tracks, and interactive games and activities. Indeed, from the range of
resources selected by the teachers, the outcomes might well be indicative of the forms
of impacts that might arise in situations where interactive whiteboards are used.
However, it should be noted that the outcomes and impacts could be quite specific to
the resources (Espresso in this case), and the outcomes and impacts could well relate
to learning arising as a result of the design and the design principles adopted. If an
understanding is to be gained of how specific forms of networked resources are used
and impact on learning processes, then there is a need for quite specific data
gathering. For the second set of analyses, therefore, another set of resources has been
chosen, which could be based on different design principles, and therefore lead to
different outcomes.
Using the detailed framework shown in Figure 2, an analysis using data gathered
from two evaluation studies commissioned by the BBC (Passey, 2005b, 2005c), will
be used to explore uses and potential impacts of digital video clips (a more specific
networked resource). Both of the BBC studies looked at learning outcomes arising
from uses of pilot digital video clips, produced by the BBC, and used in a range of
schools in Hull and in Merseyside. The digital video clips were intended for use with
pupils at Key Stage 1 (in literacy), Key Stage 2 (in history, geography and French),
and Key Stage 3 (in science and geography). The digital video clips were designed to
cover specific topic areas within each subject, and were between one and four minutes
in length. Support was also provided in ways to enable teachers and pupils to create
their own digital video clips. The digital video clip resources were accessible to
teachers and pupils via the Internet, or through their own school networks, on
desktop computers and, in most cases, through interactive whiteboards. In total, the
evidence base comprised 91 teacher and head teacher interviews, 36 pupil interviews,
Table 2. Frequency of focus on specific learning aspects
Learning aspect Observed frequency
Concept formation 15
Reconstruction of ideas 10
Technology enhancing learning 155

18. five sets of pupil questionnaire responses and 43 lesson observations. For the analysis
presented in this article, 35 lesson observations have been included where digital
video clips created by the BBC were used, with supportive evidence from teacher and
pupil interviews and questionnaires.
The lesson observations gathered details about the objectives and structure of
lessons; the ICT used and how it was deployed; how and when video clip resources
were used; the forms of teacher and pupil interactions; how resource access and
interventions were managed; the observable impacts on learning and teaching as
shown by responses and outcomes; and possible reasons for outcomes arising in
specific contexts. The teacher interviews gathered details about extents of access and
use; how and why video clip resources were selected and used; perceptions of the
focus of the digital video clip resources; the nature of the resources; and the forms of
learning and teaching outcomes that were felt to arise. The pupil interviews and
questionnaires gathered details about extents of access and use; the range and extent
of video clip resources selected and used; perceptions of the focus of the resources;
the nature of the resources; and the forms of learning and teaching outcomes that
were felt to arise.
If the range of aspects identified in Figure 2 are used as a set of markers, then the
match of detailed evidence to elements of the framework are strong in some respects,
but weak in others. In terms of aspects of internalization: evidence on attention was
gathered during lesson observations, by identifying general observable behaviours
that illustrated positive attention, and pupils and teachers reported on their per-
ceptions of attention; evidence on sensory stimuli and routes was identified
specifically and in detail as an element of lesson observations, and pupils and
teachers commented on these aspects during interviews; evidence on acquisition or
reception was identified only in a general way, from pupil and teacher comments, but
not in any detail. In terms of internal cognitive processing: evidence on uses to
support subject knowledge and ICT knowledge were identified during lesson
observations; evidence about knowledge handling was identified during lesson
observations in terms of learning demands, and was clarified to some extent by
general responses in pupil interviews; evidence on areas of thinking was not
specifically gathered, but some lesson observation details indicated that certain
aspects of thinking were included in some teaching plans; evidence on concept
formation and reconstruction of ideas was gathered from teacher and pupil responses;
evidence about retention and rehearsal was not gathered; evidence about recall was
gathered only in a general way from pupil or sometimes teacher responses, but not at
a detailed level; evidence about short-term and long-term memory was not gathered.
In terms of externalization, evidence about forms of motor response was gathered in
detail during lesson observations. The analysis of the uses of the digital video
resources in the 35 separate classrooms, using the more detailed learning framework,
is shown in Table 3. It is clear from the analysis that the digital video resources were
used by teachers to support certain specific aspects of learning more than others.
The evaluation data indicated that the ICT resources were being used directly to
support both concept formation (particularly through the use of video resources),
156 D. Passey

19. Table3.Usesofdigitalvideoresourcesin35lessonscategorizedthroughadetailedlearningframework
Learningaspect
Frequencywhere
digitalvideoclips
weredirectly
involvedComments
Internalization
AttentionNotrecordedAttentionwasgenerallyhighinlessonsobserved,butpupilswere
distractedlesswhendigitalvideoclipswereusedthanwhenother
activitieswerebeingundertaken
SensorystimulusVisual35Theimportanceofmovingimagerywascommentedonbyanumber
ofteachersandpupils
Auditory35Thesignificanceoftheauditoryelementswascommentedonby31
teachers,andtheimportanceof‘anothervoice’wascommented
onbyanumberofteachers
Kinaesthetic1Pupilstouchedtheinteractivewhiteboardwhenthevideoclipwas
stoppedinonlyonelessonobserved
Emotional4Thisformofsensoryroutewasevidentwhendigitalvideoclipsthat
pupilshadproducedthemselveswereplayed
Social1Thisformofsensoryroutewasinvolvedwhenpupilswithsevereor
profoundlearningdifficultieswereinvolvedcollectivelyinan
‘immersive’environment
Textual0Nousesoftextualresourceswereobserved
Musical1Althoughsomeintroductorybackgroundmusicwasplayedinsome
digitalvideoclips,theuseofmusicasasensoryroutewasonly
notedinonelesson
Interpersonal8Inthesecasesteachersstoppedthedigitalvideoclips,andasked
questionsorengagedpupilsindiscussion
(continued)
Technology enhancing learning 157

20. Table3.(Continued)
Learningaspect
Frequencywhere
digitalvideoclips
weredirectly
involvedComments
Internalcognitiveprocessing
SubjectknowledgeSearching0Thisformofresourcewasnotusedasameansforsearching(the
Internetwascommonlyusedforthispurpose)
Generatingordevelopingideas16Thisaspectwasinvolvedinmanylessons
Hypothesizing1Teacherapproachwasresponsibleforthisemphasis
Imagining2Teacherapproachwasresponsibleforthisemphasis
Gainingskills0Subjectskillswerenotanobservedfocus
Gainingunderstanding16Subjectunderstandingwasacommonfocusinlessons
ICTknowledgeSkills2Thisemphasiswasduetopupilsneedingtouncoupleaudioand
videotracks,andtoincorporatedigitalvideoclipsinto
presentations
Understanding2Thisemphasiswasduetopupilsneedingtouncoupleaudioand
videotracks,andtoincorporatedigitalvideoclipsinto
presentations
KnowledgehandlingAcquisition19Teacherscommonlyaskedpupilstofocusonacquisition
Comprehension18Thisemphasiswasacommonfocus
Application5Teacherapproachwasresponsibleforthisemphasis
Analysis0Nouseswereobserved
Synthesis2Teacherapproachwasresponsibleforthisemphasis
Evaluation0Nouseswereobserved
(continued)
158 D. Passey

21. Table3.(Continued)
Learningaspect
Frequencywhere
digitalvideoclips
weredirectly
involvedComments
ThinkingskillsCreativity1Teacherapproachwasresponsibleforthisemphasis
Enquiring5Keyquestionswerehighlightedpriortothevideoclipbeingseen
Questioning1Keyquestionswerehighlightedpriortothevideoclipbeingseen
Conceptualizing10Thiswasacommonuse,butteacheremphasiswasstillimportant
Comparing0Nouseswereobserved
Reasoning0Nouseswereobserved
Interpreting0Nouseswereobserved
Conceptformation13Thiswasacommonuse,butteacheremphasiswasstillimportant
Reconstructionofideas2Theseuseswereconcernedwithpupilsincorporatingdigitalvideo
clipsintopresentations
RetentionNotrecordedTeachersandpupilsinsomecasesmentionedhowmovingimagery
wassupportingretention
MemorizationNotrecordedPupilsinsomecasesmentionedhowmovingimagerywas
supportingmemorization
RecallNotrecordedPupilsinsomecasesmentionedhowmovingimagerywas
supportingrecallwhentopicswerereviewed
Externalization
MotorstimulusWriting10Writingwasundertakenwhenthedigitalvideoclipwasreplayed
Reporting0Nouseswereobserved
Speaking8Discussionwasencouragedwhenthedigitalvideoclipwasstopped
Presenting3Digitalvideoclips,orelementsofthem,wereusedbypupilsfortheir
ownpresentations
Drawing2Drawinginvolvedpupilsusingimagerypresentedinthedigitalvideo
clip
Completing0Nouseswereobserved
Moving(respondingat
amotorlevel)
2Thesecasesinvolvedteacherselicitingmotorresponsesfrompupils
withsevereorprofoundlearningdifficultieswhendigitalvideo
clipswerebeingplayed
Technology enhancing learning 159

22. and the reconstruction of ideas (where pupils needed to observe, take notes or reform
ideas in particular ways). These results suggest that the ICT was being used in these
cases to focus on some aspects that teachers might well find difficult to handle in
other ways, and where the uses of imagery, especially moving imagery, were
particularly important. Concept formation and the reconstruction of ideas are
significant elements in terms of learning, and clearly the use of networked resources
to support these processes is of particular value.
From the width of evidence gathered across the studies, in terms of internalization,
it was clear that teachers used the short digital video clips in most instances because
they felt that attention would be enhanced, particularly as the video clips were only
between one and four minutes long. In lessons observed, attention was generally high
when digital video clips were played, and there was a higher level of attention than
when other activities were being undertaken in some classrooms. Some teachers
referred to the use of digital video clips as ‘adding to the drama of lessons’ and
offering views of situations that pupils were ‘able to feel’—a vivid portrayal of hospital
practice in the 1800s, for example. In terms of the forms of sensory stimuli involved,
in all cases visual routes were involved and the importance of moving imagery was
highlighted by many teachers. The importance of the auditory route, often stated by
teachers as offering another voice, was highlighted in 31 cases, an interpersonal route
was involved in eight cases (when teachers stopped the digital video clips and talked
about points or asked questions), a musical route was noted in only one case, a
kinaesthetic route in one case, an emotional route in four cases (where pupils had
been involved in producing video clips that were then shown to a class), and a social
route in one case (where pupils with severe or profound learning difficulties as a
group experienced an ‘immersive’ environment, with a digital video clip being played
to provide a visual background). No instances of a sensory route involving text were
noted.
In terms of internal cognitive processes, subject knowledge was focused mainly on
generating or developing ideas (in 16 cases, and often because teachers felt that
subject knowledge was put over in a ‘different way’), on gaining understanding (in 16
cases), on imagining (in two cases), and on hypothesizing (in one case)—although
these latter cases were dependent on the approach taken by the teachers. ICT
knowledge and skills were only involved when teachers asked pupils to uncouple
audio and video tracks, or incorporate digital video clips into wider presentations (in
two cases). In terms of knowledge handling, the main focus was on acquisition (in 19
cases), comprehension (in 18 cases), application (in five cases), and synthesis (in two
cases); furthermore, the focus on application and synthesis was due to the ways in
which teachers used the resources. The focus in terms of thinking skills was mainly on
conceptualizing (in 10 cases), enquiring (in five cases), creativity (in one case), and
questioning (in one case) (again, dependent upon teacher approaches). Concept
formation was involved in 13 cases, and reconstruction of ideas in two cases, where
pupils needed to build presentations including digital video clips. In terms of
retention, teachers in two cases mentioned that they felt that the visual nature of the
resources supported retention, and in three cases pupils mentioned that the visual
160 D. Passey

23. nature helped them to rehearse information when it was reviewed. In two cases,
pupils mentioned that the visual nature of the resource was helping memorization. In
terms of recall, features concerned with visual recall were mentioned in five cases by
pupils, and recall was stimulated by teacher discussion in one case (although it should
be mentioned that forms of externalization were used by teachers in many instances
to support recall).
In terms of externalization, the width of methods covered writing (in 10 cases),
speaking (in eight cases), presenting with MS PowerPoint or digital video (in three
cases), drawing (in two cases), and responding at a motor level for pupils with severe
or profound learning difficulties (in two cases). It should also be noted that, in a
number of instances, teachers were using digital video clips to cover topics at an
earlier stage than they would have done otherwise: science topics using Key Stage 3
resources were being covered in Key Stage 2 classes, for example, because teachers
believed that the moving imagery offered ways for pupils to conceptualize these ideas.
From this analysis a number of conclusions can be drawn:
. Visual forms of sensory stimuli were used to a very large extent. Auditory forms of
sensory stimuli were also used often, but use of other forms of sensory stimuli
were much less frequently observed. Kinaesthetic use was not involved a great
deal with digital video clips, and if this sample is indicative of any wider pattern,
then this form of sensory stimulus is not likely to be used by teachers with these
resources unless the need for this is promoted more. Teacher discussion—an
interpersonal form of sensory stimulus—was involved, but more commonly this
occurred before or after the digital video clips were played.
. In terms of subject knowledge, gaining understanding and generating or develo-
ping ideas were the aspects that were focused on most. Where a focus was on
hypothesizing or imagining, the teaching approach was crucial.
. There was limited use of resources for developing ICT knowledge or skills.
. Knowledge handling was mainly limited to acquisition, and comprehension.
Where there was a focus on application and synthesis, the teacher approach was
critical, in terms of suggesting ways that pupils should think, or through the
questions asked about the topics that were presented through the digital video
clips.
. Conceptualizing was the major thinking skill involved when digital video clips
were used, but this focus was dependent on teacher emphasis also. Creativity,
enquiry and questioning, when involved, were all dependent on teacher emphasis.
. Some evidence of potential impact of digital video clips on retention, memory and
recall was identified, but no detailed data gathering was undertaken to further
substantiate teacher and pupil perceptions, although pupils clearly identified what
they remembered when they made positive statements.
. Forms of externalization were mainly concerned with speaking and writing. The
externalization methods selected and adopted were those that offered more
immediate outcomes, through recording of notes, or discussing points to establish
levels of understanding.
Technology enhancing learning 161

24. . Affordances of ICT were identified, and this approach might provide opportu-
nities to assess appropriate use of ICT in lessons. However, a balanced approach
when assessing effectiveness of uses and outcomes, in terms of how observers or
advisors guide teacher approaches, is likely to be most supportive, since reviews
need to take account of gaps and missed opportunities (which are largely
pedagogical concerns) as well as affordances and appropriate uses (which are
provided by the resources more directly).
Overall, this analysis indicates that these digital video clips were used to support
certain forms of sensory engagement, and low levels of knowledge handling in terms
of internal cognitive processes (except where teachers placed particular emphasis on
higher order knowledge handling or thinking skills). The analysis indicates that the
digital video clips were used to only a limited extent to support externalization (they
were often used to introduce ideas, or to review ideas). In terms of potential impacts
of ICT in this context, therefore, it could be argued that the assessment of impact
should specifically be on engagement and certain forms of internalization (through
visual and auditory sensory stimuli particularly); low level knowledge handling
(acquisition and comprehension, since these were the areas where the digital video
clips were mostly directly involved); and concept formation (which was a focus in a
number of cases). As in the case of the networked resources, it could be argued
further that, in these observed cases, ICT would be expected to have a limited
impact on higher level knowledge handling, or on supporting certain forms of
externalization.
What is not shown by this analysis, and is therefore not identified for policy-makers
or teachers, are the approaches that might be used with digital video clips or other
resources to focus on sensory stimuli that would potentially support certain pupils or
groups of pupils (through social or kinaesthetic stimuli), or the use of questions or
other pedagogical techniques to focus on specific subject knowledge aspects, thinking
aspects or higher order knowledge handling skills. Whether the nature of the
resources supports retention, rehearsal and recall, and how, is hinted at, but not
clearly identified by the level and form of evidence available, and the impacts upon
working (or short-term) and long-term memory, and how these might be brought
about, were not identified. Focusing on aspects of externalization to support
memorization, recall and other learning processes beyond the lessons observed were
not explored, and the link to assessment approaches and needs was not explored in
any depth.
Implications
What are the implications identified so far for policy-makers and practitioners?
Although ICT has been shown by a variety of studies to enhance attainment
measured in particular ways, classroom observations indicate that, in at least a range
of situations, direct uses of ICT might well be focused more on lower level knowledge
handling than on higher level knowledge handling. This being the case, some current
162 D. Passey

25. uses might well limit the assessed enhancement of attainment. Where there is a focus
in learning activities on higher order knowledge handling and on thinking skills, this is
largely due to the forms of teacher interventions used when networked resources and
video clips are employed within lessons. However, networked ICT resources and
digital video clips that are rich in imagery appear to be supporting both concept
formation and the reconstruction of ideas. A limited range of evidence from pupils
suggests that retention, rehearsal and recall might be supported, but the extent and
nature of the processes involved are not known from these studies.
Although ICT has been shown in a range of studies positively to enhance learning
behaviour and motivation, observations in the lessons analysed here indicate that
direct uses of networked ICT and digital video clip resources might well be focused
on specific forms of engagement and, as a consequence, some pupils might not
engage to the same extent as others. Visual and auditory forms of sensory stimuli are
involved in engagement far more often than are other forms of sensory stimuli so that,
for example, pupils who might engage through the use of kinaesthetic stimuli are not
supported to the same extent.
In considering assessment, current national assessment methods that identify
attainment in terms of subject knowledge and recall might not readily identify the
ways in which ICT is being seen to support learning in the cases examined here. The
focus of use within these observations has often been on immediate acquisition,
comprehension or concept formation, rather than there being a focus on retention,
rehearsal and recall, and it is the latter processes that would match current assessment
methods far more.
Aspects of subject attainment, a range of subject needs and topics have been
supported by uses of networked and digital video clip resources in the cases analysed
here. However, uses have tended to focus on lower level knowledge handling. How
teachers can focus on higher level knowledge handling and thinking has not been fully
captured, but this form of focus has occurred in a number of cases. The differences in
terms of impacts on attainment, when teachers focus on lower order or higher order
skills, has not been identified through these studies. However, other studies
(discussed in Bransford et al., 2000, for example) would suggest that a focus on
higher order thinking and knowledge handling skills would be supportive of enhanced
attainment and outcomes. From the point of view of both teacher education and
teacher development, these results indicate that it is important that there is a deeper
understanding of the pedagogy of ICT. If ICT is to be used effectively, then there
needs to be both a focus on the affordances that ICT can provide, as well as adequate
consideration given to how gaps in affordances to support higher order or other
learning aspects could be addressed.
What are the implications identified so far for future approaches to, and needs for,
evaluation and research? National research and evaluation studies of ICT uses in
England support the notion that ICT can enhance attainment, but details of how this
is specifically achieved will require a more detailed examination of impacts on specific
aspects of learning—and this will need to encompass not just an enhanced under-
standing through a cognitive focus, but also through social, emotional, behavioural
Technology enhancing learning 163

26. and societal aspects. Aspects of learning where ICT has not been directly involved
have been shown through these observations and analyses (and in a wider range of
studies, such as those discussed in Cox et al., 2003b) to be dependent on decisions
and choices taken by teachers. Uses of ICT resources currently may well be skewed
towards supporting certain forms of engagement and lower levels of knowledge
handling and, in some cases, concept formation and reconstruction of ideas. A range
of school subjects has been influenced by uses of new digital and multimedia
resources, but teachers have not had access to evaluation and research outcomes to
show them how to integrate ICT effectively to support specific learning aspects in
subjects where impacts have been identified. This is particularly true in terms of
whether and how ICT supports retention, rehearsal, recall and memorization.
Robust research questions need to be asked concerning the roles of ICT and
learning, and a much more detailed and precise focus needs to be taken on the nature
and processes of learning on which impacts arise when discrete forms of ICT are
involved. Defining the wider learning and cognitive domains, in more precise terms,
needs to be explored further, if the impacts across the domain, but also on specific
aspects of the domain, are to be identified.
Assessment methods currently identify outcomes as a result of recall to a large
extent. For evaluative purposes, assessment needs to be considered in terms of
matching more precisely the learning processes involved when ICT is used at the
point of learning, so that learning at the point of doing is considered as strongly as
learning identified by assessed recall.
Identifying outcomes and impacts in terms of each form of technology (at both a
hardware and software or resource level), across the breadth of technologies that are
possible, and how these might be used in integrated ways to support certain or
specific cognitive and metacognitive aspects of learning, need to be considered
further. If ICT is to be used effectively by teachers, there needs to be a focus on the
affordances that each specific form of ICT provides. Teachers need to know how to
support the entirety of learning processes across the range of technologies available,
or to know those aspects where support needs to be addressed through other methods
and approaches. Considering how to set up studies that offer schools ways to focus on
addressing learning limitations that have been identified would potentially enable
impacts to be measured when such gaps are addressed.
Learning frameworks offer possible structures through which to consider impacts
in more specific ways. It would be possible to construct appropriate frameworks to
enable the social, emotional, behavioural and societal aspects of learning, as well as
the impacts of different domains, such as the teaching–learning environment and
management domains, to be explored in terms of impacts of ICT in much more
detail. However, if this is the case, then it will be vital that sufficient detail is
considered, otherwise important elements of learning or educational enhancement
could be omitted. The level of detail to inform at a research level, a policy and a
practice level will need to be considered in the light of future directions and decisions
on ways to explore this arena further. It is possible, for example, that the forms of
frameworks and research instruments that would be needed to offer details at
164 D. Passey

27. a research level might not necessarily also inform at a teacher level, but it is clear that
the level of detail that teachers have at their disposal currently is not adequate to
support their pedagogical needs, or to support their necessary perspectives with
regard to using ICT effectively to enhance learning.
Notes
1. See http://www.nc.uk.net/LACcs_thinkskill.htlm
2. See http://www.espresso.co.uk/
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