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Chapter 10
Post-Decision Processes
Learning Objectives
1. Distinguish between the dissonance and the regret
that consumers may experience after acquisition,
consumption, or disposition
2. Explain how consumers can learn from experience
and why marketers need to understand this post-
decision process
3. Discuss what happens when consumers experience
satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their decisions
about acquisition, consumption, or disposition

Learning Objectives (continued)
4. Outline the ways in which consumers may respond
to dissatisfaction, and highlight the importance to
marketers
5. Discuss whether customer satisfaction alone is
enough to maintain customer loyalty
6. Describe how consumers may dispose of something,
why this process is more complex for meaningful
objects, and what influences consumer recycling
behavior
Post-Decision Dissonance
and Regret
• Feeling of discomfort about whether or not the
correct decision was made
Post-decision dissonance
• Negative feeling that one should have made
another purchase, consumption, or disposition
decision than one actually did
Post-decision regret

Factors Affecting
Learning from Experience
Motivation
Prior knowledge or ability
Ambiguity of information or lack of opportunity
Processing biases
Marketing Implication of
Processing Bias
Top dog strategies Underdog strategies
Market leader or brand with a
large market share
Lower-share brand
Limitation on learning new
information during low motivation
is beneficial

Instigating learning through
comparison during low motivation
Blocking exposure to evidence to
avoid consumers from getting
new information
Creating expectations and using
promotion to provide actual
experience for consumers
Explaining experience by
reinforcing the messages and
encouraging consumers to try the
brand
Consumer Judgments
Consumers evaluate the outcomes after
making acquisition, consumption, or
disposition decisions
– Satisfaction: Decision meets or exceeds
one’s expectations
– Dissatisfaction: Decision falls short of one’s
expectations
Utilitarian and hedonic
– Dimensions on which consumers are satisfied

or dissatisfied
Thought-Based Judgments of
Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction
Can relate to:
– Whether consumers' beliefs and expectations
about the offering are confirmed or
disconfirmed by its actual performance
– Thoughts about:
• Causality and blame
• Fairness and equity
Attribution Theory
Describes how individuals find explanations
for events
Based on stability, focus, and controllability
Ways to increase consumers' positive post-
decision feelings
– Providing value-added services
– Using promotions and special deals

Equity Theory
Concerns about the fairness of exchanges
between individuals
Helps in understanding consumer satisfaction
and dissatisfaction
Perception of inputs and outputs are
exchanged between consumers and sellers
– Fairness in exchange: Perception that the inputs
and outputs of people involved in an exchange are
equal
Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction
Based on Feelings
Post-decision emotions: Emotions
experienced while using or disposing of the
acquired brands, products, or services
Dissatisfied consumers need to cope with
feelings of stress
Affective forecasting - Consumers tend to be
more dissatisfied when a product:

– Fails to perform as they thought it would
– Makes them feel worse than they forecasted it
would
Responses to Dissatisfaction
Complaining
Responding to service recovery
Engaging in negative word-of-mouth
communication
Steps to Retain Customers
Caring about customers
Remembering customers between sales
Building trusting relationships
Monitoring service-delivery process
Providing extra effort

Disposing of Meaningful Objects
• Physical disposal of an item
Physical detachment
• Emotional disposal of a possession
Emotional detachment
Recycling Behavior
Depends on:
– Motivation
– Ability
– Opportunity
Chapter 10Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
(continued)� Post-Decision Dissonance and RegretFactors
Affecting �Learning from ExperienceMarketing Implication of
Processing BiasConsumer Judgments Thought-Based
Judgments of Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction Attribution
TheoryEquity TheorySatisfaction or Dissatisfaction �Based on
FeelingsResponses to DissatisfactionSteps to Retain
CustomersDisposing of Meaningful ObjectsRecycling Behavior

Chapter 8
Judgment and Decision-Making
Based on High Effort
Learning Objectives
1. Distinguish between judgment and decision-
making, and indicate why both processes are
important to marketers
2. Describe the types of decisions consumers face in
situations where motivation, ability, and
opportunity to process are high
3. Identify two types of cognitive decision-making
models and understand how consumers make
decisions based on brands, product attributes,
and gains and losses

4. Explain how affective decision-making models
differ from cognitive decision-making models, and
discuss the role of appraisals and feelings,
affective forecasting, and imagery in high-effort
decisions
5. Discuss why, in a high-effort situation, consumers
may delay a decision, and show how they make
decisions when alternatives cannot be compared
6. Outline the ways that consumer characteristics,
decision characteristics, and other people can
influence high-effort decisions
High-Effort Judgment
Processes
Judgment: Evaluation of an object or
estimation of likelihood of an outcome or
event
Decision-making: Making a selection among
options or activities
– Estimation of likelihood
– Judgment of goodness or badness
• Anchoring and adjustment: Starting with
initial evaluation and adjusting it with additional
information

High-Effort Judgment Processes (continued)
• Imagery: Imagining an event in order to make
judgments
– Mental accounting: Categorizing spending
and saving decisions into accounts mentally
designated for specific consumption
transactions, goal, or situations
– Emotional accounting: Intensity of positive or
negative feelings associated with each mental
account for saving or spending
Biases in Judgment Processes
Confirmation
Self-positivity
Negativity
Mood

Prior brand evaluations
Prior experience
Difficulty of mental calculations
High-Effort Consumer Decisions
Deciding which brands to consider
– Options fall under inept set, inert set, and
consideration set
• Attraction effect: Addition of inferior brands to a
consideration set increases the attractiveness of
dominant brands
Deciding what is important to the choice
– Goals
– Time
– Decision framing
High-Effort Consumer Decisions
(continued)

Deciding what brand to choose
– Cognitive decision-making model
• Consumers combine items of information about
attributes to reach a decision
– Affective decision-making model
• Consumers base their decision on feelings and
emotions
Deciding whether to make a decision now
Deciding when alternatives cannot be
compared
Exhibit 8.5 – Types of Cognitive
Choice Models
Brand versus Attribute Models
Brand processing Attribute processing
Multiattribute expectancy-value
model: Type of brand-based

compensatory model
Additive difference model: Brands
are compared by attribute, two
brands at a time
Conjunctive model: Sets minimum
cutoffs to reject bad options
Lexicographic model: Compares
brands by attributes, one at a time in
order of importance
Disjunctive model: Sets acceptable
cutoffs to find options that are good
Elimination-by-aspects model:
Similar to lexicographic model but
adds the notion of acceptable cutoffs
Decisions Based on Gains and
Losses
Prospect theory
– Losses have more influence than gains
– Endowment effect: Ownership increases the
value of an item
– Consumers have stronger reaction to price

increases than price decreases
High-Effort
Feeling-Based Decisions
Consumers tend to be more satisfied after
making a feeling-based decision
Emotions aid thought-based decisions
Brands can be associated with positive or
negative emotions
Affective Decision-Making
Appraisal theory explains:
– How one’s emotions are determined by how one
appraises the situation
– How and why certain emotions can affect future
judgments and choices
Affective forecasting: Predicts how one will
feel in the future
Imagery: Consumer imagines consuming a
product or service

– Plays a key role in emotional decision-making
Additional
High-Effort Decisions
Decision delay occurs if the decision is risky,
uncertain, or involves an unpleasant task
Noncomparable decision: Making decisions
about products or services from different
categories
– Alternative-based strategy: Choice based on
overall evaluation
– Attribute-based strategy: Choice based on
abstract representations of comparable
attributes
Consumer Characteristics and
Decisions
Expertise
– Detailed consumption vocabularies

Good mood
– Allows one to process information and more
time to make a decision
Time pressure
– Leads to consumers’ failure to make intended
purchases
Consumer Characteristics and
Decisions (continued)
Extremeness aversion: Options extreme on
some attributes are less attractive than those
with a moderate level of those attributes
• Compromise effect: Brand gains share as it is
an intermediate than an extreme option
• Attribute balancing: Picking a brand because
it scores equally well on certain attributes
Metacognitive experiences: How
information is processed beyond content of
the decision

Decision Characteristics
Affecting Decision Making
Information availability
Information format
Trivial attributes
Group Decision Making
Individual-alone goals - Goals attained by an
individual’s action alone
Individual-group goals - Goals achieved based
on actions of an individual and a group
(continued)High-Effort Judgment ProcessesHigh-Effort
Judgment Processes (continued)Biases in Judgment
ProcessesHigh-Effort Consumer DecisionsHigh-Effort
Consumer Decisions (continued)Exhibit 8.5 – Types of
Cognitive �Choice ModelsBrand versus Attribute
ModelsDecisions Based on Gains and LossesHigh-Effort
�Feeling-Based DecisionsAffective Decision-
MakingAdditional� High-Effort DecisionsConsumer
Characteristics and DecisionsConsumer Characteristics and
Decisions (continued)Decision Characteristics �Affecting
Decision MakingGroup Decision Making

Chapter 7
Problem Recognition and
Information Search
Learning Objectives
1. Describe how consumers recognize a consumption
problem and show why marketers must understand
this part of the decision-making process
2. Discuss what happens when consumers conduct an
internal search to solve a consumption problem and
identify some of the ways in which marketers can
affect internal searches
3. Explain why and how consumers conduct an
external search to solve a consumption problem,
and highlight the main implications for marketing
strategy

Problem Recognition
Ideal state
– Where individuals
want to be
Actual state
– Where individuals
are now
Internal Search
Searching for information from memory
Degree of internal search varies
Kinds of information recalled
– Brands
– Attributes
– Evaluations
– Experiences

Brand Recall
Consideration or evoked set: Subset of top-of-
mind brands evaluated when making a choice
– Varies in terms of:
• Size
• Stability
• Variety
• Preference dispersion
Brand Recall (continued)
Factors that increase the possibility of
consumers’ recalling a particular brand
– Prototypicality
– Brand familiarity
– Goals and usage situations
– Brand preference
– Retrieval cues
Attribute Recall

Accessibility/availability
Diagnosticity
Salience
Vividness
Goals
Is Internal
Search Accurate?
Confirmation bias
– Drawing attention to negatives of competition
Inhibition
– Consumers do not always consider key aspects
– Consumers recall other attributes that are more
accessible
– Mood
• Enhancing the recall of positive attribute
information through the use of humor or
attractive visuals
Sources of External

Information
Retailer Media and social media
Interpersonal Independent
Experiential Internet
Information Processing
Influenced by:
– Motivation
– Ability
– Opportunity
Motivation to Process
Information
Involvement and perceived risk
Perceived costs and benefits
Consideration set
Relative brand uncertainty
Attitudes toward search
Discrepancy of information

Ability to Process Information
Consumer knowledge
Cognitive abilities
Consumer affect
Demographics
Opportunity to
Process Information
Amount of information available
Information format
Time availability
Number of items being chosen
Information Acquired
in External Search

Brand name
Price
Other attributes that are salient and
diagnostic
Chapter 7Learning ObjectivesProblem RecognitionInternal
SearchBrand RecallBrand Recall (continued)Attribute RecallIs
Internal �Search Accurate?Sources of External
InformationInformation ProcessingMotivation to Process
InformationAbility to Process InformationOpportunity to
�Process InformationInformation Acquired �in External Search
Chapter 5
Attitudes Based on
High Consumer Effort
Learning Objectives
1. Discuss how marketers can apply various
cognitive models to understand consumers’
attitudes based on high-effort thought processes
2. Describe some of the methods for using the

communication source and the message to
favorably influence consumers’ attitudes in high-
effort situations
3. Identify the emotional foundations of attitudes
when consumers' processing effort is high
4. Explain how and why a company might try to
change consumers’ attitudes by influencing their
feelings
5. Outline the three main factors that lead to a
positive overall consumer attitude toward an
advertisement
6. Discuss the various elements that can affect
whether a consumer’s attitudes will influence his
or her behavior
Attitudes
Relatively global and enduring evaluation of

an object, issue, person, or action
Influences thoughts, feelings, and behavior
– Cognitive function
– Affective function
– Connative function
Characteristics of Attitudes
Favorability Accessibility Confidence
Persistence Resistance Ambivalence
Exhibit 5.1 - Approaches to
Attitude Formation and Change
Cognitive Foundations
of Attitudes

Direct or imagined experience
Reasoning by analogy or category
Values-driven attitudes
Social identity-based attitude generation
Analytic processes of attitude construction
Cognitive Responses to
Communication
Cognitive response: Thought individuals have
in response to a communication
− Counterargument (CA): Thought that
disagrees with the message
− Support arguments (SA): Thought that agrees
with the message
− Source derogations (SD): Thought that
discounts or attacks the source of the message
Expectancy-Value Models
Explain how consumer attitudes form and

change based on:
– Beliefs or knowledge about an object or action
– Evaluations of these particular beliefs
Theory of reasoned action (TORA): Model
that provides an explanation of how, when, and
why attitudes predict behavior
– Normative influences play a significant role in
how people behave
Components of the TORA
Model
Behavior (B): What one does
Behavioral intention (BI): What one intends to
do
– Determined by:
• Attitude toward the act (Aact): How one feels
about doing something
• Subjective norms (SN): How others feel about
another person doing something

Marketing Implications on
Changing Consumer Attitudes
Strategies for changing attitudes, intentions,
and behavior
– Changing beliefs
– Changing evaluations
– Adding a new belief
– Encouraging attitude formation based on
imagined experience
– Targeting normative beliefs
• Source credibility - Trustworthiness, expertise, and status
• Company reputation
• Sleeper effect: Consumers forget the source of a
message faster than the message
Communication source
• Strong argument: Features the central merits of an
offering in a convincing manner
• One-sided messages: Only positive information
• Two-sided messages: Positive and negative information
• Comparative message: Direct comparisons with
competitors

Message
How Cognitively Based
Attitudes Are Influenced
Affective (Emotional)
Foundations of Attitudes
High affective involvement leads to
emotional engagement with a stimulus
Affective response: Generation of
feelings and images in response to a
message
Emotional appeal: Message designed to
elicit an emotional response
How Affectively Based
Attitudes Are Influenced
Source
– Attractiveness: Evokes favorable attitudes if a
source is physically attractive, likable, familiar,

or similar to the consumer
– Match-up hypothesis: Idea that the source
must match the product or service
Message
– Emotional appeals - Elicit emotions that
attract consumers
How Affectively Based
Attitudes Are Influenced (continued)
– Emotional contagion: Message designed to
induce consumers to vicariously experience an
emotion
– Fear appeals: Stress negative consequences
• Terror management theory (TMT): Deals with
how individuals cope with threat of death by
defending their worldview of values and beliefs
Attitude Toward the Ad (Aad)

Whether the consumer likes or dislikes an ad
Dimensions
– Utilitarian (functional): When an ad provides
information
– Hedonic: When an ad creates positive or
negative feelings
What Do Attitudes Predict
Behavior
Factors
Level of involvement or elaboration
Knowledge and experience
Analysis of reasons
Accessibility of attitudes
Attitude confidence
Specificity of attitudes
Attitude-behavior relationship over time
Emotional attachment

Situational factors
Normative factors
Personality variables
(continued)AttitudesCharacteristics of AttitudesExhibit 5.1 -
Approaches to Attitude Formation and ChangeCognitive
Foundations �of AttitudesCognitive Responses to
CommunicationExpectancy-Value ModelsComponents of the
TORA ModelMarketing Implications on Changing Consumer
AttitudesHow Cognitively Based �Attitudes Are
InfluencedAffective (Emotional) Foundations of AttitudesHow
Affectively Based �Attitudes Are InfluencedHow Affectively
Based �Attitudes Are Influenced (continued)Attitude Toward
the Ad (Aad) What Do Attitudes Predict Behavior
1
Chapter 3
How Under Armour Gets Noticed
The Nike
[http://bi.galegroup.com/essentials/company/306325?u=tlearn_tr
l] swoosh may be one
of the most recognized logos in the world of sports, but the
Under Armour
[http://bi.galegroup.com/essentials/company/956606?u=tlearn_tr
l] logo (an interlocking U and

A) is increasingly in the spotlight as the company gets noticed
on and off the field. Founded in
1996 by Kevin Plank, once a member of the University of
Maryland’s football team, Under
Armour designs apparel and gear to help athletes feel and do
their best in hot or cold weather, in
sports arenas or on the track. How can a latecomer to a fast-
growing industry dominated by
global giants such as Nike get noticed?
A little-known brand name was only one of Under Armour’s
early challenges. Another was
that many of its first products (such as undershirts that wick
away moisture) were not actually
visible to onlookers. In contrast, the logos of competing brands
were visible and often prominent
on athletic shoes, shirts, and caps. So the company initially
positioned itself as “a brand for the
next generation of athletes.” Whereas Nike was sponsoring
well-known, established athletes,
Under Armour’s sponsorships went to up-and-comers known for
their dedication and athleticism.
Its first endorsement deal was with a Dallas Cowboys football
player who had been at University

of Maryland with Under Armour’s founder. More recently, the
company’s performance apparel
has been spotted on endorsers such as Heather Mitts (soccer),
Cam Newtown (football), and
Derrick Williams (basketball).
As its sponsored athletes do well, and their teams win games
and even championships, Under
Armour’s brand gains attention and visibility. Although not
every rising star becomes a sports
http://bi.galegroup.com/essentials/company/306325?u=tlearn_trl
http://bi.galegroup.com/essentials/company/956606?u=tlearn_trl
2
legend, the brand still gets exposure as these athletes receive
media coverage, become
established in their sports, and appear in Under Armour ads.
Now that the company rings up
more than $1 billion in yearly revenue from the sale of clothing,
footwear, and accessories for
men, women, and children, it can also afford some high-profile
deals, such as being endorsed by
Tom Brady of the New England Patriots.
The Under Armour website features the brand mission—“Make

all athletes better”—and
puts its “Universal guarantee of performance” in a conspicuous
position, offering a full refund if
customers are ever dissatisfied with a product for any reason.
The diversity of models and
athletes on the Under Armour site and in its ads, often shown
participating in a sport, invites a
broad range of consumers to identify with the brand.
The close ties between Under Armour and the University of
Maryland have led to additional
opportunities for brand and product exposure. To grab attention
and sell more team merchandise,
college and professional football teams are switching to more
fashionable uniforms and gear,
with flashier colors and styles. As part of this trend, Under
Armour has designed 32 different
items for football players at the University of Maryland to wear.
Fans, competing teams, and the
media can’t help but notice the eye-catching combinations of
shirts, pants, and helmets worn by
team members on different days—with Under Armour’s now-
familiar logo on each item.
What’s ahead for Under Armour? The company is expanding
into Europe and beyond, relying

on distribution and marketing communications to reach more
consumers, both casual and serious
athletes. It is using social media such as YouTube
[https://www.youtube.com/user/underarmour],
Twitter [https://twitter.com/UnderArmour], and Facebook
[https://www.facebook.com/Underarmour/] to engage
consumers, showcase its sports endorsers,
https://www.youtube.com/user/underarmour
https://twitter.com/UnderArmour
https://www.facebook.com/Underarmour/
3
and increase brand and product visibility. Just as important, new
products are in the pipeline,
along with new technology that enhances Under Armour’s
differentiation.i
i Chris Sorenson, “An Underdog with Attitude,” Maclean’s,
September 12, 2011, p. 46; Rosemary
Feitelberg, “Under Armour’s Unofficial All-Star Team,” WWD,
December 1, 2011, p. 12c;
Andrea K. Walker, “Under Armour’s Rookie Strategy for
Endorsement Deals,” Baltimore Sun, July
25, 2011, www.baltimoresun.com; and “Football or Fashion
Show?” New York Times, October

24, 2011, p. 4.
Chapter 3
From Exposure to Comprehension
Learning Objectives
1. Discuss why marketers are concerned about
consumers’ exposure to marketing stimuli and what
tactics they use to enhance exposure
2. Explain the characteristics of attention and how
marketers can try to attract and sustain consumers’
attention with products and marketing messages
3. Describe the major senses that are part of perception
and outline why marketers are concerned about
consumers’ sensory perceptions
4. Discuss the process of comprehension, and outline how

marketing-mix elements can affect consumer inferences
about products and brands
Exposure
Consumer comes into physical contact with a
stimulus
Marketing stimuli: Information about
offerings communicated by the marketer or
by nonmarketing sources
Factors of influence
– Position of an ad within a medium
– Product distribution
– Shelf placement
Selective Exposure
Zipping: Fast-forwarding through
commercials on a program recorded earlier
Zapping: Switching channels during
commercial breaks
Cord-cutting - Choosing streaming services
over cable television

Focal and Nonfocal Attention
Focal attention - Consumers focus on a
stimulus
Nonfocal attention - Consumers are
simultaneously exposed to other stimuli
Preattentive processing: Non-conscious
processing of stimuli
– Leads to liking a brand name
• Appealing to one’s needs, values, emotions, or goals
Personal relevance
• Using attractive models, music, and humor
Pleasantness
Characteristics of Stimulus That
Attract Consumer Attention

• Using novelty, unexpectedness, and puzzles
Element of surprise
• Prominence and concreteness of stimuli
• Limited number of competing stimuli
• Contrast with competing stimuli
Easy to process
Characteristics of Stimulus That
Attract Consumer Attention (continued)
Perception
Determining the properties of stimuli using
vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch
Factors in visual perception
– Size and shape
– Lettering
– Image location on package
– Color
– Appearance of being new or worn

Consumers’ Stimuli
Perception
• Minimal level of stimulus intensity needed to detect stimulus
Absolute thresholds
• Intensity difference needed between two stimuli before they
are
perceived to be different
• Weber’s law: Stronger the initial stimulus, greater the
additional
intensity needed for the second stimulus to be perceived as
different
Differential thresholds (just noticeable difference)
• Activation of sensory receptors by stimuli presented below the
perceptual threshold
Subliminal perception
Perceptual Organization
Process by which stimuli are organized into
meaningful units

Figure and ground: People interpret stimuli
in the context of a background
Closure: Individuals’ need to organize
perceptions so that they form a meaningful
whole
Perceptual Organization
(continued)
Grouping: Tendency to group stimuli to form
a unified picture or impression
Preference for the whole: Perceiving more
value in a whole than in combined parts that
make a whole
– Even if the parts have the same objective
value as the whole
Knowledge to Understand:
Comprehension
Extracting higher-order meaning from what
individuals have perceived in context of what
is already known

Source identification: Determining what
perceived stimulus actually is and what
category it belongs to
Knowledge to Understand:
Comprehension (continued 1)
• Extent to which the consumer accurately
understands the message the sender intends
to communicate
Objective comprehension
• What the consumer understands from the
message, regardless of whether it is accurate
Subjective comprehension
Consumer Inference
Brand names and symbols
- Create subjective comprehension and
inferences

Product features and packaging
− Product attributes
− Country of origin
− Package design
Consumer Inference (continued)
Price
– Culture can influence perceptions of price
and quality
Message wording
Retail atmospherics, display, and distribution
Chapter 3Learning ObjectivesExposureSelective ExposureFocal
and Nonfocal Attention Characteristics of Stimulus That
Attract Consumer Attention Characteristics of Stimulus That
Attract Consumer Attention (continued)PerceptionConsumers’
Stimuli PerceptionPerceptual OrganizationPerceptual
Organization (continued)Knowledge to Understand:
ComprehensionKnowledge to Understand: Comprehension
(continued 1)Consumer InferenceConsumer Inference
(continued)
Chapter 2

Motivation, Ability, and
Opportunity
Learning Objectives
1. Show how motivation influences high-effort
behavior, high-effort information processing and
decision-making, and felt involvement
2. Discuss the four types of influences that
determine the consumer’s motivation to process
information, make a decision, or take an action
3. Explain how financial, cognitive, emotional,
physical, and social and cultural resources, plus
age and education, can affect the individual’s
ability to engage in consumer behaviors
4. Identify the three main types of influences on
the consumer’s opportunity to process
information and acquire, consume, or dispose of

products
Motivation
Inner state of activation that provides energy
needed to achieve a goal
Consumers can be motivated to acquire, use,
or dispose of an offering
Consumer Motivation
and Effects
High-effort behavior
– Drives that bring a goal closer and creates a
willingness to spend time and money
High-effort information processing and
decision-making
Motivated reasoning: Processing
information in a way that allows consumers to
reach the conclusion they want to reach

Consumer Motivation
and Effects (continued 1)
Felt involvement
– Consumer's experience of being motivated
with respect to products or services, or
decisions and actions regarding these
– Types of involvement
• Enduring
• Situational (temporary)
• Cognitive
• Affective
• Response
Consumer Motivation
and Effects (continued 2)
Objects of involvement
– Product or retail category
– Experiences
– Brands
– Ads
– Medium

Drivers of Motivation
• Something that has direct bearing on self that has
potentially significant consequence or implication
Personal relevance
• Mental view of who one is
Self-concept
• Abstract, enduring beliefs about what is right or wrong,
important, or good or bad
Values
• Internal state of tension experienced as a
discrepancy between current and ideal state
(physical or psychological)
Need
• Outcome one would like to achieve

• Can be concrete or abstract and promotion-
focused or prevention-focused
Goal
Drivers of Motivation (continued)
Exhibit 2.3 - Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs
Exhibit 2.4 - Categorizing Needs
Types of Need Conflicts
• About acquiring or consuming an offering that fulfills one
need
but fails to fulfill another

Approach-avoidance conflict
• About which offering to acquire when each can satisfy an
important but different need
Approach-approach conflict
• About which offering to acquire when neither can satisfy an
important and different need
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Goals and Emotion
Appraisal theory
– Proposes that emotions are based on individuals’
assessment of a situation or an outcome and its
relevance to his or her goals
– Posits that emotions are affected by the
normative or moral compatibility, certainty, and
agency
Positive and negative emotions experienced
during or after consuming a product or
service change in time or get satiated

Goals and Emotion (continued)
Self-control conflicts arise when individuals
face decisions about actions related to goals
that are in conflict
– Self-control: Regulates feelings, thoughts,
and behavior in line with long-term goals
– Ego depletion: Outcome of decision-making
effort that results in mental resources being
exhausted
Marketing Implications
of Needs and Goals
Enhancing motivation to process
communications
Product development and positioning
Encouraging specific behaviors

Perceived Risk
Extent to which the consumer anticipates:
– Negative consequences of an action to emerge
– Positive consequences to not emerge
Tends to be high because of:
– New offering
– High price
– Complex technology
– Brand differentiation
– Little confidence or experience in evaluation
– Opinions of others and fear of judgment
Types of Perceived Risk
Performance
Financial
Physical or safety
Social
Psychological
Time

Inconsistency with Attitudes
Motivation to process information is:
– High when information is moderately
inconsistent with one’s attitude
– Low when information is highly inconsistent
with one’s prior attitude
Consumer Ability and
Opportunity
Ability
– Factors that affect consumers' ability to
process information and make decision
• Financial, cognitive, emotional, physical, social,
cultural resources, education, and age
Key influences in consumer opportunity
– Lack of time, distraction, and the amount,
complexity, repetition, and control of
information

Marketing Implication of
Enhancing Information Processing
Repeating marketing communications
Reducing time pressure
Reducing time needed for purchase and learn
about a product or service
Providing information
(continued)MotivationConsumer Motivation �and Effects
Consumer Motivation �and Effects (continued 1)Consumer
Motivation �and Effects (continued 2)Drivers of
MotivationSlide Number 9Exhibit 2.3 - Maslow’s Hierarchy of
NeedsExhibit 2.4 - Categorizing Needs Types of Need
ConflictsGoals and EmotionGoals and Emotion
(continued)Marketing Implications �of Needs and
GoalsPerceived RiskTypes of Perceived RiskInconsistency with
AttitudesConsumer Ability and Opportunity Marketing
Implication of Enhancing Information Processing
MKTG-6018
1
OBSERVATION JOURNAL (15%)
V I A D I S C U S S I O N B O A R D
What is it?

• An academic journal is a place for self-examination,
speculation, and discussion of ideas—your
own and those of others. It is an opportunity for dialogue with
yourself. Your academic journal
should be focused toward this course.
• Use the journal to record responses to reading and preparation
for class each week. Make
summaries or analyze some specific texts. Try making
connections between the ideas from
class/readings and related experiences.
• The point of keeping a journal in a college course is to find a
way to engage the subject matter
of the course over the progress of the semester—in essence, to
build on your own encounters
with subject matter over an extended period of time.
What and when to write
• You should write on a regular basis (at least once a week) and
as preparation for class each
week.
• Field observations should be clearly labeled with the date, the
location, and the focus of the
observation.
• Include your experiences, list in this journal -- including
people’s name, location of observation,
and date of observation.
• Be ambitious! Ponder thoughtfully; then write.
• You may include sketches, photos, interviews, etc.

Writing style
• I will be concerned with your ability to explain and present
your ideas rather than with the
formality or technical precision of your writing.
• Entries should be legible (at minimum)
• Develop your thoughts as fully as possible.
• And remember class members will read your observations and
you might have an impact upon
their lives.
2
Evaluation
• Entries will be evaluated for their quality of communication.
• If you deal regularly and effectively with the materials for
class in the journal (including the
assigned topics), you will receive a B on the journal. If entries
show strong evidence of grappling
with issues, of a quest for understanding, and/or of effort to
develop and support views, you will
receive an A on the journal.
• Journals will be collected and evaluated throughout the
semester.
o Completeness on an ongoing basis

o Quality of presentation
o Depth of observation and insight
o Evidence of reflection on class topics
Via Discussion Board
MKTG-6018 Rubric for Journal Writing
Task Description:
Criteria
w
ei
gh
t Exemplary
Yes (4-5)
Accomplished
Yes, but (2-3)
Developing
No, but (1)
Beginning
No (0)
Retelling of
Experience

20%
experience
observations during
experience
organized with logical
sequence
experience
experience
easy to follow
explanation of
experience
ve
observation of
experience
experience
-objective

observation of
experience
confusing
Reflections/
Personal
Response
20%
work
rovides many
examples
work
work
examples
Relevance
to Course
Concepts or
Personal

Experience
20%
different contexts;
relates observations to
classroom concepts
and/or personal
experiences
observations to
classroom concepts
and/or personal
experiences
reference to what is said
in class or to personal
experience
what is heard in class or
personal experiences
Analysis of
Experience
20%
meanings

thinking expressed
of the time
deeper meanings
expressed
made
level meaning
expressed
rences are
made
reflection on assignment
critical thinking
Effort on
Assignment
20%

on assignment
parts of the assignment
assignment
assignment
Assignment Score __________/25____ + Holistic score
__________/10____ = Final Score

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