Are Viruses Living Organelles

Are Viruses Living Organelles
Viruses are small infectious agents that replicate inside the living cells of an organism. Several thousand viruses have been described in detail since
they were first discovered in the late 1800s, though millions of different types are predicted to exist. There is debate in the scientific community about
whether viruses are living organisms or simply organic structures that interact with them, as they resemble organisms in many ways but do not have
their own metabolism and cannot naturally reproduce outside a host cell. Virus particles, or virions, consist of two main parts: genetic material in the
form of DNA or RNA, which may be single– or double–stranded, and a protein coat, or capsid, that encapsulates and protects those genes. To
reproduce, a virion will attach to a specific host cell and inject its genetic material into the cytoplasm in a process known as transduction. ... Show more
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In this regard, viruses increase genetic diversity among organisms via horizontal gene transfer, and therefore contribute to evolution1. The most
common methods for viral multiplication are known as lytic and lysogenic cycles; in the lytic cycle, the host cell immediately begins replicating the
viral nucleic acid, and the copied genetic materials are translated inside the cell. The capsids are assembled, genetic material is repackaged inside the
virus, and eventually the host cell bursts as the viral load inside becomes overwhelming. In the lysogenic cycle, the viral nucleic acid is incorporated
into the host cell genome and remains inactive inside for an extended period. At some point, the viral genome activates, and viral multiplication occurs
as in the lytic
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Microscopy Has Long Been Proven Fundamental?
Abstract:
Microscopy has long been proven fundamental in structural biology, especially for the mechanistic understanding of virus cell architecture and
macromolecular functions. Cryo–electron microscopy (cryo–EM) is a variation of electron microscopy that allows imaging of viruses in cryogenic
solution (i.e. ethane solution cooled to near liquid nitrogen temperature) without having to grow crystals or embed samples in heavy metal salts (i.e.
negative staining), using electrons to focus specimens with a resolution power to near–atomic details. Cryo–EM employs thin vitrified layers of
unfixed, unstained and unsupported virus structures in cryogenic solutions (i.e. samples are preserved in or close to biological conditions) in easy
controlled settings, yielding resolution powers to a near atomic resolution, affording this technique an overwhelming popularity in structural biology.
Cryo–EM is now beginning to rival X–ray crystallography and NMR techniques to a near atomic details. This essay focuses on how cryo–EM have
been implicated in visualizing virus structures with particular emphases on bacteriophage MS2 virion.
Introduction:
For a mechanistic understanding of macromolecular and biochemical functions and processes of a wide variety of biological structures (i.e. cells,
proteins, bacteria and viruses) (Milne et al., 2013) optical devices (i.e. X–ray crystallography and NMR, among others) have long been implicated in
characterizing biomolecular structures into 3D

The Effects Of Uv Light Protection On The Microbial...
A small amount of research has been conducted on air as a habitat compared to other environments such as soil, water, and sediments (1). Air makes up
the atmosphere and is composed of approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, .93 % argon, and .038% carbon dioxide (http://www.space.com
/17683–earth–atmosphere.html). In addition, air carries dust particles, pollutants and plant grains. Air presents a hostile environment for the sustaining
of metabolically active and reproducing microbes. The air is composed of UV radiation, which results in the development of UV light protection in the
microbial populations that reside in this environment (1). Due to the conditions of air, microbes that inhabit air are capable of adapting to wider pH
ranges. They are also capable of living in a wide range of temperatures due to varying altitudes (1). A majority of microbes that inhabit the air are in the
Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and Actinobacteria phylum. These microbes include, Pseudomonas syringae, Pantoea agglomerans, Propionibacterium
acnes, Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Sphingomonas echnoides (2).
A majority of the diversity of air is misunderstood by ecologist. Yet, the limited amount of research conducted on the diversity of the atmosphere
supports that air is highly diverse. Samples taken from the atmosphere were dominated by plant and bacteria related sequences, indicating a highly
variable 16sRNA gene diversity (2). When samples are taken from the atmosphere, there is a trend of a

Gonorrhoeae
Virulence of N. gonorrhoeae is associated with pili, which demonstrate a crucial function in the forming of the "initial attachment" to the host cell. Pili
twitching motility assist the pathogen in its upstream migration of the non–motile gonococci, which allows for the colonization and ascendance to the
mucosal surfaces. CD46 also plays an important role as it is a complement regulatory protein and can be associated with having properties of a
membrane cofactor receptor. CD46 is specific to humans, and is expressed by all nucleated cells of trans membrane proteins. CD46 has been
identified as having a receptor for gonococcal pilus. N. Gonorrhoeae posse piliated gonococci that adhere to a host by synthesis of dense
microcoloniess on the cell's surface. The Opa proteins as well as lipopolysaccharides bind closely through cell surface receptor epithelial host,
subsequently allowing bacterial subjugation and trancytosis of the epithelial cell host. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Currently there's a boom in reported infections due to antimicrobial resistant gonococci.
Gonorrhea is a vastly typical virulent bacterium. Characteristics include being gram negative, fastidious (requiring a nutrient environment), and
diplococcic that develop precipitously. Popular sites of habitation include the mucous membranes of the female vagina, female fallopian tubes, and
uterus. Both male and female possible infection areas include the mouth, throat and

Human Infectuous Disease
Human infectious diseases are diseases caused by pathogens, disease causing microorganisms. These diseases can range from mild to fatal and have
different modes of transmission and modes of action. It is the potential negative implications of such diseases that has made many of them among the
main targets for the World Health Organization. Since the human body does not have B–cells that produce antibodies specific to all types of antigenic
pathogens, the body can't fight all types of infectious diseases. Hence, vaccinations and forms of treatment that may employ inducing artificial
immunity are sometimes needed, immediately. Infectious human diseases can be transmitted in many ways depending on the type of the disease, these
include skin contact, breathing, water, blood transfusion, sexual intercourse, transmittance through other organisms, most commonly a mosquito, and
many other modes of transmission. These diseases may also range n symptoms and Signs and may even develop latently in the body. In this research
paper an infectious disease will be explored in depth from its cause, to symptoms to virulence, to forms of treatment and prevention.
The Disease Among the most widely known and feared human infectious diseases comes Cholera. Cholera is an infectious disease that has had 7
recorded pandemic outbreaks over the past 2 centuries, taking away millions of lives from across the globe. It is an acute ( critical) intestinal infection
that causes copious watery diarrhea

How Does Gram-Negative Bacteria Structure
Gram–negative bacteria structure
The lipid A palmitoyltransferase pagP is an outer membrane enzyme of the gram–negative bacteria Escherichia coli. Gram–negative bacteria are
surrounded by two lipid bilayer membranes, which enclose the periplasmic space composed of peptidoglycan that contains ions and proteins. The two
membranes differ in composition and function. With respect to composition, the inner or cytoplasmic membrane is composed of phospholipids, such
as phosphatidylethanolamine, phospatidylglycerol and cardiolipin found in both the inner and outer leaflet. The outer membrane is highly asymmetric
with its inner leaflet having the same phospholipid composition as the inner membrane and the outer leaflet consisting of lipopolysaccharides. ... Show
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In order for the bacteria to establish a successful attachment on the host surfaces, they need to have an adaptation ability towards external changes.
Certain cellular regulators transmit signals from the exterior to the inner part of the cell via cytoplasmic secondary messenger systems or so–called
alomers. In bacteria this function is performed by the 3',5'–cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) which is an ubiquitous molecule found in both
eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The cAMP targets its receptor, the cAMP receptorprotein (CRP) and this CRP–cAMP complex formed binds to the DNA
in order to activate the expression of genes that code for enzymes responsible for the supply of energy of the cell, besides the cAMP is a derivative of
ATP independent of glucose. It is studied that the CRP–cAMP is a global regulator of gene expression of almost 200 operons in E.coli. Type 1
fimbriation is dependent on growth phase and it is found that CRP–cAMP regulates type 1 fimbriae expression during the exponential growth phase.
CRP and cAMP levels are influenced by environmental conditions mainly by glucose availability and osmolarity. These particular conditions affect
also the DNA topology in E. coli. There are others global regulators, expect the CRP–cAMP, found that affect the type 1 fimbriae expression such as
the H–NS, the RpoS

Evolutionary Theory Of Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance has become a hot topic amongst scientists and healthcare professionals. It would be rare to observe in a clinical setting and not
see some type of antibiotic resistant infection being treated. Scientists and medical doctors are scrambling trying to develop plans to discover new
drugs or at least dampen the rate at which these organisms are developing resistance. Evolutionary biologists are claiming this type of resistance as
proof of evolution, but is that a statement that is really supported by the evidence? It depends on which type of evolution is being talked about first.
Macroevolution is the theory that one species can evolve into a totally different species. Microevolution is the change of genotypes and phenotypes ...
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This theory developed by Joseph Francis states that microbes and viruses were created as a link to macro–organisms to provide a substrate upon which
all macro–organisms can survive and thrive in ecosystems (Francis). The evidence of this can be seen in symbiotic relationships between microbes and
macro–organisms that provide the macro–organisms the ability to live and thrive. An example of this would be the intestinal microbes in humans that
provide digestive enzymes, vitamins, and other nutrients that are vital to the health of the human (Francis). Another example would be nitrogen fixing
bacteria that promote plant growth. This would include Burkholderia phymatum and Cupriavidus taiwanensis with Mimosa plants. (Geoffrey et al.,
2006). Also, Francis mentions the Rhizobium bacterium which also fixes nitrogen for plant use (Francis). Without these microbes, the
macro–organisms would not be able to function to their best capability and could possibly cause the breakdown of all life

Types Of The Human Host
All bacteria require certain amounts of transition metals to sustain life. These metals are necessary to carry out important metabolic processes in the
cell. Among other things, transition metals can act as cofactors and they can be incorporated into metalloenzymes, transcription factors and storage
proteins (10). A. baumannii requires efficient mechanisms to acquire these transition metals, especially when confined in a human host. The human
host carries an abundant amount of metals that can be harnessed by invading pathogens. To hinder a bacterium's exploitation of these metals, the
human host employs a variety of techniques collectively termed "nutritional immunity" (10). For instance, calprotectin (CP) in the host chelates
intracellular stores of manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) to inhibit bacterial growth [5]. All pathogens require essential metals such as iron to sustain life.
Iron is a significant component in oxidative phosphorylation, contributing to ATP production (21). The human host also sequesters iron via various
mechanisms in an attempt to further inhibit bacterial growth. These iron limitation strategies include storing iron intracellularly by complexing it to
ferritin, serum transferrin and lactoferrin in mucosal surfaces (10). In the blood, iron is also complexed to heme (10). Even when a red blood cell is
lysed, hemoglobin is quickly bound by haptoglabin and free heme is bound by hemeopexin (Hpx), further limiting A. baumannii's access to iron (10).

People Will Do Anything For Power
People will do anything for power. All over the world there are many different
types of power. Some countries have presidents, some have kings and queens, and some
have gods. Julius Caesar was a man that loves power. He loved thinking of himself above
everyone else, and everyone else adored him. The towns people cheered for him and
decorated the streets with his name. What Caesar didn't know was that there are some
people that didn't want him to come to power, and some of them might just be the Roman
Tribunes.
A Tribune was a Roman official whose job was to protect the people against
oppression by the patricians or nobles. The word tribune is connected to the word tribe.
In Latin the word for Tribune was tribunus, which means an officer connected with a
tribe, or someone that represented a tribe for specific purposes. Originally, a tribune
represented a tribe of rulers then later it became known as a variety of officers. The
tribunes were at first one, but their number was increased ultimately to ten. The
two most important were the tribunes of plebs and the military tribunes.

A Roman Tribune was a very high position. In certain ranks you had
certain jobs, for example if my ranking was Tribune my job was to assist the
legion commander, the Primus Pilus. If my ranking was Tribunus Cohortis I was
the commander of a Cohort military unit. Being a Roman Tribune gave you the
right to veto laws, command portions of the army, and eventually call

Salmonell A Common Bacteria
The importance of doing this investigation was necessary as this microorganism, Salmonella is a common bacteria encountered in daily life.
Salmonella is a bacterium that is found in a wide variety of animals and mammals (Weese and Fulford, 2011). Gram negative bacteria exhibit
appendages on outer surfaces known as pili (Lo et al., 2014). The pili is also named fimbriae, these are chains of protein that form filaments that
extend from the outer surface of bacterial cells enabling them to adhere to any host target cell (Proft and Baker, 2009; Kang and Baker, 2012). This
makes the pili of clinical importance when assessing clinical manifestation; particularly in pathogenic organisms, when developing drugs such as
vaccines (Kang and Baker, 2012). Currently, the use of pili in vaccine development is widespread in research (Wizeman et al, 1999). This suggests that
the pilus is the basic structural subunit in all bacterial cells. Studying Salmonella is vital in understanding how SafD operates and possible clinical
problems posed to individuals, due to the different strains of the bacterium that have been previously discovered. Although Salmonella has been
identified and classified into different classifications, it has undergone multiple changes and the main nomenclature system is yet to be established
(Chiu, Lin–Hui, 2014). The genus which Salmonella belongs to is known as the Enterobacteriaceae family (Chu and Su, 2004; Farmer, 1995).
Salmonella is a gram negative rod shaped

Advantages Of Wolf
DIVERSITY of LIVING THINGS
INTRODUCTION
Have you ever owned a dog? No? Well you have no doubt seen plenty of dogs before. Have you ever seen a wolf? Unlikely, but you must have at least
seen pictures on what wolves look like. You must have also noticed that though you could differentiate dogs from wolves, there were other little (and
sometimes not so little) similarities between the two animals. These similarities include height, facial structure, and even behavioral tendencies. That is
because both animals belong to the same genus but different species, each one similar and yet still different from the other. What sets apart each
species from others in its genus? What relates each of them to the other? These questions are what the study ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They exhibit different modes of nutrition. Some are saprophytes, feeding on dead and decaying organic matter. Some are autotrophs, using
photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to manufacture their food. Some obtain their nutrition from living tissue, harming the tissue in the process (parasitic
nutrition)
They exist in different habitats (air, water, and soil). Some even exist and thrive in harsh conditions
They come in different shapes: bacilli (rod–like bacteria), cocci (circular bacteria), vibrio (comma–shaped bacteria), etc.
Classified as gram–positive or gram–negative based on the thickness of cell wall. Gram–positive bacteria stains purple under the dye while
Gram–negative bacteria stains pink
Can be killed with antibiotics and can develop antibiotic resistance
They transfer their chromosomes through a sex pilus
Some bacteria exist as part of the normal microflora of the body
They cause diseases e.g. Vibrio cholerae causes cholera
They are used in food production e.g. Lactobacillus bulgaris for milk production, Saccharomyces cerivisiae for beer

Type 4 Pili Research Paper
Bacterial pili have been well studied for their structure, function, and genetics. However, little is known about the structure and function of archaeal
pili. Current research has begun to focus on the archaeal pilus and its relatedness to bacterial pili, particularly the bacterial type IV pilus. Using genetic
and microscopy techniques, these studies have shown comparative evidence for the differences, as well as homology, between archaeal and bacterial
type IV pili. These results suggest there may be an evolutionary divergence from a common ancestral function and origin.
Introduction
Bacteria have several different types of pili, known and classified based on their structure and assembly. Similarly,archaea have different appendages
that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
maripaludis, which has 11 genes in its type IV pili locus. Though many are not yet known and are not homologues of any type IV pili system in
bacteria or archaea, it is known that a encoded mmp1685 a major pilin gene, epdA, epdB, epdC are minor pilin genes, mmp0040 an ATPase, and
eppA is a prepilin peptidase (1). Interestingly, M. maripaludis, also utilizes EppA, which is a specific prepilin peptidease that only works when the
archaellins are being being processed (1). The organization of the archaeal type IV operon for pili biosynthesis could potentially indicate various
functions in for the pilin proteins and others involved (3). This presents difficulties if the functions, as they are in M. maripaludis, are unknown and
tough to predict due to their variance and difference in quantity of genes compared to other known operons. As each of the archaea pilin subunits are
known to change and can be slightly different from species–species, the regulations are also changing and the pilins will code for an array of functions
(3,

The True King Arthur
The True King Arthur
Kings, dragons, and great battles come to mind when you think of the Dark Ages. Another subject that comes to mind is the great King Arthur.
Everyone has heard of the so called "King" Arthur and his infamous knights of the round table. The modern versions of King Arthur are just tales and
myths told to kids, but who is the true Arthur? Did he even exist? There are multiple suitors for the role of King Arthur, but one man sticks out more
than the others.
First, I want to talk about the myth and legends of King Arthur. According to Wyly, before Arthur's birth, Britain was in the midst of a civil that was
between numerous noblemen wanting land to gain power (Wyly 18). Although there were noblemen warring for land and power,... Show more content
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Merlin then turned Arthur over to Sir Ector, to raise and love as his own with Ector's other son Sir Kay (Wyly 20). While Arthur was being raised
by Sir Ector, Uther fell deathly ill and died after a final legendary battle (Wyly 21). Soon after the land went into another power struggle, but this time
it was a little more organized. There was a tournament held for all suitors to come and present their might and potentially claim the throne (Wyly 21).
Fortunately for Arthur his elder brother, Sir Kay, attended this tournament, but forgot his sword at home (Wyly 22). In a panic Arthur searched for a
sword for his brother, and in this panic Arthur pulled the sword from the stone, which said the one who pulls the sword from the stove is the true king of
England (Wyly 22–23). Upon learning of this event and the origins of the sword, all of the knights kneeled to him (Wyly 24). That is how Arthur
reclaimed the throne and began the legend of King Arthur.
Soon after, Arthur acquired a wife, Queen Guinevere, due to advice from Merlin and his knights (Knowles 76). As it came to be Guinevere was the
daughter of King Leodegrance, who also had The Round Table (Knowles 76). Upon hearing of Arthur's desire to wed his daughter, King Leodegrance
sent Arthur the round table, one hundred and fifty knights, and his daughter (Knowles

What Is A Transposon?
Transposition Mutagenesis: Post–lab Questions
Rebecca Herbert
Friday Lab Section
1a. What is a transposon?
A transposon is a section of DNA whose location can be moved, or transposed, from a plasmid to a chromosome, or vice versa. Transposons are
necessary if recipient DNA are missing a sequence that complements the donor DNA. Also referred to as "jumping genes," transposons are unlike
typical DNA which usually does not move around, and are flanked by inverted repeat sequences which contribute to their ability to move around.
1b. What is the transposon in this experiment?
The transposon in this experiment is contains kanR in between the inverted repeats on either end, which will be transposed from the plasmid pVJT128
to the chromosome of the recipient bacteria.
2a. In the first part of the experiment, why did we put the donor on a plate containing nalidixic acid?
In the first part of the experiment, we plated donor bacteria, which was chloramphenicol resistant, on a Nal plate. Because no donor bacteria would
grow on a Nal plate, this was a way of ensuring that the sample of donor E. Coli bacteria was pure.
2b. Why did we put the recipient on a plate containing chloramphenicol?
Similarly, the recipient E. Coli bacteria is resistant to nalidixic acid, and would be able to grow on a Nal plate, but not on the Cm plate. By plating the
recipient bacteria on chloramphenicol, we can ensure that the sample was purely recipient if there is no growth.
3. How will we recognize a

Major Characteristics Of Pseudomonas Aeruginosa
I. Description of P. aeruginosa
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is characterized by aerobic, gram negative, motile, non–spore forming bacilli (rods).1 A trait that differentiates P. aeruginosa
from other gram–negative bacteria is the fact that it produces indophenol oxidase, which is an enzyme that renders them positive in an oxidase test.1
The type of flagella this organism is known to possess is called a polar flagella, meaning a single flagellum at one pole of the rod.1 This means the
motility of the organism is quite limited and can travel only in one direction. In spite of this, the single flagellum, as well as the presence of pili, are
major contributions to the motility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.1 The Pseudomonas genus, the genus from which P. aeruginosa originates from, is
known to be an environmental bacteria; hence why this organism is very common in soil, water, and even fresh fruits and vegetables.1 A common
characteristic of environmental bacteria, P. aeruginosa being of no exception, is the ways in which they grow. P. aeruginosa grows and thrives in
biofilms which are groups of adhering bacteria in aqueous environments. These biofilms eventually begin to produce a slimy substance resembling glue
which allows them to spread and stick to other materials/locations. Not only does P. aeruginosa require minimal nutritional requirements, but the entire
Pseudomonas genus type does as well.1 Due to P. aeruginosa (usually) only needing acetate as carbon and ammonia as nitrogen,

Gastrointestinal Tract Research Paper
Abstract After entering the gastrointestinal tract on the way to their physiological site of infection, enteric bacteria encounter a remarkable diversity in
environmental conditions. There are gross differences in the physico–chemical parameters in different sections of the Gastrointestinal tract (GI) tract
e.g. between the stomach, small intestine and large intestine. Furthermore, even within a certain anatomical site, there are subtle differences in the
microenvironment e.g. between the lumen, mucous layer and epithelial surface. Enteric pathogens must not only survive passage through the rapidly
changing environments encountered at different niches of the GI tract but must also appropriately coordinate expression of virulence determinants...
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Several studies have revealed pathogen specific responses to bile that alter the expression of virulence factors. When V. cholerae was grown in
the presence of bile, expression of the essential virulence genes ctxAB and tcpA was drastically repressed [30]. Since bile is a heterogeneous
mixture, crude bile was fractionated, and the components that mediate virulence gene repression were identified. It was shown that unsaturated
fatty acids (UFAs) present in bile, arachidonic, linoleic, and oleic acids were responsible for repression of ctxAB and tcpA genes [31]. However,
expression of toxT encoding the direct transcriptional activator of ctxAB and tcpA was not affected and ToxT protein levels were similar between
V. cholerae grown in the presence or absence of bile or UFAs [31]. Subsequently, the crystal structure of ToxT revealed that unsaturated fatty acids
can bind to ToxT and keeps ToxT in a 'closed' conformation that is not capable of binding DNA [32]. Hence ToxT cannot activate expression of
ctxAB and tcpA in the presence of bile or UFAs and the genes continue to be repressed by H–NS [33]. Bile also causes drastic repression of virulence
genes in salmonellae. Salmonellae grown in the presence of bile demonstrated a marked

Arguments Against The Use Of Methicillin
created a somber atmosphere in the medical community, as many of the advancements in the last decade seemed to be drawing to a close. However, a
new derivative of penicillin called methicillin was created and introduced to the public in 1959 (Ventola, 2015). Not long after, methicillin resistant
staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was found in parts of Europe in 1962 and the United States in 1968. However, an antibiotic called vancomycin was
developed to combat the methicillin resistant strain. Since scientists found it very difficult to induce vancomycin resistance in a research setting, they
found it highly unlikely to develop in a clinical setting. However, they underestimated the resiliency of bacteria and by the 1980's, vancomycin and
multi–drug ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One way that bacteria transfer their DNA is through vertical transfer which is a scientific name for transferring genetic material from parent to
offspring (Dabnua, 2005). Bacteria are capable of transferring their DNA asexually, meaning that they do not require a partner to produce an offspring,
and this is done through binary fission. The process of binary fission is when bacterial DNA is replicated and the cell divides into 2 daughter cells that
are genetically identical to the parent. Bacteria containing the antibiotic resistant gene can easily pass this on through binary fission. When conditions
are favorable, such as optimal temperature and nutrients, bacteria can replicate quickly and efficiently, dividing as fast as every 20 minutes. Another
form of DNA transfer is through horizontal transfer. Horizontal transfer occurs via plasmids through conjugation, transformation and transduction
(Dabnua, 2005). A plasmid is a circular molecule of DNA independent from the bacteria's chromosomal DNA. It is a double stranded molecule that can
replicate independently and normally only contains genes that may be beneficial to the survival of the bacteria, such as the mecA gene (Brisse, 2002).
Once plasmid replication is complete, it can be transferred from one bacteria to another through conjugation, transformation and transduction. During
the process of conjugation, 2 separate

Fryd Statue Of Freedom Summary
Fryd critics issues in public art, as well as an analysis in the historical developments in public art in America. He interprets the art of the United States
Capital as an ideological tool for promotion of the nineteen–century American expansionist polices and displacement of Native Americans from the
land. But also, he explains how the Statue of Freedom, and the bronze statue atop the U.S Capital dome in Washington, D.C., was altered to
accommodate racial politics of antebellum America. I believe art comes in role in many aspects in history and politics, such as Fryd examines the
objections in both statues. Fyrd analysis how Davis's objection resulted in Crawford's fusion of three allegories, Liberty, America, and Minerva.
First Fryd knowledges the secretary of war's rejection of the liberty cap. As Fryd states, "However, for this takes on political implications in
relationship to the dissension between the North and South over slavery, which would eventually erupt into civil war. Crawford had intended to
include the liberty cap in his group for the cornice of the Senate door, which originally was to represent Liberty and Justice" (Fryd 107). This became
an issue because the cap became a revolutionary ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Not only did he provide evidence in the art created that was tied back to into history, but described that symbolization that had racial implication. Fryd
expository passage help the misunderstandment of how the audience viewed the statue simply as an Indian princess, instead of Davis's own vision of
white superiority that he insisted be represented in the U.S. Capitol dome statue. I found these observations to be very surprising because art comes
along way involved in history. If the detailed evidence in the art Davis wanted and Crawford created was not focused enough one wouldn't be aware of
the symbolizations art contribute

The Women 's Rights Movement
Throughout American history, women have constantly been suppressed. It was believed overall that women were not supposed to work, but to stay
home, cook, clean, make clothes, and take care of the child(ren). Basically, a woman was considered her husband's property. It was not until 1920s that
women were finally able to get the rights they deserve, such as birth control, new divorce laws, and ultimately the right to vote, which was the main
focus of the Women's Rights Movement. This movement consisted of many organizations, such as the National Woman Suffrage Association for
example, coming together and holding protests, riots, and seminars where women were able to express their wants to politicians. Congress finally
passing an amendment giving women the right to vote allowed them to get other things they deserved such as access to higher education and improved
working conditions. Women prior to this, such as Susan B. Anthony and Eleanor Roosevelt, attempted to get women the rights they deserve. There
were numerous social movements prior to the 1920s that attempted to get women's' rights recognized by the American government. They were the
platform for the Women's Rights Movements. Even though they are numerous women known for their efforts during the 18th and 19th centuries, they
were never able to accomplish the goals that women suffrage activists accomplished in the 20th century. Women finally getting the right to vote gave
them an unspoken confidence and a sense of

Uranium in Geobacter and Its Effects Essay
Just as Geobacter species have been utilized as a means for bioremediation in Rifle Mill, Colorado, so too can they be implemented in the Navajo
Nation to metabolize soluble uranium found in underground water sources. Uranium (U) is a radioactive element which in its soluble form (VI) causes
a multitude of serious health conditions (Craft et al, 2004). Uranium is present in the environment as a result of leaching from natural deposits and
emissions from the nuclear industry (WHO, 2003). Uranium salts present in a water supply can be an extreme detriment to public health as the
majority of human consumption of soluble uranium can occur through a contaminated water source (WHO, 2003). In recent years microbes have been
investigated as well ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In strains which expressed pili the uranium precipitated along the conductive pili, away from the cellular envelope. Geobacter species have been
successfully implemented in bioremediation techniques in multiple locations. Rifle Mill in Colorado is a uranium mill site where uranium
contamination in subterranean aquifers is prevalent. In situ stimulation in Geobacter species via acetate (1 to 3 mM) which was injected over a
period of 3 months yielded promising results. Within 50 days U (VI) levels "had declined below the prescribed treatment level of 0.18 micro M in
some of the monitoring wells" (Lovely et al, 2003). Acetate has been shown to stimulate growth of Geobacter species in situ (Rifle, CO). This was
substantiated by the transcriptional activity of putative symporter genes (apII and apIII) at low levels of acetate. The study showed that apIII transcript
activity was at its highest level when acetate was at its lowest concentrations. Although these experimental findings are not concrete evidence that
acetate supports growth of Geobacter species it definitely suggests it (lovely et al, 2010). The Navajo Nation is plagued with the remnants of
abandoned uranium mines. Over 500 mines exist within the Navajo nation (Navajo Uranium Report, 2013). According to the Navajo Uranium Report
conducted in 2103 Of the 240 unregulated

Lab Report of the Experiment of Conjugation of E. Coli
Abstract:Conjugation is a natural occurring process that involves the transfer of DNA from one cell into another through a physical connection
between the cells. In the following experiment, two strains of Escherichia coli bacterial cells (donor F'lac+strs and recipient F–lac–strr) underwent
conjugation to produce a transconjugant strain (F'lac+strr). MAC plates and streptomycin were utilized to determine if conjugation had occurred.
When plated, the donor colonies appeared red and the recipient colonies appeared white. The transconjugant plates showed red and white colonies.
Using alkaline lysis miniprep, a DNA plasmid was isolated from the donor and transconjugant strains and FIGE electrophoresis was used to determine
the size of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Before plating the strains on agar plates, dilutions of the three strains of cells were prepared with LB broth.
100 Ојl of 10–5 and 10–6 dilutions of donor cells were each plated onto MacConkey (MAC) agar plates without streptomycin. 100 Ојl of 10–5 dilution
of donor cells and 10–5 and 10–6 recipient were also plated onto MAC plates with streptomycin. 100 Ојl of 10–4 and 10–5 dilutions of the conjugation
mixture cells were plated onto MAC agar with streptomycin. All seven plates were inverted and placed in a 37ЛљC incubator for about 24 hours. The
bacterial colonies on each plate were counted the next day (colony counts seen in Table I).
Donor colonies were picked with a sterile loop and placed into a sterile test tube containing LB broth. Recipient and transconjugant colonies were also
isolated and placed into sterile test tubes containing LB broth and streptomycin. The tubes were then placed in a 37ЛљC shaking incubator at 250 rpm
overnight.
After the incubation, 1.5 mL of each of the three cultures were added to eppendorf tubes and centrifuged at 13,200 rpm for 1 minute. An alkaline lysis
procedure like that of Birnboim and Doly was then performed to extract the plasmid DNA with 200 Ојl of alkaline SDS detergent solution (Birnboim
& Doly, 1979). After

Neisseria Meningitidis Essay
Neisseria meningitidis is a fastidious, aerobic, and encapsulated gram–negative diplococcus which infects humans via droplet transmission to and from
mucosal surfaces in the nasopharyngeal region. Only humans can be infected with N. meningitidis and the disease manifests in children under two
years of age and in young adults. N. meningitidis can be found as normal regional flora of the nasopharynx in some individuals, but when it causes
infection leads to meningitis and occasionally septicaemia. The major symptoms of N. meningitidis infection include a stiff neck, high fever,
photophobia, confusion, cephalgia and emesis. If the patient's condition has worsened causing sepsis, they can present with a haemorrhagic rash which
is indicative of... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This allows N. meningitidis to enter the capillary system and sequentially the CSF and meninges.
Adhesins
When attempting to colonise mucosal surfaces of the upper respiratory tract, N. meningitidis must use adhesins such as pili and opacity proteins to
interact with host cells and adhere to tissue.
Once N. meningitidis has encountered a healthy host it uses its type IV pilus to protrude from the capsule and bind epithelial cells and erythrocytes
within the mucosal surface. The pili also generate what is known as a twitch motility which allows the bacterium to pass the epithelial layer and invade
the host.
Opacity proteins known as Opa and Opc are expressed on the outer membrane of N. meningitidis. While the specific role of these opacity proteins in the
adhesion of N. meningitidis to host cells is currently unknown, there has been indication that during inflammation Opa and Opc can aid in the
attachment and invasion of host cells

Experiment : Gut Health And Food Safety Blog
Past Experimentation This experiment (Gut Health and Food Safety Blog. Web. 21 Nov. 2014) was conducted to see how effective phage might be
in combatting C. difficile infections. The researchers built a model of the human colon, then proceeded to grow C. difficile bacteria inside. Once all
bacteria colonies were counted researchers sprayed the inside of the colon with П†CD27 (a lysogenic cyclic bacteriophage). Data shows significant
reduction of live bacteria inside the colon. The few bacteria that were left had significantly reduced toxicity(much less dangerous) Bacteriophage
(Bacteria–Eater)
(Bacteriophage (virus)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online)
Bacteriophage or phages are viruses that infect bacteria by injecting their own DNA into host cells. This occurs when receptors on bacteria
perfectly match up to receptors on a phage. The phage or phages then attach themselves to the cell wall of the bacteria. There are millions of types
of phage and each one has its own receptor. Every phage is meant for a different type of bacteria. A clear depiction of the process of infection is
shown in the diagram on the right. Certain Bacteriophage can follow one of two life cycles, while others are predetermined to follow one or the other.
Lytic Life Cycle
(Bacteriophage (virus)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online)
When a bacteriophage takes on a lytic life cycle, it injects its DNA into the cytoplasm. After, the phage's DNA takes over all the parts of the bacteria.
It uses the

Neisseria Essay
Neisseria are fastidious Gram–negative cocci that require nutrient supplementation to grow in laboratory cultures. To be specific, they grow on
chocolate agar with carbon dioxide. These cocci are facultatively intracellular and typically appear in pairs (diplococci), in the shape of coffee beans.
Of the eleven species of Neisseria that colonize humans, only two are pathogens. N. gonorrhoeae is the causative agent of gonorrhea (also called "The
Clap") and is transmitted via sexual contact.[2]
Neisseria is usually isolated on Thayer–Martin agar (or VPN agar)–an agar plate containing antibiotics (vancomycin, colistin, nystatin, and
trimethoprim) and nutrients that facilitate the growth of Neisseria species while inhibiting the growth of contaminating bacteria and fungi. Further
testing to differentiate the species includes testing for oxidase (all clinically relevant Neisseria show a positive reaction) and the carbohydrates
maltose, sucrose, and glucose test in which N. gonorrhoeae will oxidize (that is, utilize) only the glucose.
N. gonorrhoeae are non–motile and possess type IV pili to adhere to surfaces. The type IV pili operate mechanistically similar to a grappling hook. Pili
extend and attach to a substrate that signals the pilus to retract, dragging the cell ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
gonorrhoeae has surface proteins called Opa proteins, which bind to receptors on immune cells. In so doing, N. gonorrhoeae is able to prevent an
immune response. The host is also unable to develop an immunological memory against N. gonorrhoeae – which means that future reinfection is
possible. N. gonorrhoeae can also evade the immune system through a process called antigenic variation, in which the N. gonorrhoeae bacterium is able
to alter the antigenic determinants (sites where antibodies bind) such as the Opa proteins[4] and Type IV pili[5] that adorn its surface. The many
permutations of surface proteins make it more difficult for immune cells to recognize N. gonorrhoeae and mount a

Neisseri Case Study
(2 pt) 2. Use the categories below to list the proper taxa for the organism
Phylum/Division: Proteobacteria (Todar, 2012)
Class: Betaproteobacteria (Todar, 2012)
Order: Nesseriales (Todar, 2012)
Family: Neisseriaceae (Shrestha, 2010)
You will need to research the Gram reaction and Acid Fast Reaction for your organism to answer question #3. (Hint: If you know that an organism is
G+ or G–, you automatically know its Acid–fast reaction.)
(4 pts) 3. You are handed two slides that have been prepared with your organism. One has been properly Gram stained and the other has been properly
Acid–Fast stained.
a.Describe the appearance of this organism on the slide that has been Gram stained, including morphology. Support your description with cited ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
List of References (in APA format)
Tortora, G.J., Funke, B.R., & Case, C.L. (2016). Microbiology: An Introduction. Boston. Pearson.
Acharya, T (2013, June 9). Virulence factors produced by Neisseria meningitidis and their role in pathogenesis Retrieved from http://microbeonline.com
/virulence–factors–produced–by–neisseria–meningitidis–and–their–roles–in–pathogenesis/
Acharya, T (2013, May 9) Oxygen requirements for pathogenic bacteria Retrieved from http://microbeonline.com
/oxygen–requirements–for–pathogenic–bacteria
Shrestha, S (2010, August 14) Microbiology of Neisseria meningitidis Retrieved from http://medchrome.com/basic–science/microbiology
/microbiology–of–neisseria–meningitidis/
Todar K, (2008– 2012) retrieved from http://textbookofbacteriology.net/neisseria.html
Rouphael N, Stephens S (2015, March 4) Neisseria meningitidis: Biology, Microbiology and Epidemiology Retrieved from

How Can Bacterium Deliberate Acid Tissue Resistant?
For a bacterium to become resistant a change in its DNA must occur. This can happen in more than one way. Bacterium may gain resistance through
spontaneous mutation within the bacterium's DNA. This occurs when a single amino acid that makes up a protein changes arrangement, the order of
the peptide chain (made up of amino acids, joined together to make up proteins) then the purpose of the protein in the DNA changes. This causes the
genetic makeup of the cell to alter. If the mutation is of benefit and gives the bacteria resistance, once all the other none resistant strains of bacteria are
killed, the resistant bacteria multiplies and reproduces, creating a new strain of bacteria which is resistant to the antibiotic in hand. Once a resistance
gene is obtained and inserted into the DNA, the bacterium can dominate other bacteria and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Using this pump and energy derived from ATP– released in respiration – to work the pump, the bacterium cell can eject the antibiotic out of its cell and
therefore preventing the antibiotic from reaching its target and killing the bacterium cell. Many antibiotics work by attaching themselves to their target
and preventing it from interacting with other molecules inside the cell. In this case resistance comes from when the protein mutates and therefore
changes arrangement of the protein. This means that the protein the antibiotic is attempting to counteract is either no longer there or has changed in
structure. Therefore, the antibiotic can no longer bind to the protein as it can no longer recognise it. This means the antibiotic cannot carry out its
function and so is ineffective.
Rather than simply pushing the drug aside or setting up molecular blockades, some bacteria survive by neutralizing their enemy directly – this involves
destroying the antibiotic altogether. For example, some kinds of bacteria produce enzymes called beta–lactamases that destroy and digest the

The Effects Of Emotional Stress On The People Of Haiti Essay
The migration of a population displaced by a natural disaster such as the occurrence of the magnitude 7.0 earthquake that hit the people of Haiti did
introduce mortality rates due to unhealthy and unsanitary conditions the refugees lived under in camps. The overcrowded living conditions facilitated
a quadrupled spread and transmission of infectious disease such as cholera bacteria inflicting diarrhea. These infections are easily spread through
contaminated water. Emotional stress which has a great impact on the physical as well as the mental health of the population quickly degraded the
body immune system. Inadequate quantities and qualities of water to sustain health and personal hygiene, poor environmental sanitation and
insufficient shelter are all factors that made cholera more potent. An infectious disease like cholera thrives best in a malnutrition host with no access to
health care. However, it would be appropriate to educate the people about the bacteria involved hence the need to highlight on the origin (primary) of
the bacteria causing cholera. The secondary transmission route would also be enumerated and the impact they both have on the people. The ways in
which the spread of the infection could be reduced would further be elaborated. The center for disease control and prevention (CDC) was quick to
report that the strain of cholera that was spreading could have originated in the south–eastern Asia. A handful of activists blame the outbreak on Haiti's
substandard

Disadvantages Of Gonorrhoea
Gonorrhoea are fastidious gram–negative, facultative, intracellular and typically appear in pairs (diplococci), in the shape of coffee beans. Among
various species of Neisseria that colonize humans, only N. gonorrhoeae is clinically important responsible for transmission through sexual contact
(Elias J et al., 2011).They are non–motile, aerobic, capnophilic, non–sporulating, possess pilli to adhere the surfaces of mucous membrane of warm
blooded hosts (Janda Wet et al., 2007). The type IV pili (Biais N et al., 2008) operate mechanically similar to a grappling hook, which extend and
attach to a substrate that signals the pilus to retract, dragging the cell forward. N. gonorrhoeae are able to pull 100,000 times their own weight, and it
has been claimed that the pili used to do so is the strongest biological motor.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Porin channels (porA, porB) in the outer membrane play key role in virulence of bacterial. Gonococcal strains with porA may have natural resistance to
normal human serum and an increased capacity to invade epithelial cells; Gonococci attach to the host mucosal cells and enter within 24–48 hours
through the subepithelial space. A typical host response is characterised by invasion with neutrophils, followed by epithelial sloughing, formation of
submucosal micro abscesses, purulent discharge and if left untreated, macrophage and lymphocyte infiltration replaces the neutrophils. Some
gonococcal strains causes an asymptomatic infection, leading to an asymptomatic carrier state in persons of both sex (Brian Wong,

Essay on Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Introduction
Neisseria gonorrhoeae is the obligate human pathogen that causes the sexually transmitted disease (STD) gonorrhea. This Gram–negative diplococci
/gonococci does not infect other animals or experimental animals and does not survive freely in the environment. The gonococcal infection occurs in
the upper or lower tract, pharynx, ophthalmic area, rectum, and bloodstream. During the 1980's gonorrhea was also referred to as "the clap" when
public awareness was quite minimal. This was one of the venereal diseases prostitutes hoped to contract since it resulted in infertility by pelvic
inflammatory disease (PID). As documentation, diagnostic testing, and public awareness improved, there has been a decline ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Once the gonococci gain entrance into the mucous membranes of these areas, they target columnar non–ciliated epithelial cells. Neisseria gonorrhoeae
uses a type IV pilus (twitches, forms bundles and able to take up DNA) to anchor itself at the infection site. The pilE gene has been found to be the
main factor for adherence to epithelial cells. In a study, missense mutations of the pilE gene revealed altered fiber morphology. PilE mutants had a
defect in filament assembly, hence, less adherence to human epithelial cells. In a wild type sample there are significant interconnections of cells, then
compared to a sample with a missense PilE polypeptide, we can see reduced interconnections of the cells and filamentous structure. These defects only
are expressed when the pilT gene is activated. Spread
Spread occurs via oral, vaginal, and anal sexual contact through the routes of penis–vagina, penis–mouth, penis–anus, mouth–vagina, and mouth–anus.
During childbirth, infants contract the infection in the birth canal resulting in bilateral conjunctivitis. Intimate contact is required to infect another
person, therefore, the myth of contracting the disease by toilet seats is a myth.
Multiplication
Replication of gonococci begin with the adherence to non–ciliated cells resulting in death triggered by the lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Once the ciliary
beat is impaired, the bacteria cannot be cleared from the mucosal

How E. Coli Affects The Digestive System
E. coli was first discovered by Theodor Escherich in 1885 after identifying it from the feces of a newborn.(BioWeb). E.coli affects the digestive system.
It's structures are a major part of its functions. E.coli's functions are what causes the digestive system to malfunction.
E.coli affects and attacks the digestive system. The digestive system is where the body takes each mouthful of food and turns it into a mushy paste, this
paste helps maintain the body's homeostasis. ( Science Explorer 44). Homeostasis is the body's tendency to keep a stable environment. The Digestive
System breaks down the food into nutrients, nutrients are the substances in the food that provide energy throughout your whole body. Carbohydrates
are also a major source

Bacteria And The Human Body
Bacteria plays an important role in our bodies and in the environment. In the human body, bacteria helps us remain healthy by fighting off infections,
aiding in digestion, reinforcing intestinal barrier effects and enhancing intestinal cell health and growth. Not only is bacteria important for our health,
but they are also important for the Earth's environment. In these environments, bacteria plays a pivotal role in helping to keep organisms healthy and to
help maintain the balance and control that are needed in these environments. In this research paper, I am going to talk about what bacteria and the
many benefits that it offers to every living species that is living on thee Earth.
Bacteria are tiny living microorganisms that cannot be ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Inside of bacteria, there are many cells within them that each form a specific function that helps to aid bacteria. One of these components is the basal
body.
The basal body helps to anchor the flagellum and allow it to rotate. The capsule is the layer that is located outside of the cell wall and not all bacteria
come with this feature. The cell wall is a membrane that is located outside of the cell membrane. Another feature is the bacteria's DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic Acid). The DNA of bacteria contains all of the information that bacteria needs for growth and development and it is located in the
cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm is a substance that is located inside of the plasma membrane. From the use of the bacteria's cytoplasm, proteins, amino acids, sugars,
nucleotides, salts, vitamins, enzymes, DNA, ribosomes, and the bacteria's internal structure which are all important to the bacteria's survival floats
around the cell through the use of cytoplasm. The flagellum is an object that bacteria use to help propel themselves through liquid substances. Not all
types of bacteria have a flagellum. Only rod shaped bacteria or spiral shaped bacteria have a flagellum.
Bacteria spherical (cocci) does not have a flagellum rendering them incapable of movement. Some types of bacteria not only have just one flagellum,
in fact some types of bacteria may have multiple flagellums each in different patterns. A single flagellum is

Hormogonia Research Paper
Cyanobacteria are an ancient class of aquatic and photosynthetic bacteria. There are various types of Cyanobacteria such as Nostoc punctiforme, a
filamentous cyanobacteria. N. punctiforme has different cell types such as vegetative cells, akinetes, heterocysts and hormogonia. Vegetative cells are
where photosynthesis occurs. In N. punctiforme, vegetative cells have a third developmental alternative in which they differentiate into akinetes
(dormant spore like cells). Akinetes are evolutionary precursors of heterocysts (Meeks and Elhai 2002). Heterocysts supply a microaerobic environment
to produce essential proteins for nitrogen fixation. Hormogonia are short filaments that come from parental filaments and are important for short
distance spread of filamentous cyanobacteria such as Nostoc punctiforme.
Hormogonia are different from vegetative filaments mainly by their gliding ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The first is the type IV pili theory and the second is the junctional pore theory. Type IV pili are filaments onbacteria that are involved in motility and
adhesion (Craig and Li, 2008). According to some recent studies there is evidence that hormogonia have pilus–like structures. In these studies they
inactivated the pilT–like (pilus retraction gene) and pilD–like (prepilin peptidase) components, which changed the surface piliation levels and lowered
the symbiotic competency (Duggan et al, 2007). Junctional pores are structures that form around filaments on both sides of each cross wall or septum.
These pores make channels that radiate out and it was found that they may be involved in gliding movements. The pores are sites where mucilage is
secreted and thus leads to the gliding motility of Nostoc punctiforme (Hoiczyk and Baumeister, 1998). Neither of these theories have enough evidence
to outcompete the other, but some researchers believe that the actual motility mechanism is a hybrid of

Archaea and Eubacteria Essay
Primarily, the Archaea were once believed to be just another rare group of bacteria, because like bacteria, they are single–celled microscopic
prokaryotic organisms with no membrane bound nucleus (http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Evolution/archaeaevolution.htm). Despite the similarities in
the cell structure of Eubacteria and Achaea, molecular research by Dr Carl Woese and his co–workers indicated that they differ significantly on the
molecular level (Bacteria in Biology, Biotechnology and medicine, Paul singleton). In this essay, am going to discuss the differences and similarities in
the fundamental cellular feature of both organisms.
Even though both Archaea and eubacteria have a cell wall to maintain rigidity throughout the cell, there are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Although both Archaeal and bacterial cells possess flagella for motility, the composition of each organism's flagellum is very different. In bacterial cell,
the flagellum is composed of a basal body, external protein filaments both are joined together by a third component called the hook.(Bacteria Flagella
David Gene Morgan , Shahid Khan). In Archaeal, the protein filament is polymerised, glycosylated and very much thinner. The Archaeal flagellum is
believed to be similar to the bacteria IV pilus in structure.(www.uniprot.org/keywords/974).
Another cellular feature shared by both Archaea and Bacteria is size and arrangement of ribosomes. Their ribosomes are much smaller in comparison
to eukaryotes. The function of their ribosomes is similar to the ones in eukaryotes; for translating mRNA codons to sequence of amino acids for the
synthesis of proteins. Both have 70S Ribosomes composed of 30S and 50S sub units that are joined to make a 70S unit. They contain "three
ribonucleic acid molecules" consisting of "16S, 23S AND 5S". On the other hand, the "primary structure of Archaea r–RNA and r–Proteins" is much
similar to the ones in eukaryotes and less similar to that of bacteria. Additionally, the Archaea ribosome is much firm compared to mesophilic bacteria's
ribosomes, this is particularly beneficial in terms of their adaptation to extreme environmental conditions. (Archaeal Ribosomes, Paola Londei,
university of Rome, "Sapienza"

Type III Secretion System
1.Strains of Escherichia coli and Citrobacter rodentium contain set of operons called the locus enterocyte effacement (LEE) region in their genomes.
This region encodes a type III secretion system (T3SS).
a.What are two mechanisms by which these organisms have acquired this region (2pts)? Which seems most likely (3pts)?
One mechanism by which E. coli. and C. rodentium could have acquired the locus enterocyte effacement region (LEE) in their genomes is via
mutation. Because the T3SS is related to bacterial flagellum, it could be possible that the LEE sequence originally coded for flagellar components
before some sort of mutation caused it to begin coding for a T3SS instead. Because the T3SS would increase the fitness of the bacterium, bacteria

Bacterial Cell Lab Report
Bacterial cells are smaller and simpler than plant and animal cells because they are prokaryotes and lack membrane bound organelles. In addition,
unlike animal and plant cells, bacterial cells lack a 'true' nucleus and mitochondria. Instead of a cell nucleus containing chromosomes, the DNA in
bacterial cells is arranged in a single circular strand in the cytoplasm.
Bacteria tend to multiply very rapidly under favorable conditions, forming colonies of millions or even billions of organisms within a space as small
as a drop of water. Bacteria also spreads and can survive in extreme conditions via a process called sporulation. Sporulation involves repackaging
genetic contents into small reproductive bodies called spores, which contain little water, have a low metabolism, do not divide and feature an
impermeable, multilayered envelope. They can grow into new bacteria once their environment replenishes its nutrients.
I was able to observe the shape of bacteria cells in this lab because millions of bacterial cells had grown into colonies making them visible. 5 shapes of
bacteria are spherical (cocci), rod (bacilli), spiral (spirilla), comma (vibrios) or corkscrew (spirochaetes). They can exist as single cells, in pairs, chains
or clusters. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In his test, bacteria that retain the crystal violet dye do so because of a thick layer of peptidoglycan and are called Gram–positive bacteria. In contrast,
Gram–negative bacteria do not retain the violet dye and are colored red or pink. Compared with Gram–positive bacteria, Gram–negative bacteria are
more resistant against antibodies because of their impenetrable cell wall. I believe the technique would be useful in this experiment to learn about and
distinguish both types of

Bacteria And Bacterial Cells
Bacteria are haploid organisms that lack the true nuclei of eukaryotic organisms. They contain one copy of each gene thus the genotype of bacteria can
be deduced from phenotypes. Bacteria can reproduce asexually by means of binary fission and have the ability to transfer genes by several
mechanisms: conjugation, transformation and transduction. Bacterial conjugation is a process that involves the transfer of genetic material between
bacteria through a contact dependent process. The gene transfer is carried out from a donor cell that contains a conjugative plasmid to a recipient cell
with no plasmid present. Plasmids are circular, double–stranded DNA molecules that can replicate independently of the host cell genome or can be
integrated into the genome and replicate with it during cell division. Conjugative plasmids are present in both Gram–positive and Gram negative
bacteria. The conjugative transfer of this bacterial plasmid encodes resistance of bacteria to antibiotics. Subsequently, conjugation and spread of
antibiotic resistance represents a severe problem in anti–microbial treatment, particularly of immunosuppressed patients and in hospitals.
Conjugative plasmids are also known as F–plasmids. During the process of conjugation, F–plasmid DNA molecule replicates and one copy of the
molecule is transferred to the recipient while the copy remains within the donor cell."The FвЂђplasmid has its own origin of replication (oriV), which
is a specific sequence at which DNA

The Formation Of Cellulose Fibrils Essay
Other genes like chvA, chvB, pscA and att regulate the formation of cellulose fibrils which are required for the first step of weak and reversible
attachment. Cellulose fibrils help the bacteria to attach to the wounded parts of the plant and also anchoring to each other forming a microcolony.
VirD4 protein and 11 VirB proteins make up type IV secretion system for the transfer of T
–DNA and several other Vir proteins like VirE2, VirF etc to
the host cell. VirD4 also promotes interaction of the processed T–DNA/VirD2 complex. As discussed earlier the T–DNA/VirD2 complex in turn
transforms into the T–strand that is then transferred into the plant cell. Most VirB proteins help either in forming the membrane channel or serve as
ATPase to provide energy. T–pilus is then formed by VirB2 ,VirB5, VirB7, VirB2 as they are the major pilin protein.
So the first major step in the transfer of T strand is the formation of a long flexious appendage known as the T–pilus (Bulgakov, 2000) . The detection
of presence of acetosyringone and other substances activates the expression of 11 genes in VirB operon which are responsible for the formation of the
T–pilus. Other products of VirB genes like VirB6, VirB7 etc are used to transfer other subunits across the plasma memebrane.
Now the T–DNA is delivered as a single stranded DNA molecule coupled with the VirD2 protein in the plant cell. The T
–DNA is then integrated into
the plant chromosome and are expressed by plants transcriptional machinery.

Kingdom 3 Domains
Brief Genetic History of the Kingdoms
Many biologists segregate prokaryotes into kingdom Bacteria and Archaea. There are three domains, Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. Biologists have
inferred that the three domains are the three divisions of life. Some biologists continue to evaluate the origin and relationships of the domains. They
have found that evolution is not always linear. Among the course of evolution, genes are passed down 'vertically' and swapped laterally from one
generation to another. Horizontal gene transfer or lateral gene transfer is when genes exchange amongst organisms in one taxon and related organisms
in another taxon. This process is common and can appear in several ways like the exchange of DNA between different ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Archaea do not have the simple RNA polymerase characteristic like the rest of bacteria. They have a combination of bacteria–like and eukaryote–like
genes indicated by gene sequencing (Martin, 2008). Just like the rest of bacteria, cocci and rods are the most common shapes among
archaebacteria. There are also shapes like branched and flat, but no evidence yet of spirochetes or mycelial forms. The plasma membrane lipids of
the bacteria are made up of glycerol diethers that form lipid bilayers. Tetraethers form lipid monolayers. The cell wall constituents are very diverse
but peptidoglycan is always absent. Some even contain only five layers, others combine the S layer with polysaccharides or proteins. At times, there
are archaebacteria that lack cell walls. There are inclusions present and gas vacuoles. Their external features consist of flagella, pili, and pilus–like
structures. It is rare for the archaebacteria to have capsules or slime layers. The S layer may be the only component outside the plasma membrane.
Within the archaeal membrane consists of isoprene units, which are five carbon. They have ether linkages instead of ester linkages to glycerol. Some
even have diglycerol tetraethers. Within some of the archaebacteria, the cell envelopes have varied S layers attached to the plasma membrane. It
contains pseudopeptidoglycan, which is a peptidoglycan–like polymer. It also

Marius's Loyalty To Power
Besides gaining an army, Marius gained something else: the extreme personal loyalty of the same landless masses which he recruited into his army.
The recruiting of the masses would change the entire relationship between citizens, generals, the Senate and Roman institutional ideology. Prior to
Marius, the armies may have been loyal to a particular commander or general, but still fought first and foremost for the Senate and People of Rome,
as well as the preservation and expansion of their own estates. After Marius, they fought for their Legate, that is their legally appointed commander,
and for the plunder and glory he could provide. These troops had no life outside the army, and served for very long periods, serving terms from 20 to
25 years.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Further, the extreme loyalty to generals leading the army rather than state would lead to open rebellion, civil war, the combinationmilitary political
power and eventually the crowning of emperors. Marius himself used his position as a general to help himself gain votes when he ran for Consul in
107 BC. Sallust writes of one of Marius' speeches delivered during his campaign, "Compare now, my fellow–citizens, me, who am a new man, with
those haughty nobles. What they have but heard or read, I have witnessed or performed. What they have learned from books, I have acquired in the
field; and whether deeds or words are of greater estimation, it is for you to consider." Marius clearly understood that the military and its functions were
not in a vacuum in relation to politics and moved to capitalize on this realization. His movement through politics would foreshadow those of his
nephew Gaius Julius Caesar, 50 years

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