Research Methods

Research Methods:
Data Collection,
Data Gathering / Extraction &
Data Transformation
Prepared by Sunantha krishnan on November 2020

Research Method & Data Collection

Survey Research [6,7]

Survey Research [5]
"survey" can be anything from a short paper-and-pencil feedback form to an intensive one-on-one in-depth interview.
• Most popular & common research method, non-experimental, descriptive research method., primarily quantitative,
but qualitative methods can be used too.
• The broad area involve asking questions to respondents.
• Surveys can be useful when a researcher wants to collect data on phenomena that cannot be directly observed.
• Gather information not available from other sources.
• A researcher may be able to gather data from all members of a population. Most of the time, the population is so
large that researchers must sample only a part of the population and make conclusions about the population based
on the sample.
• Unbiased representation of population interest. Consistency of measurement.
• Sampling issues and questionnaire design affect the accuracy, reliability, and representativeness of the research
findings.

Survey Research Classifications [5]
Classified according to PURPOSES
• Exploratory survey: to form general ideas about the research questions
• Descriptive survey: to collect more specific descriptions of the
variables of interest
• Explanatory survey: to develop understanding of relationships among
variables of interest
• Examples :
• How has the Amsterdam housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company X prefer product X or product Y?
• What are the main genetic, behavioural and morphological differences
between European wildcats and domestic cats?
• What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
• How prevalent is disease A in population B?

Survey Research Process to conduct a
survey [5]
• The survey research process includes ..
• The design of a survey ( Planning, Sampling , Questionaries)
• The acquisition of a sample ( Data Collection)
• The fielding of the survey ( Data Translation )
• Analysis
• Presentation of Results ( Conclusion)

Issues to consider in survey research[5]
• What is your RESEARCH QUESTION?
• Population: accessibility, literacy, and language issues?
• Sampling: available data and participation of respondents?
• Questions: type, length, and complexity? existing questionnaire?
• Content: knowledge of? • Bias: honest responses and social desirability?
• Administrative: cost, time, and equipment?

Category of Survey Error [ 1 ]

Connecting with the respondents [ 1 ]

[ 1 ]

Characteristic & Types of Telephone Interviews
[ 1 ]

Fig : Types of Questionnaires[ 1 ]

fig:[3]

Fig: DC
methods [4]

Observation Methods • Primary Data Collection Methods [2]

Observation methods [ 2 ]

Experimental Research [ 2 ]

[ 2 ]

References: Of Research Method & Data
Collection
1. https://slideplayer.com/slide/14100387/
2. https://www.slideshare.net/BalajiP6/method-of-data-collection-
39552784
3. https://www.slideshare.net/cadella49/survey-how-to
4. https://www.globalpatron.com/blog/data-collection-methods/
6. https://www.slideshare.net/maheswarijaikumar/survey-research-design-
122265053
7. https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_principles-of-sociological-inquiry-
qualitative-and-quantitative-methods/s11-survey-research-a-
quantitative.html

Measurement concept ,
sampling and field work

• Measurement is the assigning of numbers or codes according to prior-
set rules
• Measurements that can vary or be expressed as more than one value
throughout a study are called variables
• Types of Variables : One can consider whether a variable is:
• continuous (quantitative, scale), eg: AGE
• ordinal (ranked) eg OPINION 5 = strongly agree,
• categorical (qualitative, nominal) eg: Sex .
Measurement and Variables [1]

Levels of Measurement [2] or Types of Variables

Questionnaire Design [3]
Prepare written objectives for the research.
Have your objectives reviewed by others.
Review the literature related to the objectives.
Write a descriptive title for the questionnaire.
Write an introduction to the questionnaire.
Group the items by content, and provide a subtitle for each group.
Within each group of items, place items with the same format together.
At the end of the questionnaire, indicate what respondents should do next.
Prepare an informed consent form, if needed.
If the questionnaire will be mailed to respondents, avoid having your correspondence look
like junk mail.
If the questionnaire will be mailed, consider including a token reward.
If the questionnaire will be mailed, write a follow-up letter.
If the questionnaire will be administered in person, consider preparing written instructions
for the administrator.

Data Collection and Storage [1]
In collecting data, each sampled unit represents an observation, and each item on the data
collection form represents a variable. For example, a data collection form that looks like this:
What is your age? [__] (years)
What is your gender: [__] (M/F)
Are you HIV positive: [__] (Y/N)
Have you been diagnosed with Kaposi's Sarcoma? [__] (Y/N)
Today's date: [___/___/___]
Have you ever had an opportunistic infection? [__] (Y/N)

Data Collection and Storage cont. [1]
• showing 4 observations (n = 4) and 6 variables
Data from the forms are compiled to form a data table with observations arranged along rows
and variables forming columns. A data table based on the above form may look something like this:
AGE SEX HIV KAPOSISARC REPORTDATE OPPORTUNIST
27 F Y Y 04/25/89 N
30 F N N 09/11/89 Y
21 F Y Y 01/12/89 N
30 N Y Y 10/08/89 Y

Sampling Design : using a Random Samples [1]
eg: the population (sampling frame) has 600 individuals (N = 600), is a list of 10 random
numbers between 1 and 600: 35, 37, 43, 143, 321, 329, 337, 492, 494, 546

Sampling With and Without Replacement [1]
Sampling with replacement
• is done by "tossing" population member, back into the population pool after selection.
• all N members of the population are given an equal chance of being selected at each draw
sampling without replacement :
• is done so that once a population member has been drawn, this subject is removed from the population
pool for all subsequent draws.
• This way, once a population member has been drawn, their subsequent probability of selection is zero.
n - sample size
N - population size
f - sampling fraction (f = n / N)

Some Basic Terminology of Sampling
• Sample : few member chosen/taken that represent the traits of the
whole population
• Sample Method: a procedure to select sample member from a
population
• Sample Frame : is a list from which potential members are chosen
• Sampling Process : a process that contain several stage
• Sample frame, sample size and sample methods are fixed to implement the
sample plan , collect data and to review the process.
• Biased Sample : one/more participants are favoured over others

Types of Sampling Method
The two different types of sampling methods are:
• Probability Sampling
• Non-probability Sampling

Sampling
Process and
design
Define the Population
Determine the sample
frame
Determine the
sampling Procedure /
Method
Probability Sampling Non probability Sampling
Determine the sample Size

Examples of Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Cluster Sampling

Probability Sampling
Simple
Random
Sampling
Stratified
Sampling
Multistage
Sampling
Cluster
Sampling
Systematic
Sampling
The population has
equal probability of
being in the sample.
The population is divided
into subgroups (Strata) ,
from each group a
random sample is taken
form it (Stratum)
The whole
population is
divided into cluster
or groups
A step by step
process where
broad sample is
moved to
narrowed sample
Every nth case
become a part of
sample after a
random start is
selected
1 stage
Sampling
2 stage
Sampling
Multistage
Sampling
Simple stage
sampling
Probability
Proportionate to
size sampling
Every member of
the population
selected has a
chance or random .

Panel
Sampling
Snowball
Sampling
Purposive or
Judgemental
Sampling
Connivence
Sampling
Periodically asking
the same people for
several time
Based on the goals
of study, members
appropriate for the
study is chosen
Use few cases to
help & encourage
other cases to
participate , there
by increasing the
sample size
Participants are ready and
easily available or proximity
to the researcher,
opportunity sampling or
accidental grab
Non Probability
Sampling
Some members are out of
the coverage or has no
chance of selecting or
probability is not accurate
Choosing sample
based on
predetermined
characteristics
eg age>45
Quota
Sampling

Sample
Frame
Error
Selection
Error
Non response
When a wrong sub
population is used to
select a sample
Occurs due to
potential
respondent refused
to respond or
participate
Occurs when a
member or
respondent self
selects their
participation in the
study
Sampling Error
Statical error that occurs cause the Rr has
not included a sample that represent the
entire population and the result found in
sample does not represent the result
obtained from entire population
Rr. Don't
understand
whom they have
to survey ?
Population
specification
error

Selecting Sample Size
• Arbitrary Approach (10% of the population)
• Conventional Approach (What others have done )
• Cost Basis Approach (How many does budget allow?)
• Statistical Analysis Approach (Adequate for subgroup analysis)
• Confidence Interval Approach (Allows us to predetermine how
precise our estimates are)

Control Sampling Error
• Careful sample design
• Large sample
• Multiple contact assures representation response
• Call-back

Filed Works – Definition
• Field research: is defined as a qualitative method of data collection that aims to
observe, interact and understand people while they are in a natural environment.[6]
• Field research : A Natural way in a specific setting where the end objective of the
study is to observe and analyse the specific behaviour of a subject in that setting.[6]
• Field work : can mean the data collection stage of a project (particularly in the
qualitative tradition); or how researchers go about collecting data; or more narrowly,
data collection in a social setting that tries to reflect the naturally occurring order of
events and subjective meanings of those being studied.[7]
• Fieldwork: as qualitative research. The natural setting. Anthropological inheritance:
‘going into the field’. Making records of events as they happen. Preparations for
fieldwork. Fieldwork as an exploratory stage. Planning inductive research. Access;
gatekeepers; rules of engagement. Reactions to the fieldworker. ‘Acceptance’ and
moral obligations.[7]

Fig : Field Research Methods Combination [8]

Table :Field Research
Examples [8]

Field Work – 5 Methods
Field Research Method [6]

Field Work – 5 Methods
1. Direct Observation
1. The data is collected in a natural environment or a situation though an observational method
2. The behaviour or outcome of situation is not interfered in any way by the researcher.
3. The advantage of direct observation is that it offers contextual data on people, situations, interactions and
the surroundings.
4. This method of field research is widely used in a public setting or environment but not in a private
environment as it raises an ethical issues and dilemma
2. Participant Observation
1. The researcher is deeply involved in the research process, not just purely as an observer, but also as a
participant.
2. This method too is conducted in a natural environment but the only difference is the researcher gets
involved in the discussions and can mould the direction of the discussions.
3. In this method, researchers live in a comfortable environment with the participants of the research, to
make them comfortable and open up to in-depth discussions.
3. Ethnography
1. An expanded observation of social research and social perspective and the cultural values of an entire
social setting.
2. The entire communities are observed objectively.
3. e.g.:- if a researcher would like to understand how an Oberginnies tribe lives their life and operates,
he/she may chose to observe them or live amongst them and silently observe their day-to-day behaviour.

Field Work – 5 Methods cont...
4. Qualitative Interviews
1. Qualitative Interviews are close ended questions that are asked directly to the
research subjects.
2. The qualitative interviews could be either informal and conversational, semi-
structured, standardized and open-ended or a mix of all the above three.
3. This provides a wealth of data to the researcher that they can sort through.
4. This also helps collect relational data. This method of field research can use a mix
of one-on-one interviews, focus groups and Text analysis.
5. Case Study
1. This type of Research is an in-depth analysis of a person, situation or event.
2. This method may look difficult to operate, however, it is one of the simplest ways
of conducting research.
3. It involves a deep dive and thorough understanding the data collection methods
and inferring the data.

Reference : for Measurement concept ,
sampling and field work
1. https://www2.sjsu.edu/faculty/gerstman/StatPrimer/measure.htm
2. https://in.pinterest.com/pin/350858627198810302/
3. http://home.ubalt.edu/ntsbarsh/stat-data/surveys.htm#rss
4. https://www.slideshare.net/shilpipanchal2/sampling-design-ppt
6. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/field-research/
7. https://methods.sagepub.com/book/key-concepts-in-social-
research/n19.xml
8. https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_principles-of-sociological-inquiry-
qualitative-and-quantitative-methods/s13-01-field-research-what-is-it-
and-.html

END

Research Methods

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