BSCL Project Report on Vocational Training at Mechanical Engineering Department

BURN STANDARD COMPANY LIMITED (BSCL)
PROjECT REPORT fOR vOCATIONAL TRAININg
NAME: - SUBhAjIT DUTTA.
RIShAv ShARMA.
DEPARTMENT: - MEChANICAL
(4Th
YEAR, 7
COLLEgE:- hOOghLY
SUBhAjIT DUTTA.
RIShAv ShARMA.
MEChANICAL ENgINEERINg.
YEAR, 7Th
SEMESTER)
hOOghLY ENgINEERINg & TEChNOLOgY
(hETC)
TEChNOLOgY COLLEgE.

DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT IN
CHARGE
SIGNATURE
Wagon Mr. N.N.Banerjee
Foundary Mr. A.Mukherjee
E.W/Maintenance Mr. M.K.Sadhu
Purchase & Store Mr. S.K.Acharya
Accounts Mr. V.P.Verma
&
Mrs. D.Karmakar
Personal Mr. A.Sarkar

 List of content :-
 Introduction about burn standard company.
 Wagon department:-
 Introduction
 Types of wagon
 About BCNHL wagon
 Process of BCNHL wagon
 Various parts in BCNHL wagon
 Wheel mounting
 Air brake system
 Classification of air brake system
 Bogie mounted brake system
 Brake pipe and feed pipe hoses
 Automatic brake cylinder pressures modification
 NBC Bearing
 Assembly
 Quality check tests
 Foundry department:-
 Introduction
 Sand testing process
 Methods of sand testing
 Furnace
 Electrical furnace
 Operation
 Shot blasting
 Maintenance department:-
 Lathe machine
 Boring machine
 Drilling machine
 Milling machine
 Shaping machine
 Bending machine
 Shearing machine
 Compressor
 Electrical overhead traveling crane
 Pump and compressor unit

 Coupler department.
 Purchase and Store department.
 Accounts department.
 Personal department.
 Reference.

Burn Standard Company
 INTRODUCTION :-
BURN STANDARD COMPANY LIMITED (BSCL) is a Public Sector Undertaking (PSU) of the Government of
India. Headquartered in Kolkata, India, BSCL is engaged mainly in railway wagon manufacturing under
the Ministry of Railways. The company was formed with the merger of two companies – Burn & Company
(founded 1781) and Indian Standard Wagon (founded 1918), and was nationalized in 1975. In fiscal 2006, the
company reported aggregated revenues of ₹1,373 million (US$21 million). Subsequently, the company with its two
engineering units at Howrah and Burnpur came under the administrative control of Ministry of Railways in
September 2010. The refractory unit at Salem, Tamil Nadu, was transferred to Steel Authority of India Limited.
According to UK based newspaper Independent, in March 2008, John Messer, the lead in-house lawyer for US
engineering group McDermott International, was still trying to get paid for a contract drawn up in the late 1980s to
build a giant offshore platform for the Mumbai High oil field. In October 2006, Burn Standard, the Indian
engineering company that sub-contracted work on the project to McDermott, lost its appeal against a court ruling
instructing it to pay the US group $90m (£45m). The amount due has already been paid after finalization of the
arbitration and initiative taken by the Government of India.
The Company has two Engineering units at Howrah & Burnpur, Foundry unit at Howrah. Due to consistent losses
and erosion of net worth, Company was referred to BIFR in November 1994 & officially declared sick in January
1995. Rehabilitation package approved by BIFR in April 1999 was declared failed in 2001. Effort to bring in change
in management did not fructify. Revival plan has been approved by CCEA in August 2010. After revival of package,
Company came under the administrative control of Ministry of Railways (MOR) from Ministry of Heavy Industry
on 15.09.2010 Burn & Company came into existence in 1881 in Howrah West Bengal.
During the early days, Burn & Company undertook building and contracting work. Subsequently in the 1950s of the
last century, it ventured into the field of Railway Engineering, altogether new development in the country's economy
.With the rapid expansion of Railways, Burn & Company started manufacturing Railway rolling stock at Howrah to
cater to the increasing demand. In 1976 following nationalization Burn & Co. was amalgamated with Indian
Standard Wagon Company (founded in 1918) and renamed as Burn Standard Co Ltd. Burn Standard Company Ltd.,
is one of the oldest and a leading wagon builder in India. The wagon building activities are carried out at two
Engineering Units at Howrah and Burnpur situated in West Bengal, India. Several thousand wagons covering all
major designs have been manufactured and supplied to Indian Railways and other Industrial Customers. Apart from
supplies to Indian Railways, the Company also manufactures and supplies special purpose wagons to various core
sectors like power, steel plants in India. The Company has supplied special purpose wagons fitted with Air
Fluidizing System for bulk movement and quick unloading of Alumina powder to M/s. National Aluminium Co.
(NALCO). It has also supplied sophisticated Bottom Discharge Wagons to National Thermal Power Corporation
(NTPC), New Delhi for their various plants in the country.
Products and services :-
 Railway wagons: tanker, hopper, flat.
 Casnub bogies.
 Couplers and Draft Gears.
 Steel Castings, Pressings, Forgings Bridge Girders, Structural, Sleepers, Points
and Crossings, Wagon Components.
 Wagon refurbishment
 Burn Standard India renovated SLC Type for the CLC system in Kolkata in
1980s.
 Ash/coal plant construction

WAGON
 INTRODUCTION :-
Wagons are unpowered railway vehicles that are used for the transportation of cargo. A variety of wagon types
are in use to handle different types of goods, but all goods wagons in a regional network typically have
standardized couplers and other fittings, such as hoses for air brakes, allowing different wagon types to be
assembled into trains. For tracking and identification purposes, goods wagons are generally assigned a unique
identifier, typically a UIC wagon number, a company reporting mark plus a company specific serial number.
 TYPES OF WAGON:-
BTPN BOBYN
(Tank wagon for liquid consignment) (Stone Ballast Wagon)
BCNHL BOST
(Stainless Steel Wagon) (High Sided Bogie Open Wagon)
BCNA BOBYRN
(Water tight covered wagon) (Hopper Coal Wagon)

BLLA/B CONCOR FLAT WAGON BRNA
BCNHL (BOGIE CLOSED WAGON HEAVY LOADED)
 INTRODUCTION TO BCNHL WAGON :
This wagon was designed at 22.9t axle load in 2006. The design was made by CRF section and stainless steel
materials.
Advantages of using stainless steel as base material:-
1. Reduction in tare weight -more payload
2. Less corrosion
3. Less fuel consumption in empty running
4. Less requirement of loco, crew & path
5. Extra line capacity available
6. Less incidences of out of course repair
7. Reduction in turnaround time of wagons due to less detentions
8. Throughput enhancement
Broad Gauge bogie wagon type BCNHL having maximum axle load of 22.9 tonn has been designed by RDSO
to increase the throughput over the existing BCNAHSM1 design (axle load 22.32tonn). The payload to tare ratio
for BCNHL wagon is 3.4 as compared to 2.63 of existing BCNAHSM1 wagon. BCNHL wagon is useful for the
transportation of bagged commodities of cement, fertilizers, foodgrain etc. The design incorporates filament of
Casnub 22HS Bogies, High tensile (non transition type centre buffer coupler), Single Pipe Graduated Release air
brake system. Now as an advancement twin pipe air brake system is developed.
Some assigned characteristics of BCNHL wagon are as following:-
1. Maximum axle load (loaded) 22.9 t.
2. Maximum axle load ( Empty ) 5.2 t
3. Maximum C.G height from Rail level (loaded) 2327mm
4. Maximum C.G height from Rail level (Empty) 1134mm
5. Maximum braking force at rail level 10 % of per axle axle load.
The provisional speed certificate for operation of 22.9t axle load BCNHL wagon shall remain valid up
to 5 years from date of issue or before date of issue of the Final Speed Certificate whichever is
earlier.

 STANDARD FEATURES OF ‘BCNHL’ WAGON :
1. Length over head stock (mm) 10034
2. Length over couplers (mm) 10963
3. Length inside (mm) 10034
4. Width inside/Width Overall (mm) 3345/3450
5. Height inside/Height (max.) from RL. 3024/4305
6. Bogie centers (mm) 7153
7. Journal length × dia. (mm) 144x278
8. Journal centers (mm) 2260
9. Wheel dia. on tread (New/Worn) (mm) 1000/906
10. Height of C.B.C. from R.L. (mm) 1105
11. C.G. from R.L. (empty) (m) 1134
12. C.G. from R.L. (loaded) (m) 2327
13. Floor area (Sq.M) 33.56
14. Cubic Capacity (Cu.M) 92.54
15. Maximum axle load (tonne) 22.9
16. Tare Weight (tonne) 20.8
17. Pay load (tonne) 70.8
18. Gross load (Pay Tare) (tonne) 91.6
19. Ratio gross load/Tare 4.4
20. Ratio (Pay load to tare) 3.4
21. Track Loading density (tonnes/meter) 8.35
22. No. of wagons per train 58
23. Brake System Air Brake
24. Coupler carbon buffer coupler
25. Bearing R.B.
26. Maximum Speed (Loaded) 65 kmph
27. Maximum Speed (Empty)
A BCNHL wagon is a closed type wagon which has following main parts-
 Under frame
 Centre Sill
 Roof
 Body end
 End side
 Wheels
 Bogie
 Braking system
All these parts are separately made and assembled together to construct a wagon. The flow process for
constructing a wagon is as following:-
 Firstly Under frame is completely build and is provided with fluring, gearing and then it is inspected
by RDSO people and after clearing the test further assembling is done.

PROCESS OF A BCNHL WAGON
RAW MATERIAL
↓
↓
↓
↓
↓
SHOT BLASTING
↓
PAINT
↓
DISPATCH
CUTTING
PLASMA
CUTTING
SHEAR
CUTTING
CNC
CUTTING
PRESSING
POWER PRESS DROP HAMMER
HYDRAULIC AND
PNEUMATIC
PRESSES
WELDING
MIG
WELDING
ARC
WELDING
ASSEMBLY
UNDERFRAME BODY SIDE DOORS BODY END ROOF
WHEELS AND
BOGIE
BRAKING
SYSTEM

 VARIOUS PARTS IN A BCNHL WAGON :
 Centre sill SMAW welding
 Side body MIG welding
 Roof MIG welding
 End body MIG welding
 Under frame SMAW welding
 Crossbar MIG welding
 Door MIG welding
During welding in a BCNHL wagon various welding techniques are used like flat welding, horizontal welding,
vertical welding, overhead welding, etc. But it is always preferred to weld as flat welding. So wherever possible,
by using manipulators, workpiece is so adjusted that it can be welded as flat or horizontal. It increases the
efficiency of worker and it is also safe to do so.
 CENTER SILL :
General Description Data
SL
NO
LOCATION NOMINAL DIMENSION & ALLOWABLE
DEVIATION (mm)
1 LENGTH A1 10034,+7,-3
A2
2 HEIGHT AND WIDTH OF END
CETER SILL
C1 327±1.5
C2 530,+1.5,-0
3 HEIGHT AND WIDTH OF
CENTER SILL
C3 270±1.5
C4 477,+1.5,-0
4 DRAFT GEAR POCKET X 625.5,+0,-1.5
Y 327±1.5

 DESCRIPTION:-
Centre sill is the part is bears all the weight of the wagon. It is in 3 separate parts which are welded together.
Each part is made of 2 separate Z sections, which are welded together. Z-section are welded after they have been
drilled and finished for assembling rivets in them in later stage. On the two ends it has Centre filler which
actually takes the weight of whole wagon. Each centre filler has Bolster which is fixed with the wheel of wagon.
Stepners are provided to give strength to the structure.
3 finished center sill set
 UNDERFRAME :

S.NO. LOCATION NOMINAL DIMENSIONS & ALLOWABLE
DEVIATION(mm)
1 Length over head stock A1 10034,+7,-3
A2
2 Width over Solebar B1 3350±3
B2
B3
B4
B5
3 Distance between bolster
bogie centre
C1 7153,+5,-2
C2
4 Distance between side
bearers centre
E1 1474±2
E2
5 Diagonal difference over
headstock
D1 ≤5
D2
6 Camber 10,+0,-3
 DESCRIPTION:-
Main parts of Underframe are:-
Booster: - It bears the weight of wheels.
Crossbar: - This supports roof’s and body’s weight.
Rib:- It provides strength to center sill.
Channel (4):- These are fixed in the assembly to strengthen the Under frame.
Head stock (4):-It supports the body end weight.
Sole bar (2):- It supports the body side weight.
Special crossbar, Equalizer, Safety loop and Lever bracket (1 small and 1 big):- These are provided to
for air brake assembly.
empty load:- It take care of braking system while on load or on no load condition.
Side barrier plate:- It is for proper balancing of the wagon. It is on two side of bolster and has Anchor,
Plate and Draft:- It is an assembly which is for connecting two wagons with each other.

Underframe Structure
 BODY SIDE :
S.NO. LOCATION NOMINAL
DIMENSIONS &
ALLOWABLE
DEVIATION(mm)
1 Distance between floor
sheet top to the top of
coping
A1 2047±3
A2
2 Overall stanchion height B1 2059±3
B2

B3
3 Door opening horizontal C1 1204, +0,-3
C2
4 Door opening vertical D1 1985,+0,-3
D2
5 Distance over corner
stanchions
E 10050,+7,-3
6 Diagonal difference
over corners
F1 ≤5
F2
7 Distance between corner
stanchion to end
stanchion centre
J1 858±3
J2
8 Centre distance between
stanchion to stanchion
L1 595±3
L2
L3
L4
stanchion centre line to
door stanchion end
M1 939±3
M2
stanchion centre line to
door stanchion end
H1 834±3
H2
11 Body side sheet height K1 1905±3
K2
K3
12 Distance between door
link frame to corner
stanchion
N1 1648±1
N2
13 Distance between corner
stanchion to door centre
P1 2399±1
P2

 DESCRIPTION:-
Body side of BCNHL type wagon posses 3 different parts assembled together. Base plate is of 2.5mm thickness.
Doors openings are left where doors are assembled in a later stage. In sides also pressings are provided for
strength purpose.
Body Side
 ROOF :

S.NO. LOCATION LOCATION NOMINAL
DIMENSIONS &
ALLOWABLE
DEVIATION(mm)
1 Distance between roof
top to top of side top
coping
E1 985±3
E2
2 Distance between
corner roof carline
C1 10050,+7,-3
C2
3 Roof inside width D1 3335±3
D2
D3
over corner
F1 ≤5
F2
5 Centre distance
between stanchion to
stanchion
J1 595±3
J2
J3
J4
6 Centre distance
stanchion
L1 641.5±3
L2
L3
L4
7 Centre distance
stanchion
H1 794.5±3
H2
8 Distance between
corner stanchion to
stanchion centre
K1 858±3
K2

 DESCRIPTION:-
Roof is a stainless steel rigid structure which has two main parts viz. car line and coffin line. There are 6 car
lines and 8 coffin lines. Sheet used is of 1.6mm thickness. Supporting pressings are used to gain strength
Roof Structure
 DOORS :

DIMENSIONS &
ALLOWABLE
DEVIATION(mm)
1 Distance between hinge
centre to door edge
A1 859±1.5
A2 872±1.5
link bracket frame edge
to door edge
B1 743±1.5
B2 756±1.5
3 Center distance between
door bracket hinge
C1 305±0.5
C2
over corner
D1 ≤3
D2
5 Center distance
between door hinge
E1 86±0.5
E2
link bracket frame top to
door hinge bracket
center
H1 45±0.5
H2
link bracket frame top to
door hinge bracket top
G1 63±0.5
G2
8 Gap between door F 3±0.5
 DESCRIPTION: -
Doors of a BCNHL are of stainless steel. These doors are of Slider type and whole assembly has pressings, lock,
and Sliding arrangement. MIG welding is used for its assembly.

 WHEEL MOUNTING :
Wheel mounting is the procedure of assembling bearing on wheels. Basic procedure of wheel mounting is as
following:-
a. First of all, take bearing out of packing and mount it on the wheel set.
b. Clean up the mounting space of axle of wheel with paint remover.
c. Now check axle journal, dust guard and seal ring.
d. Provide a coat of anti rust compound on axle and dust guard.
e. Use press fit lubricant on axle before mounting the bearing.
 PROCEDURE:-
a) REMOVAL:-
Remove the axle end cap by removing the cap screws. Replace all locking plates. Replace axle end
caps that are distorted, cracked or damaged. Inspect the cap screw threads. Cap screws that are
damaged, distorted, or cracked or that cannot be tightened to the required torque must be replaced.
b) INSTALLATION:-
1. Check axle journal, fillet, dust guards, seal wear ring grooves and upset ends before applying bearing.
2. Apply a moderate to hard coating of approved anti rust compound to the axle and dust guard fillets up
to wheel hub before the bearings are applied.
3. Coat the axle journal with an approved press-fit lubricant prior to applying bearing.
4. Press the bearings on the axle journal and allow the pressure to build up to the specified on the packing.
Verify that there is adequate press ram travel to ensure proper seating of bearing. Mount bearings with
fitted design backing ring; class E, F or G on an axle with tolerance dust guard diameter, where
possible, to provide a press fit. Check the baring seating on a bearing that has non fitted design backing
ring by attempting to insert a 0.050µ feeler gauge between the backing ring and axle fillet. If the feeler
gauge can be inserted more than 1/8 inches, the bearing is not properly seated.
5. Apply the axle end caps and tighten the cap screws with a torque wrench. Recheck each cap screw
several times until the cap screws do not move when the specified torque is applied.
6. Lock the cap screws by bending all of the locking plate tabs flat against the sides of the cap screw
heads.
7. Check the bearing lateral play with a dial indicator mounted on a magnetic base. Revolve the several
times while forcing the bearing cup towards the wheel hub pull the cup away from the wheel hub the
bearing lateral play should be between 0.025 µ to 0.432 µ. If a tapered roller bearing rotates freely by
rotating with hand, but indicates less than 0.025 µ lateral on the dial indicator, the application is
satisfactory for the service.
 GENERAL DATA:-
 Bore diameter of cylinder 160mm
 Diameter of dust guard 178.562mm to 178.613mm
 Required pressure 350kg/cm2
 Journal diameter 144.539mm to 144.564mm

.
After wheel mounting process, wheel are assembled in the wagon. In this process, firstly bogie is assembled to
wheel as shown in figure. Then wagon is lifted by crane and putted over the wheels such that bolster is rightly
fitted at its place in wagon. After this, wheels and wagon are tightened together by rivets.
CUTTING
 PLASMA CUTTING:-
Plasma cutting is a process that is used to cut steel and other metals of different thicknesses (or sometimes other
materials) using a plasma torch. In this process, an inert gas (in some units, compressed air) is blown at high
speed out of a nozzle; at the same time an electrical arc is formed through that gas from the nozzle to the surface
being cut, turning some of that gas to plasma. The plasma is sufficiently hot to melt the metal being cut and
moves sufficiently fast to blow molten metal away from the cut.

The HF Contact type uses a high-frequency, high-voltage spark to ionize the air through the torch head and
initiate an arc. These require the torch to be in contact with the job material when starting, and so are not
suitable for applications involving CNC cutting.
The Pilot Arc type uses a two cycle approach to producing plasma, avoiding the need for initial contact. First, a
high-voltage, low current circuit is used to initialize a very small high-intensity spark within the torch body,
thereby generating a small pocket of plasma gas. This is referred to as the pilot arc. The pilot arc has a return
electrical path built into the torch head. The pilot arc will maintain itself until it is brought into proximity of the
workpiece where it ignites the main plasma cutting arc. Plasma arcs are extremely hot and are in the range of
25,000 °C (45,000 °F).[1]
Plasma is an effective means of cutting thin and thick materials alike. Hand-held torches can usually cut up to 2
in (48 mm) thick steel plate, and stronger computer-controlled torches can cut steel up to 6 inches (150 mm)
thick. Since plasma cutters produce a very hot and very localized "cone" to cut with, they are extremely useful
for cutting sheet metal in curved or angled shapes.
WELDING PROCEESES
 INTRODUCTION:-
Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals of thermoplasts, by causing coalescence.
This is often done by melting the work pieces and adding a filler material from a pool of molten material that
cools to become a strong joint. Sometimes pressure is used along with heat to produce the weld. Therefore, a
welding process is “a materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to
suitable temperatures with or without the application of pressure of by the application of pressure alone and
with or without use of filler material”.
 ARC WELDING:-
Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metals. By applying intense heat, metal at the joint
between two parts is melted and caused to intermix directly, or more commonly, with an intermediate molten
filler metal. Upon cooling a metallurgical bond is created. The arc welding process involves the creation of a
suitable small gap between the electrode and the workpiece. When the circuit is made, large current flows and
an arc is formed between the electrode and the workpiece. The resulting high current causes the workpiece and
the electrode to melt. The electrode is consumable and includes meta for the weld, a coating which burns off to
form gases which shield the weld from air and flux. When the weld solidifies a crust is formed from the
impurities created in the weld process (slag). This is easily chipped away.
 ARC WELDING CIRCUIT:-
The basic arc welding circuit is shown in following fig. An AC or DC power source, fitted with whatever
controls may be needed, is connected by a work cable to the workpiece and by a “hot” cable to an electrode
when the energized circuit and the electrode tip touches the workpiece and is withdrawn, yet still within close

contact. The arc produces a temperature of about 6500ºC at the tip. This heat melts both the base metal and the
electrode, producing a pool of molten metal sometimes called a “crater”. The crater solidifies behind the
electrode as it is moved along the joint. The result is a fusion bond.
 GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)/MIG:
Metal inert gas arc welding (MIG) or more appropriately called as gas metal arc welding (GMAW) utilizes a
consumable electrode and hence, the term meta
The typical setup for GMAW (or MIG) is shown in fig. The consumable electrode is in the form of a wire reel
which is fed at a constant rate, through the feed rollers. The welding torch is connected to the gas supply
cylinder which provides the necessary in
power supply. The power supplies are always of the constant voltage type only. The current from the welding
machine is changed by the rate of feeding of the electrode wire.
rode as it is moved along the joint. The result is a fusion bond.
GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)/MIG:-
consumable electrode and hence, the term metal appears in the title.
cylinder which provides the necessary inert gas. The electrode and the workpiece are connected to the welding
machine is changed by the rate of feeding of the electrode wire.
ert gas. The electrode and the workpiece are connected to the welding

 CTRB-NBC Bearings:
Since 1952, the company has fully met the requirements of the Indian Railways (one of largest systems of the
world) by designing and developing axle boxes and bearings for fitment to locomotives manufactured by Diesel
Locomotive Works, General Motors Locomotives, Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, the ICF broad and meter
guage coaches, as well as various wagon builders. Over a million NBC bearings and boxes are in service with
Indian Railways. The development of completely Indigenous axle b
Rajdhani Locomotive, the Yugoslavian and the Egyptian Railway Wagons are the highlights of the design
capabilities at NEI. Today more than 100 types of axle boxes and bearings are being manufactured.
 Different Parts of CTRB
1. Spacer 2. Cage
4. Inner ring 5. End
7. Seal Wear Ring 8. Seal.
10. Outer Ring etc.
 Range:-
6-1/2×12 Class `F’,6×11 Class ‘E’ & 5
Inch Bore to 9.96 Inch OD).
Preventing grease deterioration and leakage, as well as the intrusion of water and other foreign matter into the
grease, are vital for eliminating bearing trouble and lengthening
offer the best way of achieving these objectives.
RCT bearings are highly integrated with surrounding components and incorporate advanced sealing
mechanisms. They offer outstanding performance, durability and
was approved by the Association of American Railroads (AAR) for use on freight car axles and has been widely
used in markets all over the world. In Japan, RCT bearings have long been used as container car axle bea
earning a reputation among users for their excellent performance and durability. Recently, RCT bearings are
being used in a broader range of applications including Shinkansen trains and new models of conventional
electric and diesel trains.
 The following outlines the features and usage of current RCT bearings:
1. Generally, RCT bearings consist of an end cap, cap screws, a locking plate for fastening the end cap, a seal
wear ring, a double-row tapered roller bearing and a backing ring. The latest v
also serves as a seal wear ring.
NBC Bearings:
General Motors Locomotives, Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, the ICF broad and meter
Indian Railways. The development of completely Indigenous axle boxes and bearings for the high speed
CTRB-NBC bearing are as follows :-
Cage. 3. Roller
End Cap. 6. Cap Screw
Seal. 9. Cap Screw Cage
1/2×12 Class `F’,6×11 Class ‘E’ & 5-1/2×10, Class ‘D’ Cartridge Tapered Roller Bearing for Wagons (5.19
grease, are vital for eliminating bearing trouble and lengthening maintenance intervals. Clearly, bearing seals
offer the best way of achieving these objectives.
mechanisms. They offer outstanding performance, durability and ease of handling. The NSK RCT inch series
used in markets all over the world. In Japan, RCT bearings have long been used as container car axle bea
lowing outlines the features and usage of current RCT bearings:
row tapered roller bearing and a backing ring. The latest variation has a backing ring that
General Motors Locomotives, Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, the ICF broad and meter
oxes and bearings for the high speed
Cartridge Tapered Roller Bearing for Wagons (5.19
maintenance intervals. Clearly, bearing seals
ease of handling. The NSK RCT inch series
used in markets all over the world. In Japan, RCT bearings have long been used as container car axle bearings,
lowing outlines the features and usage of current RCT bearings:
ariation has a backing ring that

2. When the axle end needs to be exposed for inspection or re
by loosening the cap screws and removing the end cap
3. Oil seals, mounted in seal cases, are press
seal wear rings with a specified interference and pressure. The seals are spring
They are capable of preventing grease leakage and the intrusi
The seal packing is made of nitrile or acrylic rubber in most cases, although it may be made of fluoric rubber for
high-speed applications such as in Shinkansen trains.
4. An amount of grease equivalent to approximately onehalf to one
including seal lips, is prepacked in the bearing. No grease replenishment is necessary for the duration of the
bearing’s service life. Grease with NLG
grease is most often used, though other kinds of grease such as lithium
grease may be used depending on bearing conditions like speed, load and mainte
5. The mounting and dismounting of RCT bearings is performed by press
purpose tools. The press-fitting operation is controlled by the amount of interference between the outside
diameter of the axle journal and the bore diameter of the bearing’s inner ring, as well as by the load applied
from the press-fitting. 6. For the assembly of bogies with axles supported by RCT bearings, saddle
are used instead of the bearing boxes commonly used fo
the weight of the bogie and make assembly work easier.
 FINAL ASSEMBLY
2. When the axle end needs to be exposed for inspection or re-machining of the wheel, it can be exposed easily
by loosening the cap screws and removing the end cap.
seal cases, are press-fitted onto both ends of the outer ring and are in contact with the
seal wear rings with a specified interference and pressure. The seals are spring-loaded contact seals.
They are capable of preventing grease leakage and the intrusion of water and foreign matter into the bearing.
speed applications such as in Shinkansen trains.
4. An amount of grease equivalent to approximately onehalf to one-third of the bearing’s internal volume,
bearing’s service life. Grease with NLGI consistency number 2 is used for axle bearings. Lithium or sodium
grease is most often used, though other kinds of grease such as lithium-calcium compound grease or urea
grease may be used depending on bearing conditions like speed, load and maintenance frequency.
5. The mounting and dismounting of RCT bearings is performed by press-fitting or press-pulling using special
fitting operation is controlled by the amount of interference between the outside
ournal and the bore diameter of the bearing’s inner ring, as well as by the load applied
fitting. 6. For the assembly of bogies with axles supported by RCT bearings, saddle
are used instead of the bearing boxes commonly used for ordinary bearings. The use of such adapters can reduce
the weight of the bogie and make assembly work easier.
FINAL ASSEMBLY:-
machining of the wheel, it can be exposed easily
fitted onto both ends of the outer ring and are in contact with the
loaded contact seals.
on of water and foreign matter into the bearing.
third of the bearing’s internal volume,
I consistency number 2 is used for axle bearings. Lithium or sodium
calcium compound grease or urea-based
nance frequency.
pulling using special-
fitting operation is controlled by the amount of interference between the outside
ournal and the bore diameter of the bearing’s inner ring, as well as by the load applied
fitting. 6. For the assembly of bogies with axles supported by RCT bearings, saddle-type adapters
r ordinary bearings. The use of such adapters can reduce

 General Description Data:-
DIMENSIONS &
ALLOWABLE
DEVIATION
1 Coupler height from
R.L.
A1 1105,+0,-5
A2
2 Floor height from R.L. B1 1273±3
B2
3 Length inside L1 11034,+7,-3
L2
4 Width inside C1 3345±3
C2
C3
5 Height inside(floor level
t top)
D1 2980±3
6 Length over coupler
face
E1 10963,+8,-3
E2
7 Side bearer clearance - Nill
8 Overall width F1 3450±3
F2
F3
9 Distance between bogie
centers
G 7153±3
10 Overall height from R.L. H1 4305±3
11 Door opening vertical J1 1985,+0,-3
J2
12 Door opening horizontal K1 1204,+0,-3
K2
K3

 QUALITY CHECK TESTS:-
A wagon is tested by using both destructive and non-destructive techniques. Destructive techniques
include compressive strength test while non-destructive tests are radiography test, water testing, visual
inspection. All these tests are explained in the following sections.
 RADIOGRAPHY TEST (RT):-
It is a non-destructive test which is used for testing the quality of the welds in the various parts. In
this test, X-rays are incident on the parts to be checked and a film is obtained as a result. This film is
observed in the lab using special techniques and defects in welding are identified.
RT Machine
 DI-PENETRATION TEST:-
It is a non-destructive test generally used for testing the welds. This test follows the following process:-
FLORESCENT APPLICATION: - The florescent is applied all over the work piece and it is left for 10-
15 minutes. During this time, florescent gets penetrated in the porosity or pinholes.
CLEANING: - After 10-15 minutes, work piece is rubbed and cleaned with a piece of cloth.
DEVELOPER: - After cleaning the workpiece, developer is applied over the workpiece. After its application,
florescent reappears on the surface at the point of defects and thus defects are easily visible.
1. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST:-
Compressive strength is done at the last stage wagon construction process. For this test, two wagons are
constructed one known as sample wagon and other is test wagon. These two are exact copies of each other. One
of these is used for the test purpose. Wagon is fixed in the testing area and a load of 250 ton is applied along the
axis of centre sill. Sensors are fixed on the body to note the deflection parts. Results are observed by RDSO
authorities and implements are made as required. Since it is destructive test therefore, wagon under test gets
crushed and observations are made on the sample wagon.

Setup for test Load providing machine
 WATER TESTING:-
It is non-destructive testing technique. In this test, wagon is put under a water shower and leakages are identified
in the body. It is mainly for identifying leakages in the roof and defects are removed by welding.
 VISUAL INSPECTION:-
It is done when wagon is completely constructed and is inspected overall for any left over defects. These are
corrected at the spot and wagon is discharged in the main line.
 BRAKING SYSTEM TEST:-
Braking system test is done to check the sensitivity of the brakes and any leakages in the pipes. In this test,
5kg/cm2
is provided in the main line of the braking system using a pressure generator. When air is fed then by
ideal conditions, brakes should be applied is within 3 seconds. If it is not so then it is made corrected.
Pressure generating unit

AIR BRAKE SYSTEM
 INTRODUCTION
In the system air brake system , a lot of developments have taken place such as bogie mounted air brake system .
Twin pipe air brake system , Automatic load sensing device etc , As a result the maintenance and requirements
have changed considerably.
 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR BRAKE SYSTEM
On the basis of type of release, air brake system is classifieds.
1) Direct release air brake system .
2) Graduated release air brake system .
Both Direct and Graduated release are further available in two forms.
1) Single pipe .
2) Twin pipe.
 SINGLE PIPE GRADUATED RELEASE AIR BRAKE SYSTEM
Some of the air brake goods stock on IR is fitted with single pipe graduated release air brake system. In single
pipe brake pipe of all wagons are connected . also all the cut off angle cocks are kept open except the front cut
off angle cocks of BP of leading loco and rear and cut off angle cock of BP of last vehicle . Isolating cocks on
all wagons are also kept in open condition . Auxiliary reservoir is charged through distributor valve in 5.0
kg/cm2
. Three basic stage are presents .
1) CHARGING STAGE : During this stage brake pipe is charged to 5 kg/cm2
pressure which in turn
changes control reservoir and auxiliary reservoir to 5 kg/cm2
pressure via distributer valve.
2) APPLICATION STAGE : For application of brakes, the pressure in brake pipe has to be dropped. This
is done by venting air from driver’s brake valve. Reduction in brake pipe pressure positions the distributor valve
in such a way that the control reservoir gets disconnected from brake pipe and auxiliary reservoir gets connected
to brake cylinder. This results in increase in air pressure in brake cylinder resulting in application of brakes. The
magnitude of braking force is proportional to reduction in brake pipe pressure.
3) RELEASE STAGE : For releasing brakes, the brake pipe is again charged to 5 kg/cm2 pressure by
compressor through driver’s brake valve. This action positions distributor valve in such a way that auxiliary
reservoir gets isolated from brake cylinder and brake cylinder is vented to atmosphere through distributor valve
and thus brakes are released.
 TWIN PIPE GRADUATED RELEASE AIR BRAKE SYSTEM
Some of the Air Brake goods stock is fitted with Twin pipe graduated release air brake system. In Twin pipe,
brake pipes and feed pipes of all wagons are connected. Also all the cut off angle cocks are kept open except the
front cut off angle cocks of BP/ FP of leading loco and rear end cut off angle cock of BP and FP of last vehicle.
Isolating cocks on all wagons are also kept in open condition. Auxiliary reservoir is charged to 6.0 Kg/cm2
through the feed pipe.
(1)CHARGING STAGE : During this stage, brake pipe is charged to 5 kg/cm2 pressure and feed pipe is
charged to 6 kg/cm2 pressure which in turn charges control reservoir and auxiliary reservoir to 6 kg/cm2
pressure. At this stage, brake cylinder gets vented to atmosphere through passage in Distributor valve.

LAYOUT OF SINGLE PIPE AIR BRAKE SYSTEM
(2)APPLICATION STAGE : For application of brakes, the pressure in brake pipe has to be dropped. This
is done by venting air from driver‟s brake valve. Reduction in brake pipe pressure positions the distributor valve
in such a way that the control reservoir gets disconnected from brake pipe and auxiliary reservoir gets connected
to brake cylinder. This results in increase in air pressure in brake cylinder resulting in application of brakes. The
magnitude of braking force is proportional to reduction in brake pipe pressure.
(3)RELEASE STAGE : For releasing brakes, the brake pipe is again charged to 5 kg/cm2 pressure by
compressor through driver‟s brake valve. This action positions distributor valve in such a way that auxiliary
reservoir gets isolated from brake cylinder and brake cylinder is vented to atmosphere through distributor valve
and thus brakes are released.

LAYOUT OF DOUBLE PIPE AIR BRAKE SYSTEM

UNCOMMON ITEMS FOR TWIN PIPE AIR BRAKESYSTEM
SL NO DESCRIPTION NO.OF REF. DRG.
1 AIR BRAKE HOSE
COUPLING
(F.P)
2 WD-81027-S-01
2 ISOLATING COCK 1 WD-81027-S-04
3 CHECK VALVE 1 WD-81027-S-03
4 PIPE 20 NB 1 WD-81027-S-02
ITEM-9
5 PIPE 20 NB 1 WD-81027-S-02
ITEM-8
6 PIPE 20 NB 1 WD-81027-S-02
ITEM-10
7 PIPE 32 NB
(FP)
1 WD-81027-S-02
ITEM-4
8 PIPE 32 NB
(FP)
1 WD-81027-S-02
ITEM-2
BOGIE MOUNTED BRAKE SYSTEM (BMBS)
Bogie mounted brake system has been introduced for the freight stock in Indian Railways to reduced
maintenance and tare weight of the stock. In BMBS, brake cylinder is mounted parallel to the brake beams and
transfers forces through the bell cranks. The Bogie mounted brake system is designed for single
pipe/twin pipe graduated release brake system with automatic two stage braking. Its working principle is as
follows: The wagons are provided with automatic two-stage Automatic Brake Cylinder Pressure Modification
Device to cater for higher brake power in loaded condition instead of the conventional manual empty load
device. With the provision of this, brake cylinder pressure of 2.2 Kg/cm2 is obtained in empty condition and 3.8
Kg/cm2 is obtained in the loaded condition.
BRAKE BEAM ASSLY

DIAGRAM OF BOGIE FITTED WITH BMBSDIAGRAM OF BOGIE FITTED WITH BMBS

To obtain this a change over mechanism, "Automatic Brake Cylinder Pressure Modification Device" (APM) is
interposed between the under frame and side frame of the bogie. The mechanism gets actuated at a pre-
determined change over weight and changes the pressure going to the brake cylinder from 2.2. Kg/cm2 to 3.8
Kg/cm2 and vice -versa.
BOGIE FITTED WITH BMBS
For application of brake, air pressure in the brake pipe is reduced by venting it to the atmosphere from drives
brake valve in the locomotive. The reduction of the brake pipe pressure, positions the distributor valve in such a
way that the auxiliary reservoir is connected to the brake cylinder through APM device and thereby applying the
brake. During full service brake application, a reduction of 1.4 to 1.6 Kg/cm2 takes, a maximum brake cylinder
pressure of 3.8 Kg/cm2 in loaded condition and 2.2 Kg/cm2 in empty condition is developed. Any further
reduction of brake pipe pressure has no effect on the brake cylinder pressure. During emergency brake
application, the brake pipe is vented to atmosphere very quickly; as a result the distributor valve acquires the full
application position also at a faster rate. This result in quicker built up of brake cylinder pressure but the
maximum brake cylinder pressure will be the same as that obtained during a full service brake application. For
release of brakes, air pressure in the brake pipe is increased through driver's brake valve. The increase in the
brake pipe pressure results in exhausting the brake cylinder pressure through the distributor valve. The decrease
in the brake cylinder pressure corresponds to the increase in the brake pipe pressure. When the brake pipe
pressure reaches 5 Kg/cm2, the brake cylinder pressure exhausts completely and the brakes are completely
released.
 MAIN COMPONENTS :
The single pipe/Twin pipe graduated release air brake system and bogie mounted air single pipe/Twin pipe
brake system consists of following components:-
1) Distributor valve (DV)

2) Common pipe bracket with control reservoir.
3) Auxiliary reservoir 100 Litres & 75 Liters
4) Three way centrifugal dirt collector for BP and FP.
5) Isolating cock.
6) Brake cylinder 355 mm diameters, 300 mm diameter and 10” diameter.
7) Cut off angle cock (32mm size on either ends of BP & FP).
8) Air brake hose coupling (32mm for BP & FP).
9) Brake pipe and Feed pipe (32mm dia).
10) Branch pipes from BP & FP to brake equipment (20mm bore).
11) Guard emergency brake valve.
12) Pressure gauges for BP and FP.
13) Check Valve.
 For BMBS :
14) Primary beam and secondary beam assembly.
15) Push rods
16) Levers Left Hand & Right Hand
17) Load Sensing Device
 DISTRIBUTOR VALVE :
The Distributor valve assembly consists of distributor valve, pipe bracket, adaptor, control reservoir and gasket.
All pipe connection to distributor valve are given through the pipe bracket. The distributor valve along with the
adaptor can be removed from the pipe bracket without distributing the pipe connection for maintenance purpose.
The control reservoir of six litres volume is directly mounted to the pipe bracket. An isolating cock is provided
either on the distributor valve or on the adaptor to isolate the distributor valve when found defective. The handle
of the isolating cock will be in vertical position when the distributor valve is in open position and horizontal
when the distributor valve is closed position. A manual release handle is provided at the bottom of the
distributor valve by which the brake in a particular wagon can be released manually by pulling the handle. KEO
and C3W type distributor valves with cast iron body have been adopted as standard for freight stock of Indian
Railways.
The C3W Distributor Valve consists of the following main subassemblies:
i. Main body.
ii. Quick Service valve.
iii. Main valve.
iv. Limiting device.
v. Double release valve.
vi. Auxiliary reservoir check valve.
vii. Cut off valve.
viii. Application choke.
ix. Release choke.
 BRAKE PIPE & FEED PIPE HOSES :-
In order to connect two successive wagons fitted with Single pipe/ Twin Pipe, the brake pipes (BP) and feed
pipe installed on the underframe are fitted with flexible hoses. The hoses are named as BP hose and FP hose.
BRAKE PIPE HOSE

FEED PIPE HOSE
BRAKE PIPE & FEED PIPE COUPLING : To connect subsequent wagons, the hoses of BP
and FP are screwed to coupling and hose nipple by means of stainless steel Bend „U‟ type clips. The coupling is
specially designed in the form of palm end and hence also known as palm end coupling. For easy identification
the couplings are engraved with letter BP & FP and coupling heads are painted green for BP and White for FP.
The air brake hose couplings are provided in the brake pipe line and feed pipe line throughout the train for
connecting the brake pipe and feed pipe of adjacent wagons to form the complete rake. Each Air Brake Hose
coupling consists of a specially manufactured rubber hose clamped over a nipple on one end and a coupling
head on the other end. Rubber sealing washers are provided on the outlet port of the coupling head. Since a joint
is formed at the coupling head, leakage may take place, through it. Therefore it is necessary to subject the hose
coupling of brake pipe to leakage test.
 Automatic Brake Cylinder Pressure Modification Device(APM) :
APM device is interposed between bogie side frame o Casnub bogie and the under frame of wagons. It is fitted
on one of the bogies of the wagon for achieving two stage load braking with automatic changeover of brake
power. It restricts the brake cylinder pressure coming from the Distributor valve to 2.2 ± 0.25 Kg/cm2 in empty
condition of the wagon and allows the brake cylinder pressure of 3.8 ± 0. Kg/cm2 in loaded condition of the
wagon. APM should sense the gap only at the time of air brake application. During remaining time it should not
be in contact with the bogie side frame.
Brake Cylinder Pressure Modification Device

FOUNDRY DEPARTMENT
 Definition:
A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid,
pouring the metal in a mould, and removing the mould material or casting after the metal has solidified as it
cools. The most common metals processed are aluminium and cast iron. However, other metals, such
as bronze, brass, steel, magnesium, and zinc, are also used to produce castings in foundries. In this process,
parts of desired shapes and sizes can be formed.
 SAND CASTING:-
Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as
the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand
castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via sand
casting process.[1]
Molds made of sand are relatively cheap, and sufficiently refractory even for steel foundry use. In addition to the
sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the sand. The mixture is moistened, typically
with water, but sometimes with other substances, to develop the strength and plasticity of the clay and to make the
aggregate suitable for molding. The sand is typically contained in a system of frames or mold boxes known as
a flask. The mold cavities and gate system are created by compacting the sand around models, or patterns, or carved
directly into the sand.
 Green sand:-
These castings are made using sand molds formed from "wet" sand which contains water and organic bonding
compounds, typically referred to as clay.[3]
The name "Green Sand" comes from the fact that the sand mold is not
"set", it is still in the "green" or uncured state even when the metal is poured in the mould. Green sand is not green in
color, but "green" in the sense that it is used in a wet state (akin to green wood). Unlike the name suggests, "green
sand" is not a type of sand on its own (that is, not greensand in the geologic sense), but is rather a mixture of:
 silica sand (SiO2), chromite sand (FeCr2O4), or zircon sand (ZrSiO4), 75 to 85%, sometimes with a proportion
of olivine, staurolite, or graphite.
 bentonite (clay), 5 to 11%
 water, 2 to 4%
 inert sludge 3 to 5%
 anthracite (0 to 1%)
There are many recipes for the proportion of clay, but they all strike different balances between moldability, surface
finish, and ability of the hot molten metal to degas. Coal, typically referred to in foundries as sea-coal, which is
present at a ratio of less than 5%, partially combusts in the presence of the molten metal, leading to offgassing of
organic vapors. Green sand casting for non-ferrous metals does not use coal additives, since the CO created does not
prevent oxidation. Green sand for aluminum typically uses olivine sand (a mixture minerals forsterite and fayalite,
which is made by crushing dunite rock).
The choice of sand has a lot to do with the temperature at which the metal is poured. At the temperatures that copper
and iron are poured, the clay gets inactivated by the heat, in that the montmorillonite is converted to illite, which is a
non-expanding clay. Most foundries do not have the very expensive equipment to remove the burned out clay and
substitute new clay, so instead, those that pour iron typically work with silica sand that is inexpensive compared to
the other sands. As the clay is burned out, newly mixed sand is added and some of the old sand is discarded or
recycled into other uses. Silica is the least desirable of the sands, since metamorphic grains of silica sand have a
tendency to explode to form sub-micron sized particles when thermally shocked during pouring of the molds. These

particles enter the air of the work area and can lead to silicosis in the workers. Iron foundries spend a considerable
effort on aggressive dust collection to capture this fine silica. The sand also has the dimensional instability
associated with the conversion of quartz from alpha quartz to beta quartz at 680 °C (1250 °F). Often, combustible
additives such as wood flour are added to create spaces for the grains to expand without deforming the
mold. Olivine, chromite, etc. are therefore used because they do not have a phase transition that causes rapid
expansion of the grains, as well as offering greater density, which cools the metal faster, producing finer grain
structures in the metal. Since they are not metamorphic minerals, they do not have the polycrystals found in silica,
and subsequently do not form hazardous sub-micron sized particles.
 Molding sands:-
Molding sands, also known as foundry sands, are defined by eight characteristics: refractoriness, chemical inertness,
permeability, surface finish, cohesiveness, flowability, collapsibility, and availability/cost.
Refractoriness — This refers to the sand's ability to withstand the temperature of the liquid metal being cast
without breaking down. For example, some sands only need to withstand 650 °C (1,202 °F) if casting aluminum
alloys, whereas steel needs a sand that will withstand 1,500 °C (2,730 °F). Sand with too low refractoriness will melt
and fuse to the casting.
Chemical inertness — The sand must not react with the metal being cast. This is especially important with
highly reactive metals, such as magnesium and titanium.
Permeability — This refers to the sand's ability to exhaust gases. This is important because during the pouring
process many gases are produced, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and steam, which must leave the
mold otherwise casting defects, such as blow holes and gas holes, occur in the casting. Note that for each cubic
centimeter (cc) of water added to the mold 16,000 cc of steam is produced.
Surface finish — The size and shape of the sand particles defines the best surface finish achievable, with finer
particles producing a better finish. However, as the particles become finer (and surface finish improves) the
permeability becomes worse.
Cohesiveness (or bond) — This is the ability of the sand to retain a given shape after the pattern is removed.
Flowability – The ability for the sand to flow into intricate details and tight corners without special processes or
equipment.
Collapsibility — This is the ability of the sand to be easily stripped off the casting after it has solidified. Sands
with poor collapsibility will adhere strongly to the casting. When casting metals that contract a lot during cooling or
with long freezing temperature ranges a sand with poor collapsibility will cause cracking and hot tears in the casting.
Special additives can be used to improve collapsibility.
Availability/cost — The availability and cost of the sand is very important because for every ton of metal
poured, three to six tons of sand is required. Although sand can be screened and reused, the particles eventually
become too fine and require periodic replacement with fresh sand.
In large castings it is economical to use two different sands, because the majority of the sand will not be in contact
with the casting, so it does not need any special properties. The sand that is in contact with the casting is
called facing sand, and is designed for the casting on hand. This sand will be built up around the pattern to a
thickness of 30 to 100 mm (1.2 to 3.9 in). The sand that fills in around the facing sand is called backing sand. This
sand is simply silica sand with only a small amount of binder and no special additives.
 Types of base sands:-
Base sand is the type used to make the mold or core without any binder. Because it does not have a binder it will not
bond together and is not usable in this state.[12]
Silica sand
Silica (SiO2) sand is the sand found on a beach and is also the most commonly used sand. It is made by either
crushing sandstone or taken from natural occurring locations, such as beaches and river beds. The fusion point of

pure silica is 1,760 °C (3,200 °F), however the sands used have a lower melting point due to impurities. For high
melting point casting, such as steels, a minimum of 98% pure silica sand must be used; however for lower melting
point metals, such as cast iron and non-ferrous metals, a lower purity sand can be used (between 94 and 98% pure).
Silica sand is the most commonly used sand because of its great abundance, and, thus, low cost (therein being its
greatest advantage). Its disadvantages are high thermal expansion, which can cause casting defects with high melting
point metals, and low thermal conductivity, which can lead to unsound casting. It also cannot be used with
certain basicmetals because it will chemically interact with the metal, forming surface defects. Finally, it releases
silica particulates during the pour, risking silicosis in foundry workers.
Olivine sand
Olivine is a mixture of orthosilicates of iron and magnesium from the mineral dunite. Its main advantage is that it is
free from silica, therefore it can be used with basic metals, such as manganese steels. Other advantages include a
low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, and high fusion point. Finally, it is safer to use than silica,
therefore it is popular in Europe.
Chromite sand
Chromite sand is a solid solution of spinels. Its advantages are a low percentage of silica, a very high fusion point
(1,850 °C (3,360 °F)), and a very high thermal conductivity. Its disadvantage is its costliness, therefore it's only used
with expensive alloy steel casting and to make cores.
Zircon sand
Zircon sand is a compound of approximately two-thirds zircon oxide (Zr2O) and one-third silica. It has the highest
fusion point of all the base sands at 2,600 °C (4,710 °F), a very low thermal expansion, and a high thermal
conductivity. Because of these good properties it is commonly used when casting alloy steels and other expensive
alloys. It is also used as a mold wash (a coating applied to the molding cavity) to improve surface finish. However, it
is expensive and not readily available.
Chamotte sand
Chamotte is made by calcining fire clay (Al2O3-SiO2) above 1,100 °C (2,010 °F). Its fusion point is 1,750 °C
(3,180 °F) and has low thermal expansion. It is the second cheapest sand, however it is still twice as expensive as
silica. Its disadvantages are very coarse grains, which result in a poor surface finish, and it is limited to dry sand
molding. Mold washes are used to overcome the surface finish problem. This sand is usually used when casting
large steel workpieces.
Other materials
Modern casting production methods can manufacture thin and accurate molds—of a material superficially
resembling papier-mâché, such as is used in egg cartons, but that is refractory in nature—that are then supported by
some means, such as dry sand surrounded by a box, during the casting process. Due to the higher accuracy it is
possible to make thinner and hence lighter castings, because extra metal need not be present to allow for variations
in the molds. These thin-mold casting methods have been used since the 1960s in the manufacture of cast-iron
engine blocks and cylinder heads for automotive applications.
 Binders:-
Binders are added to a base sand to bond the sand particles together (i.e. it is the glue that holds the mold together).
Clay and water
A mixture of clay and water is the most commonly used binder. There are two types of clay commonly
used: bentonite and kaolinite, with the former being the most common.
Oil-- Oils, such as linseed oil, other vegetable oils and marine oils, used to be used as a binder, however due to
their increasing cost, they have been mostly phased out. The oil also required careful baking at 100 to 200 °C (212
to 392 °F) to cure (if overheated, the oil becomes brittle, wasting the mold).

Resin-- Resin binders are natural or synthetic high melting point gums. The two common types used are urea
formaldehyde (UF) and phenol formaldehyde (PF) resins. PF resins have a higher heat resistance than UF resins and
cost less. There are also cold-set resins, which use a catalyst instead of a heat to cure the binder. Resin binders are
quite popular because different properties can be achieved by mixing with various additives. Other advantages
include good collapsibility, low gassing, and they leave a good surface finish on the casting.
MDI (methylene diphenyl diisocyanate) is also a commonly used binder resin in the foundry core process.
Sodium silicate
Sodium silicate [Na2SiO3 or (Na2O)(SiO2)] is a high strength binder used with silica molding sand. To cure the
binder, carbon dioxide gas is used, which creates the following reaction:
The advantage to this binder is that it can be used at room temperature and is fast. The disadvantage is that its high
strength leads to shakeout difficulties and possibly hot tears in the casting.
 Additives:-
Additives are added to the molding components to improve: surface finish, dry strength, refractoriness, and
"cushioning properties".
Up to 5% of reducing agents, such as coal powder, pitch, creosote, and fuel oil, may be added to the molding
material to prevent wetting (prevention of liquid metal sticking to sand particles, thus leaving them on the casting
surface), improve surface finish, decrease metal penetration, and burn-on defects. These additives achieve this by
creating gases at the surface of the mold cavity, which prevent the liquid metal from adhering to the sand. Reducing
agents are not used with steel casting, because they can carburize the metal during casting.
Up to 3% of "cushioning material", such as wood flour, saw dust, powdered husks, peat, and straw, can be added to
reduce scabbing, hot tear, and hot crack casting defects when casting high temperature metals. These materials are
beneficial because burn-off when the metal is poured creates tiny voids in the mold, allowing the sand particles to
expand. They also increase collapsibility and reduce shakeout time.
Up to 2% of cereal binders, such as dextrin, starch, sulphite lye, and molasses, can be used to increase dry strength
(the strength of the mold after curing) and improve surface finish. Cereal binders also improve collapsibility and
reduce shakeout time because they burn off when the metal is poured. The disadvantage to cereal binders is that they
are expensive.
Up to 2% of iron oxide powder can be used to prevent mold cracking and metal penetration, essentially improving
refractoriness. Silica flour (fine silica) and zircon flour also improve refractoriness, especially in ferrous castings.
The disadvantages to these additives is that they greatly reduce permeability.
 Parting compounds:-
To get the pattern out of the mold, prior to casting, a parting compound is applied to the pattern to ease removal.
They can be a liquid or a fine powder (particle diameters between 75 and 150 micrometres (0.0030 and 0.0059 in)).
Common powders include talc, graphite, and dry silica; common liquids include mineral oil and water-based silicon
solutions. The latter are more commonly used with metal and large wooden patterns.
 Pattern:-
In casting, a pattern is a replica of the object to be cast, used to prepare the cavity into which molten material will be
poured during the casting process.
Patterns used in sand casting may be made of wood, metal, plastics or other materials. Patterns are made to exacting
standards of construction, so that they can last for a reasonable length of time, according to the quality grade of the
pattern being built, and so that they will repeatable provide a dimensionally acceptable casting. Single piece pattern:
- it is simply the replica of the desired casting. It is slightly larger than the casting. These pattern may be of wood,
metal or plastic (hard plastic).

 Types of pattern:-
Match plate pattern, cope & drag pattern, lagged-up pattern, lagged-up pattern, built up pattern, multi-piece pattern,
gated pattern, sweep pattern, Skeleton pattern, shell pattern and loose piece pattern, left and right hand pattern.
Follow board pattern, segmental patterns are some of the types of patterns.
 Pattern Allowances:-
To compensate for any dimensional and structural changes which will happen during the casting or patterning
process, allowances are usually made in the pattern.
 Contraction allowances / Shrinkage allowance:-
The pattern needs to incorporate suitable allowances for shrinkage; these are called contraction allowances, and their
exact values depend on the alloy being cast and the exact sand casting method being used. Some alloys will have
overall linear shrinkage of up to 2.5%, whereas other alloys may actually experience no shrinkage or a slight
“positive” shrinkage or increase in size in the casting process (notably type metal and certain cast irons). The
shrinkage amount is also dependent on the sand casting process employed, for example clay-bonded sand, chemical
bonded sands, or other bonding materials used within the sand. This was traditionally accounted for using a shrink
rule, which is an oversized rule.
Shrinkage can again be classified into liquid shrinkage and solid shrinkage. Liquid shrinkage is the reduction in
volume during the process of solidification, and solid shrinkage is the reduction in the reduction in volume during
the cooling of the cast metal. Shrinkage allowance allowance takes into account only the solid shrinkage. The liquid
shrinkage is accounted for risers.
Generally during shrinkage, all dimensions are going to be altered uniformly, unless there is a restriction.
 Draft allowance:-
When the pattern is to be removed from the sand mould, there is a possibility that any leading edges may break off,
or get damaged in the process. To avoid this, a taper is provided on the pattern, so as to facilitate easy removal of the
pattern from the mould, and hence reduced damage to edges. The taper angle provided is called the Draft angle. The
value of the draft angle depends upon the complexity of the pattern, the type of moulding (hand moulding or
machine moulding), height of the surface, etc. Draft provided on the casting 1 to 3 degrees on external surface.
 Finishing or Machining allowance:-
The surface finish obtained in sand castings is generally poor (dimensionally inaccurate), and hence in many cases,
the cast product is subjected to machining processes like turning or grinding In order to improve the surface finish.
During machining processes, some metal is removed from the piece. To compensate for this, a machining allowance
(additional material) should be given in the casting.
 Shake allowance:-
Usually during removal of the pattern from the mould cavity, the pattern is rapped all around the faces, in order to
facilitate easy removal. In this process, the final cavity is enlarged. To compensate for this, the pattern dimensions
need to be reduced. There are no standard values for this allowance, as it is heavily dependent on the personnel. This

allowance is a negative allowance, and a common way of going around this allowance is to increase the draft
allowance. Shaking of pattern causes an enlargement of mould cavity and results in a bigger casting.
 Distortion allowance:-
During cooling of the mould, stresses developed in the solid metal may induce distortions in the cast. This is more
evident when the mould is thinner in width as compared to its length. This can be eliminated by initially distorting
the pattern in the opposite direction.
 Core:-
A core is a device used in casting and moulding processes to produce internal cavities and angles. The core is
normally a disposable item is that is destroyed to get it out of the piece. They are most commonly used in sand
casting, but are also in injection moulding. Cores are useful for features that cannot tolerate draft or to provide detail
that cannot otherwise be integrated into a coreless casting or mould. The main disadvantage is the additional cost to
incorporate cores. There are seven requirements for core:-
Green Strength: In the green condition there must be adequate strength for handling.
In the hardened state it must be strong enough to handle the forces of casting; therefore the compression strength
should be 100 to 300 psi (0.69 to 2.07 MPa).
Permeability must be very high to allow for the escape of gases.
 Friability:-
The amount of sand abraded from the specimens after one minute is collected and weighed. The weight of sand
removed, divided by the original weight of the specimens and multiplied by 100 is reported as the friability in
percent. A friability value above 11% can indicate a tendency to produce dirt defects and loss of casting surface
quality. While the laboratory moldability test has been succeeded by the compactability test for expressing the
degree of temper of a molding sand, it is still valuable for monitoring the performance of automatic moldability
controllers at the mixers.
 Green Sand Cores:-
A core is a device used in casting and moulding processes to produce internal cavities and reentrant angles. The core
is normally a disposable item that is destroyed to get it out of the piece. They are most commonly used in sand

casting, but are also used in injection moulding
impossible. Even for long features that can be cast it still
is a through hole in a casting.
 SAND CASTING:-
Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting
the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an ob
castings are produced in specialized factories
casting process.[1]
sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the sand. The mixture is moistened, typically
aggregate suitable for molding. The sand is typically contained in a system of frames or
a flask. The mold cavities and gate system
directly into the sand.
 Basic Process: - There are six steps in this pr
1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mould.
2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Fill the mould cavity with molten metal.
5. Allow the metal to cool.
6. Break away the sand mould and remove the casting.

injection moulding. Green-sand cores makes casting long narrow features difficult or
impossible. Even for long features that can be cast it still leave much material to be machined. A typical application
sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using
material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand
factories called foundries. Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via sand
a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the sand. The mixture is moistened, typically
g. The sand is typically contained in a system of frames or mold boxes
gate system are created by compacting the sand around models, or
There are six steps in this process:
in sand to create a mould.
Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
Fill the mould cavity with molten metal.
Break away the sand mould and remove the casting.
cores makes casting long narrow features difficult or
leave much material to be machined. A typical application
process characterized by using sand as
ject produced via the sand casting process. Sand
all metal castings are produced via sand
a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the sand. The mixture is moistened, typically
mold boxesknown as
are created by compacting the sand around models, or patterns, or carved

 High Pressure moulding:
The moisture content used in sand mix
additives suchasdextrinso astocontrolthespring
over the pattern especially when the latter is of
adjust itself is found ideal for overcoming the
large number of spruee"e feet for each with its
moremanifolds.Itisessentialforpatternsusedin
enableeasystrippinggoodwearresistanceandhardness
 Selection and evaluation
The criteria for selection and evaluation of a high
individual foundry and the type of casting
present day context, the saving of even
ofthe
Foundryofhis coupledwith the need forclose
selectionandevaluationofthemouldingmachines
with minimum draft, the capacity to utilize
throughouttheheightofthemould.Itispossible
as mm from the moulding box walls
pockets to high green strength achieved
variationin hardness maybe less than$% even
command the total reactions both in the
maybe well withinmouldingmachine moulding
as hand moulding or machine moulding according
mould is preparedby hand tools or with
Moulding box
High Pressure moulding: -
is usually not more than 2.5%. Comparativelyhigher clay content
spring backtendencyofsandandpreventmould distortion.Foruniform
of varying height. A contoured spruee"e head is used in self contoured
directlty of preparing assures head of a fixed contour for each pattern.
its own piston and hydraulic cylinder. Each cylinder is hydraulically connected
inhighpressuremouldingtohaveonefinishandpolishwithhighstrength
hardness andaccuracy.Thepatternsaremadeofcastiron,steel,orepoxy
evaluation of High pressure moulding machines:-
high pressure moulding machine largely depends upon the
casting with respect to weight and size which are planned to
even a marginal weight in the finished casting, could go alongwayin the
tolerancesand reductioninmachiningtime are the other factors
machines.stillothercriteriatoevaluatemouldingmachinesincludetheability
utilize the maximum pattern surface area and the ability to produce
ssibletolocatethepatternas close
walls and still prevent soft
achieved during moulding. the
even inmoulds with a height of &
the foundryand machine shop
mouldingprocessesmaybeclassifed
according to weather the
with the aid of some means.
Moulding box
Main Setup for high pressure moulding
content is used withsuitable
uniformcompositionof sandall
which can automatically
pattern. The head consists of a
connected through one or
strengthandrigidity,soasto
orepoxyresin.
the requirement of the
to be produced. In the
the economical operation
which determine the
abilitytodraw the pattern
produce uniform hardness
Main Setup for high pressure moulding

 INTRODUCTION:-
A furnace is a device used for high
means oven. The heat energy to fuel a furnace may be supplied
the electric arc furnace, or through induction heating
 ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE
An electric arc furnace used for steelmaking consists of a
sizes, covered with a retractable roof, and through which one or more
furnace is primarily split into three sections:
 the shell, which consists of the sidewalls and lower
 the hearth, which consists of the refractory that lines the lower bowl;
 the roof, which may be refractory
a frustum(conical section). The roof also supports the refractory delta in its centre, through which one or
more graphiteelectrodes enter.
The hearth may be hemispherical in shape, or in an eccentric bottom tapping furnace (see below), the hearth has the
shape of a halved egg. In modern meltshops, the furnace is often raised off the ground floor, so that
pots can easily be maneuvered under either end of the furnace. Separate from the furnace structure is the electrode
support and electrical system, and the tilting platform on which the furnace rests. Two configurations are possible:
the electrode supports and the roof tilt with the furnace, or are fixed to the raised platform
A typical alternating current furnace is powered by a
Electrodes are round in section, and typically in segments with threaded couplings, so that as the electrodes wear,
new segments can be added. The arc forms between the charged material and the electrode, the cha
by current passing through the charge and by the radiant energy evolved by the arc. The electric arc temperature
reaches around 3000 °C (5000 °F), thus causing the lower sections of the electrodes glow incandescently when in
operation. The electrodes are automatically raised and lowered by a positioning system,
electric winch hoists or hydraulic cylinders
FARNACE
is a device used for high-temperature heating. The name derives from Greek
. The heat energy to fuel a furnace may be supplied directly by fuel combustion, by electricity such as
induction heating in induction furnaces.
ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE:-
used for steelmaking consists of a refractory-lined vessel, usually water
sizes, covered with a retractable roof, and through which one or more graphite electrodes enter the furnace.
furnace is primarily split into three sections:
, which consists of the sidewalls and lower steel "bowl";
, which consists of the refractory that lines the lower bowl;
, which may be refractory-lined or water-cooled, and can be shaped as a section of a
(conical section). The roof also supports the refractory delta in its centre, through which one or
shape of a halved egg. In modern meltshops, the furnace is often raised off the ground floor, so that
tilting platform on which the furnace rests. Two configurations are possible:
the electrode supports and the roof tilt with the furnace, or are fixed to the raised platform.
furnace is powered by a three-phase electrical supply and therefore has three electrodes.
new segments can be added. The arc forms between the charged material and the electrode, the cha
°F), thus causing the lower sections of the electrodes glow incandescently when in
he electrodes are automatically raised and lowered by a positioning system, which may use either
hydraulic cylinders. The regulating system maintains approximately constant current and
word fornax, which
, by electricity such as
lined vessel, usually water-cooled in larger
enter the furnace. The
cooled, and can be shaped as a section of a sphere, or as
(conical section). The roof also supports the refractory delta in its centre, through which one or
shape of a halved egg. In modern meltshops, the furnace is often raised off the ground floor, so that ladles and slag
tilting platform on which the furnace rests. Two configurations are possible:
and therefore has three electrodes.
new segments can be added. The arc forms between the charged material and the electrode, the charge is heated both
°F), thus causing the lower sections of the electrodes glow incandescently when in
which may use either
. The regulating system maintains approximately constant current and

power input during the melting of the charge, even though scrap may move under the electrodes as it melts. The
mast arms holding the electrodes can either carry heavy busbars (which may be hollow water-cooled copper pipes
carrying current to the electrode clamps) or be "hot arms", where the whole arm carries the current, increasing
efficiency. Hot arms can be made from copper-clad steel or aluminium. Large water-cooled cables connect the bus
tubes or arms with the transformerlocated adjacent to the furnace. The transformer is installed in a vault and is
water-cooled.
The roof of an arc furnace removed, showing the three electrodes
The furnace is built on a tilting platform so that the liquid steel can be poured into another vessel for transport. The
operation of tilting the furnace to pour molten steel is called "tapping". Originally, all steelmaking furnaces had a
tapping spout closed with refractory that washed out when the furnace was tilted, but often modern furnaces have an
eccentric bottom tap-hole (EBT) to reduce inclusion of nitrogen and slag in the liquid steel. These furnaces have a
taphole that passes vertically through the hearth and shell, and is set off-centre in the narrow "nose" of the egg-
shaped hearth. It is filled with refractory sand, such as olivine, when it is closed off. Modern plants may have two
shells with a single set of electrodes that can be transferred between the two; one shell preheats scrap while the other
shell is utilised for meltdown. Other DC-based furnaces have a similar arrangement, but have electrodes for each
shell and one set of electronics.
AC furnaces usually exhibit a pattern of hot and cold-spots around the hearth perimeter, with the cold-spots located
between the electrodes. Modern furnaces mount oxygen-fuel burners in the sidewall and use them to provide
chemical energy to the cold-spots, making the heating of the steel more uniform. Additional chemical energy is
provided by injecting oxygen and carbon into the furnace; historically this was done through lances (hollow mild-
steel tubes[7]
) in the slag door, now this is mainly done through wall-mounted injection units that combine the
oxygen-fuel burners and the oxygen or carbon injection systems into one unit.
To produce a ton of steel in an electric arc furnace requires approximately 400 kilowatt-hours per short ton or about
440 kWh per metric tonne; the theoretical minimum amount of energy required to melt a tonne of scrap steel is 300
kWh (melting point 1520 °C/2768 °F). Therefore, a 300-tonne, 300 MVA EAF will require approximately 132
MWh of energy to melt the steel, and a "power-on time" (the time that steel is being melted with an arc) of
approximately 37 minutes. Electric arc steelmaking is only economical where there is plentiful electricity, with a
well-developed electrical grid. In many locations, mills operate during off-peak hours when utilities have surplus
power generating capacity and the price of electricity is less.
 OPERETION:-
An arc furnace pouring out steel into a small ladle car. The transformer vault can be seen at the right side of the
picture. For scale, note the operator standing on the platform at upper left. This is a 1941-era photograph and so does

not have the extensive dust collection system that a modern installation would have, nor is the operator wearing a
hard hat or dust mask.
Scrap metal is delivered to a scrap bay, located next to the melt shop. Scrap generally comes in two main grades:
shred (whitegoods, cars and other objects made of similar light-gauge steel) and heavy melt (large slabs and beams),
along with some direct reduced iron (DRI) or pig iron for chemical balance. Some furnaces melt almost 100% DRI.
The scrap basket is then taken to the melt shop, the roof is swung off the furnace, and the furnace is charged with
scrap from the basket. Charging is one of the more dangerous operations for the EAF operators. A lot of potential
energy is released by the tonnes of falling metal; any liquid metal in the furnace is often displaced upwards and
outwards by the solid scrap, and the grease and dust on the scrap is ignited if the furnace is hot, resulting in a fireball
erupting. In some twin-shell furnaces, the scrap is charged into the second shell while the first is being melted down,
and pre-heated with off-gas from the active shell.
After charging, the roof is swung back over the furnace and meltdown commences. The electrodes are lowered onto
the scrap, an arc is struck and the electrodes are then set to bore into
the layer of shred at the top of the furnace. Lower voltages are
selected for this first part of the operation to protect the roof and
walls from excessive heat and damage from the arcs. Once the
electrodes have reached the heavy melt at the base of the furnace
and the arcs are shielded by the scrap, the voltage can be increased
and the electrodes raised slightly, lengthening the arcs and
increasing power to the melt. This enables a molten pool to form
more rapidly, reducing tap-to-tap times. Oxygen is blown into the
scrap, combusting or cutting the steel, and extra chemical heat is
provided by wall-mounted oxygen-fuel burners. Both processes
accelerate scrap meltdown. Supersonic nozzles enable oxygen jets to
penetrate foaming slag and reach the liquid bath.
Once the scrap has completely melted down and a flat bath is reached, another bucket of scrap can be charged into
the furnace and melted down, although EAF development is moving towards single-charge designs. After the second
charge is completely melted, refining operations take place to check and correct the steel chemistry and superheat
the melt above its freezing temperature in preparation for tapping. More slag formers are introduced and more
oxygen is blown into the bath, burning out impurities such as silicon, sulfur, phosphorus, aluminium, manganese,
and calcium, and removing their oxides to the slag. Removal of carbontakes place after these elements have burnt
out first, as they have a greater affinity for oxygen. Metals that have a poorer affinity for oxygen than iron, such
as nickel and copper, cannot be removed through oxidation and must be controlled through scrap chemistry alone,
such as introducing the direct reduced iron and pig iron mentioned earlier. A foaming slag is maintained throughout,
and often overflows the furnace to pour out of the slag door into the slag pit. Temperature sampling and chemical
sampling take place via automatic lances. Oxygen and carbon can be automatically measured via special probes that
dip into the steel, but for all other elements, a "chill" sample—a small, solidified sample of the steel—is analysed on
an arc-emission spectrometer.
Once the temperature and chemistry are correct, the steel is tapped out into a preheated ladle through tilting the
furnace. For plain-carbon steel furnaces, as soon as slag is detected during tapping the furnace is rapidly tilted back
towards the deslagging side, minimising slag carryover into the ladle. For some special steel grades, including
stainless steel, the slag is poured into the ladle as well, to be treated at the ladle furnace to recover valuable alloying
elements. During tapping some alloy additions are introduced into the metal stream, and more lime is added on top
of the ladle to begin building a new slag layer. Often, a few tonnes of liquid steel and slag is left in the furnace in
order to form a "hot heel", which helps preheat the next charge of scrap and accelerate its meltdown. During and
after tapping, the furnace is "turned around": the slag door is cleaned of solidified slag, the visible refractories are
inspected and water-cooled components checked for leaks, and electrodes are inspected for damage or lengthened
through the addition of new segments; the taphole is filled with sand at the completion of tapping.

 SHOT BLASTING:-
Shot blasting is the process of cleaning the assembled wagon basically for painting purpose. In this process, 1mm
grit particles strike the wagon surface with a force of 75psi. After this process, 5 layer painting is done on the wagon
surface to protect it from rusting.
After shot blasting and painting, wagon is inspected by RDSO quality managers and then dispatched in the main
line.
Shot blasting chamber

Methods of Sand testing
 INTRODUCTION :
The moulding sand after it is prepared should be properly tested to see that require properties are achieved. Tests
conducted on a sample of the standard sand. The moulding sand should be prepared exactly as it is done in the shop
on the standard equipment and then carefully enclosed in a container to safeguard its moisture content. Sand tests
indicate the moulding sand performance and help the foundry men in controlling the properties of moulding sands.
Sand testing controls the moulding sand properties through the control of its composition.
 The various types of sand control tests:
1. Moisture content test
2. Clay content test
3. Grain fitness test
4. Air Permeability test
5. Strength test
6. Refractoriness test
7. Mould hardness test (Brinell Hardness, Rockwell)
 Moisture content test :
Moisture is the property of the moulding sand it is defined as the amount of water present in the moulding sand.
Low moisture content in the moulding sand does not develop strength properties. High moisture content decreases
permeability.
 Procedures :
1. 20 to 50 gm of prepared sand placed in the pan and heated by an infrared heater bulb for 2 to 3 minutes.

2. The moisture in the moulding sand is thus evaporated.
3. Moulding sand is taken out of the pan and reweighed.
4. The percentage of moisture can be calculated from the difference in the weights, of the original moist and the
consequently dried sand samples.
 Clay content test :
Clay influences strength, permeability and other moulding properties. It is responsible for bonding sand particles
together.
CLAY CONTENT TESTER AND CLAY STRENGTH TESTER
 Procedures :
1. Small quantity of prepared moulding sand dried
2. Separate 50 gm of dry moulding sand and transfer wash bottle.
3. Add 475cc of distilled water + 25cc of a 3% NaOH.
4. Agitate this mixture about 10 minutes with the help of sand stirrer.
5. Fill the wash bottle with water up to the marker.
6. After the sand etc., has settled for about 10 minutes, Siphon out the water from the wash bottle
7. Dry the settled down sand.
8. The clay content determined from the difference in weights of the initial and final sand samples.
Percentage of clay content = (W1-W2)/(W1) * 100
Where, W1-Weight of the sand before drying,
W2-Weight of the sand after drying.

 Grain fitness test (Sand Sieve Analysis) :
The grain size, distribution, grain fitness are determined with the help of the fitness testing of moulding sands. The
apparatus consists of a number of standard sieves mounted one above the other, on a power driven shaker. The
shaker vibrates the sieves and the sand placed on the top sieve gets screened and collects on different sieves
depending upon the various sizes of grains present in the moulding sand. The top sieve is coarsest and the bottom-
most sieve is the finest of all the sieves. In between sieve placed in order of fineness from top to bottom.
GRAIN FITNESS TESTER
 Procedures :
1. Sample of dry sand (clay removed sand) placed in the upper sieve
2. Sand vibrated for definite period
3. The amount of same retained on each sieve weighted.
4. Percentage distribution of grain is computed.
 Air Permeability test :
The quantity of air that will pass through a standard specimen of the sand at a particular pressure condition is called
the permeability of the sand
Following are the major parts of the permeability test equipments:
1. An inverted bell jar, which floats in a water.
2. Specimen tube, for the purpose of hold the equipment.
3. A manometer (measure the air pressure).
 Procedures :
1. The air (2000cc volume) held in the bell jar forced to pass through the sand specimen.

SAND PERMEABILITY TESTER
2. At this time air entering the specimen equal to the air escaped through the specimen.
3. Take the pressure reading in the manometer.
4. Note the time required for 2000cc of air to pass the sand.
5. Calculate the permeability number
6. Permeability number (N) = ((V x H) / (A x P x T))
Where,
V-Volume of air (cc)
H-Height of the specimen (mm)
A-Area of the specimen (mm2
)
P-Air pressure (gm / cm2
)
T-Time taken by the air to pass through the sand (seconds)
 Strength test :
Measurements of strength of moulding sands carried out on the universal sand strength testing machine. The
strength measured such as compression, shear and tension . The sands that could be tested are green sand, dry sand
or core sand. The compression and shear test involve the standard cylindrical specimen that was used for the
permeability test.

(A) Green compression strength:
Green compression strength or simply green strength generally refers to the stress required to rupture the sand
specimen under compressive loading. The sand specimen taken out of the specimen tube and immediately (any
delay causes the drying of the sample which increases the strength) put on the strength testing machine and the force
required to cause the compression failure is determined. The green strength of sands is generally in the range of 30
to 160 KPa.
(B)Green shear strength:
With a sand sample similar to the above test, a different adapter is fitted in the universal machine so that the loading
now be made for the shearing of the sand sample. The stress required to shear the specimen along the axis is then
represented as the green shear strength. It may vary from 10 to 50 KPa.
(C)Dry strength:
This test uses the standard specimens dried between 105 and 1100 C for 2 hours. Since the strength increases with
drying, it may be necessary to apply larger stresses than the previous tests. The range of dry compression strengths
found in moulding sands is from 140 to 1800 KPa, depending on the sand sample.
STRENGTH TESTER
 Refractoriness test :
The refractoriness used to measure the ability of the sand to withstand the higher temperature.
 Procedures :
1. Prepare a cylindrical specimen of sand

2. Heating the specimen at 1500 C for 2 hours
3. Observe the changes in dimension and appearance
4. If the sand is good, it retains specimen share and shows very little expansion. If the sand is
poor, specimen will shrink and distort.
 Mould hardness test:
Hardness of the mould surface tested with the help of an “indentation hardness tester”. It consists of indicator, spring
loaded spherical indenter.
The spherical indenter is penetrates into the mould surface at the time of testing. The depth of penetration w.r.t. the
flat reference surface of the tester.
Mould hardness number = ((P) / (D – (D2
-d2
)) , where,
HARDNESS TESTER
P- Applied Force (N)
D- Diameter of the indenter (mm)
d- Diameter of the indentation (mm)

In maintenance section the following types of machines are present
along with compressor unit. The machines used are :-
 LATHE :-
A lathe is a tool that rotates the work piece about an axis of rotation to perform various operations such
as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation, facing, turning, with tools that are applied to the work piece to
create an object with symmetry about that axis.
Lathes are used in woodturning, metalworking, metal spinning, thermal spraying, parts reclamation, and glass-
working. Lathes can be used to shape pottery, the best-known design being the potter's wheel. Most suitably
equipped metalworking lathes can also be used to produce most solids of revolution, plane surfaces and screw
threads or helices. Ornamental lathes can produce three-dimensional solids of incredible complexity. The work piece
is usually held in place by either one or two centers, at least one of which can typically be moved horizontally to
accommodate varying work piece lengths. Other work-holding methods include clamping the work about the axis of
rotation using a chuck or collect, or to a faceplate, using clamps or dogs.
 TYPES OF LATHE :-
a. Speed Lathes
b. Engine Lathes
c. Tool Room Lathes
(A) SPEED LATHE :-
It is a very simples design. It only has headstock, tailstock and a very simple tool post. It can operate in 3-4 speeds.
The spindle speed is very high. It is used for machine works like wood turning, metal spinning and metal polishing.
The rotating horizontal spindle to which the work holding device is attached is usually power driven at speeds that
can be varied. On a speed lathe the cutting tool is supported on a tool rest manipulated by hand.

(B)Engine Lathes :-
Engine lathes are the most common types of lathe machine. It is designed for low power operations as well as high
power operations. Various lengths of the machine are available. The length can be up to 60 feet. Engine lathe is
commonly seen in every machine shop. Various metals can be machines. The machine can operates at a wide range
of speed ratios.
(C)Tool room Lathes :-
It is a very versatile lathe machine. It can give better accuracy and finishing . It has wider range of speeds. It can
give different types of feeds. It can be a great device to manufacture die. A metal lathe or metalworking lathe is a
large class of lathes designed for precisely machining relatively hard materials. They were originally designed to
machine metals; however, with the advent of plastics and other materials, and with their inherent versatility, they are
used in a wide range of applications, and a broad range of materials. In machining jargon, where the larger context is
already understood, they are usually simply called lathes, or else referred to by more-specific subtype names (tool
room lathe, turret lathe, etc.). These rigid machine tools remove material from a rotating work piece via the
(typically linear) movements of various cutting tools, such as tool bits and drill bit.

 Boring machines :-
Boring machines are used to mill, drill, bore, cut threads or face turn using a rotating tool, usually a cutter, drill,
boring rod or milling head. Boring machines are used to drill closed and open openings in solid material, boring,
reaming, threading, milling surfaces, etc.
(A) Horizontal boring machine :-
A horizontal boring machine or horizontal boring mill is a machine tool which bores holes in a horizontal direction.
There are three main types — table, planer and floor. The table type is the most common and, as it is the most
versatile, it is also known as the universal type.
A horizontal boring machine has its work spindle parallel to the ground and work table. Typically there are three
linear axes in which the tool head and part move. Convention dictates that the main axis that drives the part towards
the work spindle is the Z axis, with a cross-traversing X axis and a vertically traversing Y axis. The work spindle is
referred to as the C axis and, if a rotary table is incorporated, its centre line is the B axis.
(B)Vertical boring machine:-
Vertical boring is a machining process whereby a part to be machined is clamped to a bed and a machining tool is
rotated to produce some cylindrical, internal feature in the work piece. The cylindrical surface to be produced is
oriented in the vertical direction and the tool is typically fed down into the work piece.

BSCL Project Report on Vocational Training at Mechanical Engineering Department

BSCL Project Report on Vocational Training at Mechanical Engineering Department

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BSCL Project Report on Vocational Training at Mechanical Engineering Department