applied linguistics elaboration

1. 狭义的应用语言学
• 狭义的应用语言学：把语言学理论应用于语言教学
（包括本族语教学和外语教学）。语言学习、语言
教学、教学方法、教师发展、教学大纲、教材使用
与编写是语言教学过程中的重要因素。
The dominant application has always been the
teaching and learning of first or foreign languages

2. 语言学习：第一语言习得与第二语言学习
• 学习（learning）：正规的有计划的有意识的语言学习，
如课堂学习等。
Second language learning or Foreign language learning
• 习得(acquisition)：潜意识的自然状态下的语言学习，如
儿童习得母语等
First language acquisition
• 学习与习得的区别是相对的，不能截然分开。第二语言
学习者开始时，学习的成分多一些，以后习得的成分逐
渐加大。比较理想的方式是把二者结合起来。
习得高级； 学习初级

3. 语言学习：第一语言习得与第二语言学习
• “学习”、“习得”的差别

4. 语言学习：第一语言习得与第二语言学习

5. 语言学习：第一语言习得理论
刺激反映论（斯金纳）
• 人类语言行为只是刺激和反应。看见、听见和感觉
到的东西是刺激，说出的话是反应。
• 刺激—反应的哲学基础是洛克的白板论, 强调后天
经验的重要性。认为语言也是一种行为，学会某种
语言就是在后天环境中养成某种习惯，儿童的语言
能力来自一系列的刺激（成人语言）他们通过模仿
做出反应，如果反应正确就会得到强化，一定的刺
激和相应的反应多次重复就成为习惯从而学会语言。

6. 语言学习：第一语言习得理论
先天论（chomsky）
• 人天生有一个“语言习得机制”，这种语言习得机制
包含有人类所有语言的共同规则，即“普遍语法”。
• 语言学习就是不断地通过语言输入而把规则内化而
习得语言的过程，就是获得某种语言的语言能力的
过程。

7. 语言学习：第一语言习得
认知论：皮亚杰关于儿童语言习得的观点：
• 人类有一种先天的认知机制，但这种先天的认知
机制不是乔姆斯基所说的由普遍语法构成的语言能
力（即天赋固有的核）
• 儿童并没有特殊的语言学习能力。 儿童的语言能
力只是一般人类认知能力的一个组成部分。
• 儿童的语言能力不是先天就具有的，也不是后天学
习得来的。

8. 语言学习：第一语言习得
功能说：代表人物是社会语言学家韩礼德。
• 该学派认为，语言是社会行为，是语义系统，因此
应从社会学，从语言的社会功能的角度来分析和解
释语言习得的过程与本质。
• 韩礼德认为，儿童在与周围意群相互作用中首先习
得了“儿童语言”，之后又习得了母语。

9. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
• 模仿论（行为主义的语言学习理论）
• 先天论（心灵主义的语言学习理论、先天论）
• 交互作用论
• 信息加工理论
• 社会文化理论

10. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
模仿论 （Skinner) - 行为主义的语言学习理论
• 认为语言的学习也是一种行为的学习，由刺激——反应
构成，强调后天学习、环境的重要性。
• Environment: source of linguistic stimuli
• 如果反应是正确的则被鼓励，学习者得到鼓励后，这
种刺激——反应得到强化，最后形成习惯固定下来；如
果被否定，则重新调整反应。
• 语言是一点一滴、逐条逐项逐渐习得的。
• 具体步骤是：imitation——reinforcement——practice—
—habit formation。

11. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
先天论（Chomsky)
• 区分“语言能力”和“语言行为”，认为人们学习一种
语言是要获得关于这种语言的“语言能力”，而不是
仅仅模仿这种语言的“语言行为”本身。
• 认为语言能力具有遗传性，人天生有一个“语言习
得机制”，这种语言习得机制包含有人类所有语言
的共同规则，即“普遍语法”。
• 语言学习就是不断地通过语言输入而把规则内化而
习得语言的过程，就是获得某种语言的语言能力的
过程。

12. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
交互作用论：皮亚杰(Piaget)
• 主要观点：交互作用论认为语言发展是天生的认知
能力与客观的经验相互起作用的结果。
• 认为语言能力的发展不能领先于认知能力的发展。
只能反映认知能力的发展，认知能力决定语言能力

13. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
信息加工理论 （information processing theory)
• Information processing investigates how different memory stores (short-term
memory (STM); long- term memory (LTM) - declarative and procedural) deal with
new second language information, and how this information is automatized and
restructured through repeated activation
• Building up of knowledge that can eventually be called on automatically for
speaking and understanding.
- pay attention (using cognitive resources to process information)
- through experience and practice, information that was new becomes easier to
process
- learners access the information quickly and automatically

14. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
• 社会文化理论 （social cultural theory)
Vygotsky’s theory proposes:
• Learning is embedded within social events and occurring as an individual
interacts with people, objects, and events in the environment
• Cognitive development, including language development, arises as a result
of social interaction.
• How learning occurs?
When an individual interacts with an interlocutor within his ZPD (Zone of
Proximal Development: a situation where the learner is capable of
performing at a higher level because there is support from the interlocutor.
认为语言能力的发展不能领先于认知能力的发展。只能
反映认知能力的发展，认知能力决定语言能力。

15. 第二语言习得: 主要研究内容
• 第二语言学习顺序研究: the natural order hypothesis
(Krashen, 1985)
所谓“自然习得顺序”是指儿童在习得母语语法规则和语言项
目时遵循一种相似的习得顺序。就某种语言而言，学习者总是先
掌握某种语法结构，而另一种语法结构掌握得相对较晚。(The
acquisition of grammatical structures follows a “natural
order”which is predictable）
例如：一些实验表明，在儿童和成人将英语作为第二语言学习
时，掌握进行时先于掌握过去时，掌握名词复数先于掌握名词所
有格 ’ s 等。这种顺序就是通常所说的自然发展顺序。

16. 第二语言习得: 主要研究内容
中介语
• Interlanguage refers to L2 learners’ linguistic and
pragmatic performance and products
• 中介语是指第二语言学习者在所接触到的目的语材
料的基础上通过归纳推论等建构起来的语言系统，
这个系统既不同于学习者的母语，也不同于目的语，
但会逐渐向目的语靠拢。中介语是一种动态的发展
的语言系统。

17. 第二语言习得: 主要研究内容

18. 第二语言习得: 主要研究内容
第二语言学习与文化的交互影响研究
语言学习的成功与否与学习者本族文化及其文化认同密切相
关。
• Social Distance refers to the cognitive and affective proximity
of two cultures that come into contact within individuals
• Distance is dissimilarity
• Schumann‘s hypothesis (1978)：The greater the social
distance between two cultures, the greater the difficulty the
learner will have in learning the second language , and
conversely, the smaller the social distance between two culture,
the better will be the language learning situation.

19. 第二语言习得: 主要研究内容
学习者的个体差异研究
• 语言学能（language aptitude)
• 态度 (attitude)
• 动机 （motivation)
• 认知风格
• 年龄 (age)
• 性格 (gender)

20. 第二语言习得: 主要研究内容
学习环境因素(学习者外在因素）
• 社会环境 （social environment)
• 家庭背景 （family background)
• 学校设施（school facilities)
• 师资情况（teacher conditions)
• 教学方法（teaching method)

21. 第二语言习得: 主要研究内容
教师角色研究
1. The Controller: The teacher is in complete charge of the class, what students do, what
they say and how they say it. The teacher assumes this role when a new language is being
introduced and accurate reproduction and drilling techniques are needed.
2. The Prompter: The teacher encourages students to participate and makes suggestions
about how students may proceed in an activity. The teacher helps students only when the
students need his/her help.

22. 第二语言习得: 主要研究内容
教师角色研究
3. The Resource: The teacher is a walking resource center, who is ready to
offer help if needed
so that the learners can consult him/her. He/she provides learners with
whatever language
they lack when performing communicative activities.
4. The Tutor: The teacher acts as a coach when students are involved in
project work or self -study. The teacher provides advice and guidance and
helps students to clarify ideas and limit tasks

23. 第二语言习得: 主要研究内容
教师角色研究
5. The Organizer: The most difficult and important role the teacher has to play. The success of
many activities depends on good organization and on the students knowing exactly what they
are to do next.
6. The Participant: The teacher can enliven (entertaining) a class. This role improves the
atmosphere in the class, when the teacher takes part in an activity. However, the teacher takes
a risk of dominating the activity when performing
a teacher is able to stand back and not become the center of attention, it can be a great way
to interact with learners without being too overpowering.

24. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
母语与第二语言习得的影响：语言迁移 (language
transfer)。
迁移：在学习过程中已获得的知识、技能、方法以
及态度对学习新知识、新技能的影响
语言迁移：一种语言对学习者学习另一种语
言产生影响

25. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
母语与第二语言习得的影响：语言迁移 (language
transfer)。
迁移分为两种：
• 正迁移（positive transfer): 积极、促进作用的迁移
• 负迁移 （negative transfer): 消极、阻碍作用的迁移，负
迁移又叫做干扰
• 两种语言结构相同之处产生正迁移
• 两种语言的差异导致负迁移。
Example: 汉语中（母语）的声调（tone)对说英语的影响

26. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
第二语言学习的神经机制 (Neurolinguistics)
• The study of the function the brain performs in
language learning and language use.
• includes research into how the structure of the brain
influences language learning
• how and in which part of the brain language is stored
• how damage to the brain affects the ability to use
language.

27. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
语言教学
• 语言知识教学：即语音教学、词汇教学、语法教学
• 语言技能教学： 听力教学、口语教学、阅读教学、
写作教学

28. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
语言教学法
Approach
• Theoretical positions and beliefs about the nature of language, the nature of language learning,
and the applicability of both to pedagogical settings.
Methodology
• The study of pedagogical practices in general (including theoretical underpinnings and related
research). Whatever considerations are involved in "how to teach" are methodological.
Techniques
• Any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or devices used in the language classroom for
realizing lesson objectives

29. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
语言教学法
Grammar-Translation Method (early 19th century)
• Systematic study of the prescribed grammar of classical Latin and
classical texts.
• Instruction given in mother tongue.
• Little use (of language) for communication in target language.
• Teacher does not have to be able to speak target language.
• Focus on appreciating literature of target language and translation.

30. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
语言教学法
Direct Approach
• Everyday spoken language.
• Culture, history, geography, everyday life of Target Language speakers.
• Associate meaning with TL directly
• No use of mother tongue allowed
• Lesson begins with dialogues and conversations
• Grammar rules learned inductively
• Teacher must speak the target language

31. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
语言教学法
AUDIO- LINGUAL APPROACH
• WWII (1939-1945 )breaks out and U.S. military requires people to
speak and understand foreign languages. The U.S. government hires
linguists to help teach and develop materials.
• Linguistic and Psychology.
• Charles Fries (1945) led the way in applying principles from sturctural
linguistics in developing this approach.
• In 1957 principles from behavioral psychology (Skinner) were
incorporated

32. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
语言教学法
AUDIO- LINGUAL APPROACH
• Sentence and sound patterns
• Overcoming native language habits;
• form new target language habits.
• Conduct oral/aural drills and pattern practice.

33. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
语言教学法
SILENT WAY
• 1960 Chomsky argued the language acquisition could not take place
through habit formation, but rather a rule formation
• This method shares certain principles with the Cognitive Approach
• Unique since it is the expression of a particular group of people。
• Develop inner criteria for corrections by becoming aware of how TL
works.
• Remain silent in order to subordinate teaching to learning.
• Focus student attention
• provide meaningful practice.

34. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
语言教学法
NATURAL APPROACH
• An outgrowth of second language acquisition research, especially by
Krashen (1981) and Terrell(1977).
• This approach assumes that L2 is very similar to L1.
• Listening is recognized as a very important skill
• Listen and respond non-verbally
• Learners should not speak until they feel ready to do so.
• Learners progress by being exposed to meaningful input just one step
beyond their level of competence

35. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
语言教学法
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
• TPR is usually introduced in the student’s native language.
• Meaning is made clear through body movements
• Main aim is to reduce the stress.
• Students speak when they are ready.
• Initially the teacher is the director of all the students behaviour. In
the second phase sts demonstrate they can understand the
commands by performing them alone.
• After learning to respond to oral commands the sts learn to read and
write

36. 语言学习：第二语言习得的理论
语言教学法
Communicative approach
• This approach grew out of the work anthropological linguists and who view language first
and foremost
As a system of communication.
• It is assumed that the goal of language teaching is learner ability to communicate in the
target language.
• It is assumed that the content of a language course will include semantic notions and
social functions, not just linguistics structures
• Students regularly work in groups or pairs.
• Classroom materials and activities are often authentic to reflect real-life situations and
demands.
• Skills are integrated
• The teacher role is primarily to facilitate communication and secondarily to correct errors.
Teachers must be fluent