Chapter 3 computer system fundamental

Data Communication & Networking in
Manufacturing System
N. A. Sutisna
PLM Consultant, IBM Indonesia
Lecturer, President University

Chapter 3
Computer System
Fundamental
Chapter 3
Computer System
Fundamental

The Primary Components Of A ComputerThe Primary Components Of A Computer
 Input devices.
 Central Processing
Unit (containing the
control unit and the
arithmetic/logic unit).
 Memory.
 Output devices.
 Storage devices.

Central processing unitCentral processing unit
 A central processing unit (CPU), or sometimes just
called processor, is a description of a class of logic
machines that can execute computer programs.
 This broad definition can easily be applied to many
early computers that existed long before the term
"CPU" ever came into widespread usage. However,
the term itself and its initialism have been in use in
the computer industry at least since the early
1960s (Weik 1961).
 The form, design and implementation of CPUs have
changed dramatically since the earliest examples,
but their fundamental operation has remained
much the same.

Central processing unitCentral processing unit
 Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger,
usually one-of-a-kind, computer. However, this costly
method of designing custom CPUs for a particular
application has largely given way to the development of
mass-produced processors that are suited for one or
many purposes.
 This standardization trend generally began in the era of
discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and
has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the
integrated circuit (IC).
 The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be
designed and manufactured in very small spaces (on the
order of millimeters). Both the miniaturization and
standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of
these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited
application of dedicated computing machines. Modern
microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles
to cell phones to children's toys.

EDVAC, one of the first electronic
stored program computers.
Early ComputersEarly Computers
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
And Computer), was the first general-
purpose electronic computer. ENIAC was
designed and built to calculate artillery
firing tables for the U.S. Army's Ballistic
Research Laboratory.

transistor evolutiontransistor evolution
later packaged in small IC’s
eventually came VLSI
Very Large Scale Integration
millions of transistors per chip
 first transistor made from
materials including a paper clip
and a razor blade

the integrated circuit (IC)the integrated circuit (IC)
 invented separately by 2 people ~1958
• Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments
• Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor (1958-59)
 1974
• Intel introduces the 8080 processor
• one of the first “single-chip” microprocessors

MicroprocessorMicroprocessor
 Processors were for a long period constructed out
of small and medium-scale ICs containing the
equivalent of a few to a few hundred transistors.
 The integration of the whole CPU onto a single
VLSI chip therefore greatly reduced the cost of
processing capacity.
 From their humble beginnings, continued
increases in microprocessor capacity has rendered
other forms of computers almost completely
obsolete (see history of computing hardware),
with one or more microprocessor as processing
element in everything from the smallest
embedded systems and handheld devices to the
largest mainframes and super computers.

 Three projects
arguably delivered
a complete
microprocessor at
about the same
time, namely
Intel's 4004, the
Texas Instruments
(TI) TMS 1000,
and Garrett
AiResearch's
Central Air Data
Computer (CADC).
The 4004 with cover removed (left)
and as actually used (right).

ArchitecturesArchitectures
 8-bit designs
 16-bit designs
 32-bit designs
 64-bit designs in personal computers
 Multicore designs
 RISC
 Special-purpose designs
• microcontrollers, digital signal processors (DSP) and
graphics processing units (GPU).

 65xx
• MOS Technology 6502
• Western Design Center 65xx
 ARM family
 Altera Nios, Nios II
 Atmel AVR architecture (purely microcontrollers)
 EISC
 RCA 1802 (aka RCA COSMAC, CDP1802)
 DEC Alpha
 Intel
• 4004, 4040
• 8080, 8085
• 8048, 8051
• iAPX 432
• i860, i960
• Itanium
 LatticeMico32
 M32R architecture
 MIPS architecture
 Motorola
• Motorola 6800
• Motorola 6809
• Motorola 68000 family, ColdFire
• MotoG4, G5

 NSC 320xx
 OpenCores OpenRISC architecture
 PA-RISC family
 National Semiconductor SC/MP ("scamp")
 Signetics 2650
 SPARC
 SuperH family
 Transmeta Crusoe, Efficeon (VLIW architectures, IA-32 32-bit
Intel x86 emulator)
 INMOS Transputer
 x86 architecture
• Intel 8086, 8088, 80186, 80188 (16-bit real mode-only x86 architecture)
• Intel 80286 (16-bit real mode and protected mode x86 architecture)
• IA-32 32-bit x86 architecture
• x86-64 64-bit x86 architecture
 and others

Microprocessor SystemMicroprocessor System
 A microprocessor incorporates most or all of the functions of a
central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC).
 The first microprocessors emerged in the early 1970s and were
used for electronic calculators, using BCD arithmetics on 4-bit
words.
 Other embedded uses of 4 and 8-bit microprocessors, such as
terminals, printers, various kinds of automation etc, followed
rather quickly.
 Affordable 8-bit microprocessors with 16-bit addressing also
led to the first general purpose microcomputers in the mid-
1970s.

 Die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor
(actual size: 12×6.75 mm) in its packaging

Microprocessor chips are the basic building blocks for nearly all
of the "intelligent" control systems found in a modern
manufacturing organization. Smaller systems have a single
microprocessor chip acting as the entire Central Processing
Unit (CPU). This is typical of Personal Computers, Workstations
and small industrial controllers. Larger computer-based systems
use microprocessors as building blocks for entire boards, which
may themselves act as CPUs or closed loop controllers.
Regardless of the architecture of intelligent systems, the
principles by which communication occurs between a
microprocessor chip and other associated semiconductor devices
are essentially the same. We shall examine communications
in a simple, single processor system to illustrate the key
features involved.

The microprocessor chip can be envisaged as a machine that
generates a number of internal voltage levels which together define
the internal "state" of that machine. The internal state of the
microprocessor changes at a rate determined by an external clock
chip. The internal "state" voltage levels are decoded (by appropriate
circuits) in order to:
• move data into or out of the microprocessor
• manipulate data within the microprocessor (add, subtract, etc.)
• move data from one internal storage location (register) to
another.
Each cycle (tick) of the clock causes the microprocessor to jump
from one internal state to another. The "next state" of the
microprocessor is determined by a logical combination of its current
internal state, together with the condition of all the various input
lines connected to it. This
Microprocessor System

The architecture of semiconductor devices such as
microprocessors, memory chips, etc., is based upon the use of
only two voltages - low (false / off) or high (true /on). This is
referred to as a "binary" or "base 2" system.
Typically a voltage in the order of five volts is treated as high, and
voltages of approximately zero are treated as low. The actual
values depend upon the semiconductor technology used to
fabricate a particular set of chips.
At any one point within a microprocessor chip, only the numbers
0 or 1 can be represented electronically at any instant in time.
Similarly, the microprocessor's links to its outside world, the
conducting, bus lines can also only have either a high or low
voltage at any instant. Multiple conductors are therefore needed
on a bus in order for the microprocessor to handle realistic
numbers. A system with "n" conductors can therefore directly
handle numbers ranging from:
0 to (2n - 1)

From Figure 1.3
at any time "T", we have the
following, "binary" number:
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
At any instant in time
(neglecting transition periods),
each point in a digital
circuit represents one binary
digit. This is abbreviated to
the word "bit".
Microprocessor System

Number Systems: DecimalNumber Systems: Decimal
The decimal (or base 10) number system, the following is a
count sequence:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
.
.
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
the decimal number 721 actually represents the following:
(7 x 102) + (2 x 101) + (1 x 100)

The “Octal" number system arises regularly. A count sequence
in base 8 takes on the following form:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
The octal number 721 actually represents the following:
(7 x 82) + (2 x 81) + (1 x 80)
which is equal to decimal 465 and not decimal 721.
When working with a range of different number systems, it is
common practice to subscript numbers with the base of the
number system involved. For example, we can validly write
the following expression:
7218 = 46510
Number Systems: Octal

The “Hexadecimal” number system or base 16.
Since we do not have enough of the ordinary numerals (0..9) to
represent 16 different numbers with a single symbol, we "borrow"
the first six letters of the alphabet (A..F). A count sequence in base
16 then takes on the following form:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E 1F
.
.
F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 FA FB FC FD FE FF
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 10A 10B 10C 10D 10E 10F
To similarly convert the hexadecimal number 721 to decimal:
72116 = (7 x 162) + (2 x 161) + (1 x 160) = 182510
Number Systems: Hexadecimal

Number Systems: Binary
Finally we move on to the number system most closely related to
the architecture of computer systems themselves, the binary
number system, in which we can only count from 0 to 1 before
performing a "shift" operation. The following is a base 2 count
sequence:
0 1
10 11
100 101 110 111
1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
If we look again at Figure 1.3, we can now see that the number
represented by the voltage waveforms at time "T" is:
101111012 =
(1x27) + (0x26) + (1x25) + (1x24) + (1x23) + (1x22) + (0x21) + (1x20)
= 18910

Number Systems: BCD
In order to establish an analogous, direct relationship between
binary and decimal, another number representation is also in use.
This is referred to as the Binary Coded Decimal or BCD system.
In the BCD system, each decimal digit is represented in binary by
four bits.
For example, the BCD equivalent of the number 721 is given by:
0111 0010 0001

Two specifications for the bit patterns representing alpha-numeric
characters are in common use. These are the 7 bit ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange) and
the 8 bit EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code) systems.
Representation of Alpha Numeric

Representation of Alpha Numeric

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