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1. Theories and Principles in the 19th
Century
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE 19TH CENTURY
Start Date: 1760 | End Date: 1820-1840
- The 19th century was a time of
significant change, especially with the
beginning of the Industrial Revolution.
This revolutionary era began in the late
18th century. It lasted until the early
19th century, resulting in enormous
technological advances,
manufacturing, and societal
institutions.
INFLUENCE OF THE SCIENTIFIC
REVOLUTION AND THE AGE OF
ENLIGHTENMENT ON 19TH-CENTURY
- Enlightenment ideas challenged
traditional authority and led to political
revolutions. 19th-century movements
like liberalism, socialism, and
neoclassicism built on Enlightenment
thought.
- The Scientific Revolution's scientific
methods and systematic thinking drove
19th-century industrial advances and
infiltrated sectors like health,
agriculture, and engineering, shaping
the economic and social landscape.
THEORIES IN THE 19TH CENTURY:
SCIENTIFIC
1. Charles Darwin - Evolution by Natural
Selection
- Charles Darwin is well known for
developing the idea of evolution via
natural selection. He established a
perspective of the evolution of life on
Earth with the publication of "On the
Origin of Species" in 1859, which
profoundly affected almost every
biological and philosophical
2. Schwann and Schleiden - Cell Theory
- A fundamental scientific theory of
biology according to which cells are
the basic units of all living tissues.
First proposed by German scientists
Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob
Schleiden in 1838, the theory that all
plants and animals are made up of
cells marked a tremendous conceptual
advance in biology and resulted in
renewed attention to the living
processes in cells.
3. James Clerk Maxwell - Electromagnetic
Theory
- James Clerk Maxwell's equations,
developed in the mid-19th century,
unified the understanding of electricity
and magnetism, laying the groundwork
for the later development of
electromagnetic waves and the field of
electromagnetism.
4. Gregor Mendel - Gene Theory
- The Gene theory states that traits can
be passed on from parents to offspring
through genetic transmission. This
theory is used in commercial
experimental breeding to create
genetically modified organisms. It also
identifies abnormal chromosome
pairing, such as Down syndrome.
PRINCIPLES IN THE
19TH CENTURY
The 19th century marked the beginning of new
philosophical problems and new conceptions of
what philosophy should do. It was a century of
great intellectual diversity.
In the 19th century, some main philosophies
and principles developed, such as German
idealism and positivism.
WHAT WAS WESTERN
PHILOSOPHY
INFLUENCED BY?
- Romantic Movement of the early 19th
century
- The maturation of the Industrial
Revolution
- The revolutions of 1848 in Paris,
Germany, and Vienna
- The great surge in biological science
followed the publication of work by
Charles Darwin (1809–82) on the
theory of evolution.
GERMAN IDEALISM
According to Pholosophybasics.com:
- “In general terms, Idealism is the
theory that fundamental reality is made
up of ideas or thoughts. It holds that
consciousness (or mental entities) is
the only thing actually knowable. We
can never be sure that matter or
anything in the outside world actually
exists.”
Pros:
- Developed systematic philosophies
- Focused on subjectivity and
consciousness

2. - Influenced existentialism and
phenomenology
- Integrated reason and spirituality
- Culturally and historically significant
Cons:
- Abstract and complex
- Speculative and overly metaphysical
- Potentially too idealistic
- Challenged traditional metaphysics
- Difficult to apply practically
POSITIVISM
According to Britannica:
- “Positivism, in Western philosophy, is
generally any system that confines
itself to the data of experience and
excludes a priori or metaphysical
speculations.”
Pros:
- Emphasizes empirical data and
scientific method
- Uses quantitative data for statistical
analysis
- Enables prediction and practical
applications
- Provides clear, structured research
methodology
Cons:
- Reduces complex phenomena too
simply
- Overlooks subjectivity and values
- Overemphasizes researcher objectivity
- Struggles to address human
complexity
LIBERALISM
- Liberals propelled the long campaign
that abolished Britain’s slave trade in
1807 and slavery itself throughout the
British dominions in 1833. Liberalism
in the early 19th century stood for
freedom for the individual and equality
for all before the law for the new
middle classes.
1. It means freedom of equality before the law.
2. It included the end of aristocracy and clerical
privileges.
3. It meant representative government through
Parliament.
4. It meant representative government through
Parliament.
CONSERVATISM
- Conservatism in the 19th century was
a political and social ideology that
emerged as a response to the
significant changes brought about by
the Enlightenment, the French
Revolution, and the Industrial
Revolution. It sought to preserve
traditional values, institutions, and
hierarchies in rapid social, political,
and economic transformations.
- Those who believed in conservatism
wanted to keep things the way they
were – like traditional values, the way
society was organized, and how
people were ranked because they
feared these changes would happen
too quickly and disrupt everything.
SOCIALISM
- With the Industrial Revolution came
the rise of factories, so more labor was
needed. However, the working
conditions were less than desirable,
with long work hours, low salaries, and
a high chance of injury. In response to
these unfair employment conditions,
Socialists raised arguments about the
workers' rights and the improvement of
employment terms.
NATIONALISM
- During the time when European
powers were competing for resources
and influence, Nationalism was most
especially important. This sense of
nationalism they got was mainly
because the changes of the Industrial
Revolution led to the growth of the
country’s economy. This, in turn,
brings the people a sense of pride and
makes them believe themselves
superior to other countries.
CRITIQUES & COMMNENTS
- Social Inequality/Racism
- Conservatism
- Positisivm
- German Idealism
CONCLUSION
- The 19th century was a transformative
era marked by the Industrial
Revolution, which brought
groundbreaking technology and social
challenges like poor working
conditions.
MASS CULTURE IN THE 19TH
CENTURY
WHAT IS MASS CULTURE?
- Mass culture, also known as popular
culture or pop culture, refers to the set
of ideas, practices, images, and
phenomena that are prevalent and

3. widely accepted within mainstream
society. Its accessibility to a large
audience characterizes it and is often
produced, consumed, and distributed
on a mass scale. Mass culture is
shaped by various forms of media,
entertainment, and communication that
can reach and influence a broad and
diverse audience.
PRINT CULTURE
- In the 19th century, technological
strides in print culture rivaled
Gutenberg's invention of the printing
press. The advent of iron printing
presses and steam power
revolutionized production, vastly
increasing speed and stability. This
breakthrough democratized
knowledge, making printed materials
more accessible. Lower production
costs facilitated the widespread
dissemination of
newspapers,magazines, and books,
shaping public opinion and fostering a
shared cultural identity. Steam power's
integration accelerated printing and
connected people across geographical
boundaries, marking a transformative
era in mass culture.
EDUCATION SYSTEM
- The 19th-century education system
became a mass culture due to the
widespread expansion of public
education, the implementation of
compulsory schooling, and the societal
recognition of education as a crucial
factor for social and economic
progress. The focus on rote
memorization, particularly in subjects
like grammar and arithmetic, reflected
the educational priorities of the time.
Despite differences from contemporary
learning methods, the broadening
accessibility of education during this
era contributed to the development of
a more literate and informed society.
NEW SPORTS
- In the 19th century, new sports took
center stage. Lawn tennis,adapted in
1873, transformed the medieval game
into a popular sport. Snooker,
originating in India in 1875, became a
widely played cue sport. Volleyball,
invented in 1895, added a dynamic
team sport. These sports reflected a
cultural shift toward organized leisure
activities, aligning with increased free
time and the development of
weekends. Their popularity contributed
to the rise of a mass culture around
recreational pursuits, providing
accessible and enjoyable pastimes
that brought diverse communities
together during the 19th century.
THE RISE OF MASS ENTERTAINMENT
- During the 19th century,
advancements in technology and
industrialization in America led to
significant changes in daily life. The
economic boom improved living
conditions, providing people with more
leisure time and disposable income.
This era saw the rise of various
entertainment options such as
amusement parks, circuses, theaters,
and social clubs. The development of
electricity contributed to the
emergence of amusement parks,
exemplified by Lake Compounce,
which opened in 1846. In addition to
traditional forms of entertainment like
theater, the 19th century also
embraced museums, concerts, and
puppetry, all of which became integral
aspects of American daily life. Many of
these pastimes continue to be part of
contemporary culture, offering
enjoyment and entertainment to this
day.
SODA COMPANIES EMERGE
- In the early 1800s, Joseph Hawkins
received a U.S. patent for sparkling
mineral water. At first, its main purpose
was in pharmacies as a kind of
medicine. However, in the 1830s,
people stopped seeing sparkling water
for just its medicinal value and started
adding sugar and flavor to it. They
experimented with ginger, herbs,
vanilla, fruit, and roots.
- By the 1860s, soda fountains were
common in drug stores, but they
weren’t codified or the same all
around. Every soda fountain would
have a slightly different variety of
sodas, even if they used similar
ingredients. In the very late 1800s and
early 1900s, brands started to emerge
as specific soda flavors became more
popular. Most of these companies
were started by experimenting until
they found something really great.
- Some of the earliest soda brands that
are still around today were Dr. Pepper,

4. which was founded in Texas in 1885,
Coca-Cola in Atlanta, Georgia, in
1886, and Pepsi-Cola in New Carolina
in 1893.
VICTORIANISM
- Victorianism was the culture of top
hats, of dresses that covered every
inch of the female body, of rigid gender
norms, and of an almost pathological
fear of sexuality. Its defining
characteristic was the desire for
security, especially security from the
influence of the lower classes. Class
divisions were made visible in the
clothing and manners of individuals,
with each class outfitted in distinct
“uniforms” – this was a time when
one’s hat indicated one’s income
- In summary, Victorianism became a
mass culture in the 19th century due to
a combination of moral values,
economic prosperity,technological
progress, imperial expansion, the
influence of literature and media, and
the shaping of gender roles. It
provided a framework for navigating
the complexities of a rapidly changing
society while emphasizing stability,
progress, and a shared sense of
identity.
ROMANTICISM
- Romanticism emerged as a reaction
against the rationalism and order
emphasized during the Enlightenment.
The Enlightenment, which preceded
the Romantic era, stressed reason,
science, and logic. Romanticism, on
the other hand, celebrated emotion,
intuition, and the irrational. This shift
resonated with a wide audience
seeking a more emotional and
imaginative connection to life. The
19th century witnessed the profound
impacts of the Industrial Revolution,
leading to rapid urbanization,
technological advancements, and
social changes. The industrialized and
urbanized societies saw a yearning for
a connection to nature, simplicity, and
a sense of authenticity, all of which
were important themes in Romantic
literature and art.
- In summary, Romanticism became a
mass culture in the 19th century
because it addressed the cultural and
emotional needs of a society
undergoing profound transformations.
It offered a counterbalance to the
rationalism of the Enlightenment and
provided a means for individuals to
explore their emotions, connect with
nature, and grapple with the social and
political changes of the time.
HOW DO THESE CULTURES SPREAD?
- Popular culture is often expressed and
spread via commercial media such as
radio, television, movies, the music
industry, publishers, and corporate-run
websites. (In the nineteenth century,
print was the dominant media, yet the
period is crucial because it represents
the victory of commercialism in the
press over allegiance to
citizenship—all of this during a non
digital age when industrial and political
revolutions fused into the modern
world.)
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
1. SOCIAL INEQUALITY
- The benefits of mass culture
were not evenly distributed,
leading to increased social
inequality. Those who could
afford access to cultural
products and leisure activities
had an advantage over those
who could not.
2. MORAL CONCERNS
- The content of mass culture,
particularly in literature,
theater, and later in film, often
sparked moral concerns.
Some works were criticized
for challenging traditional
values or promoting behavior
deemed inappropriate by
certain segments of society.
3. COMMERCIALIZATION AND
CONSUMERISM
- The commodification of
culture and entertainment led
to an increased focus on
profit rather than artistic or
intellectual value. The
prioritization of commercial
success sometimes
compromised the quality and
depth of cultural products.
4. LOSS OF LOCAL CULTURES
- The commodification of
culture and entertainment led

5. to an increased focus on
profit rather than artistic or
intellectual value. The
prioritization of commercial
success sometimes
compromised the quality and
depth of cultural products.
CRITICISMS
1. SENSATIONALISM AND SIMPLICITY
- In order to appeal to a wide
audience, mass media in the
19th century was frequently
accused of oversimplifying
complicated topics and
events. It was customary to
sensationalize news in order
to garner interest and boost
distribution. This may have
caused facts to be distorted
and dramatic stories to be
given precedence over more
in-depth material.
2. CULTURAL HEGEMONY AND
SOCIAL DIVIDE
- It has also been said that
mass culture suppresses
different voices and
homogenizes culture by
encouraging a common
cultural experience.
Opponents contended that it
resulted in a type of cultural
hegemony whereby the
norms and values of the
prevailing social groups were
upheld, possibly
marginalizing or stifling
different points of view.
3. COMMODIFICATION AND
COMMERCIALIZATION
- Media organizations were
charged with putting financial
gain ahead of cultural
enrichment or journalistic
integrity. The emergence of
"yellow journalism" and an
emphasis on entertainment
value over accuracy were
both influenced by this trend.
4. DIMINISHED AUTHENTICITY AND
INDIVIDUALITY
- Individuality and authenticity
were thought to be at risk
from the standardization of
cultural content for mass
consumption. Opponents
contended that the mass
media's impact on cultural
production could suppress
individual or regional
expressions that are
distinctive in favor of more
commercially viable and
broadly appealing material.
COMMENTS:
- The 19th century's mass culture acted
as a creative catalyst for societal
transformation. When print media
became widely available, and literacy
rates rose, information and ideas could
be shared on a never-before-seen
scale. This was crucial in influencing
public opinion and creating a feeling of
common cultural identity.
- The democratization of information
access was one advantage of mass
culture in the 19th century. A wider
range of people from all
socioeconomic classes could now
access literature and news thanks to
the emergence of inexpensive
newspapers and the penny press. As a
result, there were knowledge gaps
filled and citizens became better
informed.
- There were legitimate worries about
cultural homogenization, even though
mass culture helped create a shared
cultural experience. As critics correctly
noted, the focus on popular content
may dilute distinctive local or personal
expressions, casting doubt on the
preservation of cultural diversity.
- The development of printing
technology and, subsequently, visual
media was a major factor in the
formation of mass culture in the 19th
century. A dramatic change occurred
with the emergence of the illustrated
press and the addition of visual
components, which affected not only
the dissemination of information but
also the consumption and
interpretation of cultural material by
society.
- Mass culture, with its ability to
influence public opinion, had a
profound impact on societal norms.
However, concerns about cultural
hegemony surfaced, as the dominant
values of certain social groups were
perceived to have an outsized
influence. Recognizing and addressing
these power dynamics remains an

6. ongoing challenge in media and
cultural studies.
Modernization in Japan
Modernization in Japan refers to the period of
rapid and comprehensive transformation that
occurred during the Meiji Restoration
(1868-1912). The Meiji Restoration signaled the
end of feudalism and the beginning of a period
in which Japan accepted political, economic,
social, and cultural changes in order to
modernize and strengthen the country.
During the administration of the Tokugawa
shoguns, Japan fostered isolation from the
developed world and maintained limited
diplomatic and trading contacts with China,
Korea, and the Dutch. Aside from the
Europeans' and Americans' continuous
invitations to trade, the Japanese refused to
open their doors to them. For generations,
Japan was able to grow and live in peace
thanks to the feudal system.
Several important factors contributed Japan's
modernization:
1. Political Reforms: The Meiji authorities
implemented political reforms in order
to consolidate power and establish a
strong, centralized government. In
1889, they established a constitutional
monarchy, establishing a modern
political organization with the Emperor
serving as a symbolic figurehead and
the government managed by elected
people.
2. Economic Changes: The government
was instrumental in guiding economic
development. It invested in
infrastructure, like railroads and
telegraph lines, to improve
transportation and communication.
The government also aided
industrialization by enacting rules that
aided entrepreneurs and industries.
3. Military Strengthening: To improve
Japan's defensive capabilities and
safeguard national security, the Meiji
government upgraded the military.
Adoption of Western military
technologies and organizational
systems was required.
4. Cultural Exchange: It was an important
factor in the process of Japan's
modernization. Japan's experience in
reconciling and resolving the
irreconcilables and conflicts between
different civilizations enables it to
comprehend the problems confronting
present non-Western states striving for
modernization. This permitted the
transfer of knowledge and technology,
which helped Japan modernize.
Treaty of Kanagawa:
By 1853, American steamships armed with
cannons had invaded Japanese waters. U.S.
The modern ships of Commodore Matthew
Perry astounded and offended the Japanese
that the Tokugawa shogun received.
them. Perry presented the shogun with a letter
from US President Millard Fillmore requesting
that he support free trade between Americans
and Japanese. Later, in 1854, both countries
signed the Treaty of Kanagawa, which
mandated that two Japanese ports be opened
so that the United States could trade with
Japan. As the United States succeeded in
convincing Japan to open its doors to
foreigners, other European countries followed
suit. And by 1860,
Several treaty ports were established in Japan,
granting foreign nations extraterritorial rights.
Meiji Modernization and Reform:
Many Japanese were dissatisfied with their
shogun, the military dictator, because of the
establishment of foreign treaties in Japan.
Emperor Mutsuhito was able to depose the
shogun with the help of dissenting Japanese.
From 1867 to 1912, Japan was ruled directly by
the Emperor after a long period of indirect rule.
The era was known as the Meiji era, which
means "enlightened rule."
The emperor's key reforms were the
modernization of Japan. Government personnel
were dispatched to study and observe Western
ways of life in other countries, primarily the
United States and other European countries.
Based on what they saw abroad, these officials
later shaped the new Japan. They modeled
their government after Germany, using the
German Constitution as a model for their own.
The discipline of German forces influenced the
modernization of their army, and their navy was
modeled after the skilled British navy. The
Japanese educational system was modeled
after the American educational system. The
emperor also promoted Japanese economic
modernization by leveraging Western
manufacturing triumphs. The Japanese began
to mine coal, build railroads, and construct
factories, and Japan quickly became as modern
as other Western countries.
Imperial Japan:

7. Japan became a growing Asian superpower in
the late nineteenth century, with the strongest
army, stable government, and thriving economy.
Foreigners have given up their unique rights in
Japan in exchange for those afforded by
European countries. During this period, Japan
began to feel on equal footing with the Western
powers. As a result of these feelings, Japan
became increasingly imperialistic,
demonstrating to the world that it was a rising
power.
As part of their imperialistic motives, Japan
opened three trading ports in their neighbor,
Korea in 1876. China shared similar interests to
Korea as both nations recognized Korea's
importance in terms of trading and military
outpost. The Japanese and the Chinese
pledged not to send their armies into Korea in
1885. However, the Chinese disregarded their
agreement in 1984 when a rebellion against the
Korean king broke out and a Chinese unit was
despatched to pacify the insurrection. Japan
retaliated by sending soldiers to Korea to
oppose the Chinese troops; the conflict became
known as the Sino-Japanese War, which lasted
months until Japan defeated the Chinese in
Korea. Both sides agreed to a treaty that
awarded Japan its first colonies, Taiwan and the
Pescadores Islands.
Russo-Japanese War:
In 1904, Japan waged another war with a
stronger nation, Russia when both countries
wanted
to take full control of Manchuria. Japan
launched an attack on Russian ships in
Manchuria Bay, sparking the Russo-Japanese
War. The Russian armies were rapidly driven
out of Korea by the Japanese. Later, both
countries agreed to sit down for peace talks.
The signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth,
negotiated by US President Theodore
Roosevelt, specified the withdrawal of Russian
forces from Manchuria and the transfer of
seized territory to Japan.
Japanese Occupation of Korea:
Korea was seized the next year and became a
protectorate of Japan. Japan employed different
methods to obtain complete control of the
Korean nation, and in 1907, the King handed
over Korea to the Japanese. For several years,
the Korean Imperial Army was disbanded, and
Korea was formally renamed Korea. In 1910,
Korea was annexed by Japan, bringing it under
Japanese control. Japan's influence in Korea
has been described as brutal and severe, with
the Japanese controlling education, land
ownership, and even business. These deeds
irritated the Koreans, contributing to the growth
of nationalism among them.
As Meiji Japan rapidly industrialized and
modernized, its rulers looked at the United
States and Europe as dangerous competitors.
The West's increasing interference in nearby
China and elsewhere had Japan on high alert.
Some Meiji leaders argued that only by
industrializing could Japan protect itself. This
idea is often called "defensive modernization."
Unfortunately, Japanese industry was at a
disadvantage. The island country lacked many
raw materials, including that very important
burnable rock called coal. The goods they were
able to produce faced significant tariffs—import
taxes—from already industrialized countries.
Determined to increase industry as rapidly as
possible, Japan took actions more drastic than
anything that had been seen in Europe or the
United States. They actively brought business
leaders into government. They poured tax
money into industrialization. They sought new
markets for their goods, and resources to make
the goods. Like industrialized societies
elsewhere, they created some markets by
forcibly taking colonies. Korea, with both a
relatively large population (potential consumers)
and lots of natural resources, was an early
target.
Turmoil and Change in Mexico
Main Idea: In Mexico, political, economic, and
social inequities sparked an era of revolt and
transformation.
Terms & Names: • Antonio López de Santa
Anna • Benito Juárez • La Reforma • Porfirio
Díaz • Francisco Madero • “Pancho” Villa •
Emiliano Zapata
Spanish Colonization (16th Century):
Spanish colonization in Mexico began in the
early 16th century. The conquest of the Aztec
Empire by the Spanish, headed by Hernán
Cortés, ended in the overthrow of the Aztec
Empire and the imposition of Spanish
sovereignty. This period had far-reaching and
long-lasting consequences on Mexican society
and culture.
Santa Anna and the Mexican War:
No one dominated Mexican political life more
than Antonio López de Santa Anna in the early
nineteenth century. In 1821, Santa Anna was a
key figure in Mexico's war for independence
from Spain. He fought against Spain again in

8. 1829, as the European force attempted to
retake control of Mexico. Then, in 1833, Santa
Anna was elected President of Mexico. Santa
Anna, one of Latin America's most powerful
caudillos, was an astute politician. If he thought
it would maintain him in power, he would
support a bill one year and oppose it the next.
His policy appeared to be effective. Santa Anna
was Mexico's president four times between
1833 and 1855. He resigned from the president
twice to serve Mexico in a more pressing
cause—leading the Mexican army in an attempt
to keep Texas territory.
The Texas Revolt & War and the Fall of
Santa Anna:
In the 1820s, Mexico welcomed American
settlers to inhabit the Texas territory, raising
conflicts over issues such as slavery and
religion. As the Anglo population rose, so did
the yearning for more self-government. When
Mexico refused further autonomy, Stephen
Austin, a famous Anglo, urged for an
insurrection in 1835. Mexican forces headed by
Santa Anna won victories at first, including the
Alamo, but were defeated at the Battle of San
Jacinto. Following Santa Anna's capture, he
promised to respect Texas' independence. The
United States annexed Texas in 1845, resulting
in conflict with Mexico. After a two-year conflict,
the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in
1848, giving the United States control of the
northern third of Mexico. Santa Anna held
positions of authority and exile until returning to
Mexico in 1874, destitute and forgotten.
Juárez and La Reforma:
During the mid-nineteenth century, as Santa
Anna's power rose and collapsed, a liberal
reformer named Benito Juárez (HWAHR•ehz)
had a tremendous influence on Mexican
politics. Juárez was Santa Anna's polar
opposite in both background and aspirations.
Santa Anna was born into a prosperous Creole
family. Juárez was a poor Zapotec Indian
orphaned when he was three years old. Unlike
Santa Anna, who prioritized his personal power,
Juárez labored exclusively to serve his country.
Juárez Rises to Power:
Ancestry and racial origin were major factors in
Juárez's rise to power. of political power and
economic success in 19th-century Mexico. As a
result of this, Benito Juárez's ascension was
clearly due to his personal leadership qualities.
Juárez was raised on a tiny farm in Mexico's
Oaxaca state. He was 12 years old when he
Oaxaca City was relocated. He began attending
school at the age of 15 and graduated in 1829. I
enrolled in a freshly established state-run
university. In 1831, he earned a law degree.
Porfirio Díaz and “Order and Progress”:
However, Juárez's reform era did not continue
long. Porfirio Daz, a new caudillo, took power in
the mid-1870s. Like Daz Juárez was an
Oaxacan Indian. He ascended via the army and
rose to prominence as a general throughout the
civil war and the fight for independence. in
opposition to the French. Daz anticipated to be
rewarded with a cabinet job for his role in
France's defeat. Juárez, on the other hand,
declined his request. Following this, Daz
objected. Juárez. Daz took control of Mexico in
1876 by deposing the government. president.
He had the backing of the military, whose
authority had grown. significantly reduced
during and after the Juárez years. Native
Americans and Small landowners also backed
him because they believed he would advocate
for more drastic land reform.
Europeans Claims on Muslim Lands
Historical Background:
Ottoman Empire and Its Decline:
- Ottoman military power and its
significance for Europeans.
- Economic interests of European
powers in the Ottoman Empire.
- Reasons for the decline of the
Ottoman Empire in the 1600s.
Russia, Britain, and France:
- Russo-Turkish Wars and conflicts
during the decline of the Ottoman
Empire.
- Britain's role in the Middle East during
World War I.
- France's diplomatic relations with the
Ottoman Empire.
Discussion Proper:
Geopolitics and the Treaty of Kanagawa:
- The importance of the Ottoman
Empire's control over trade routes.
- Russia's dispute with the Ottoman
Empire leading to the Crimean War.
- The impact of the Treaty of Kanagawa
on Japan's relationship with the West.
The Crimean War:

9. - Overview of the Crimean War and its
belligerents.
- Results of the war, including the
weakness of the Ottoman Empire.
- Japan's role in the Sino-Japanese War
and the acquisition of colonies.
Imperialism in Korea and the Russo-Japanese
War:
- Japan's expansion into Korea and the
Sino-Japanese War.
- The Russo-Japanese War and its
outcomes.
- Japanese occupation and annexation
of Korea.
Examples:
- Specific instances such as the Treaty
of Kanagawa, the Crimean War, and
the Suez Canal.
Significance:
- Economic changes in Japan and its
impact on becoming a superpower.
- Foreign influence on Japan leading to
imperialistic motives.
- The impact of Western imperialism on
Asian nations like Korea and China.
Critique:
- Mentioning the impact of greed and
unorthodox methods in power
struggles.
- The negative consequences of forced
modernization on traditional cultures.
- The lasting effects of imperialism on
global power dynamics.
Chinese Resistance from Foreign
Influence:
Historical Background:
China Before:
- Traditional Chinese views on
foreigners.
- Emperor Qianlong's acceptance of
Western gifts.
Self-Sufficiency and Agricultural Economy:
- China's self-sustaining agricultural
economy.
- Introduction of crops from the
Americas.
Discussion Proper:
Opium War and Extraterritorial Rights:
- The role of opium in trade with China.
- The Opium War and its outcomes.
- Treaty negotiations and extraterritorial
rights.
Internal Problems and Rebellions:
- The challenge of China's large
population.
- The Taiping Rebellion and its impact.
- Internal and external pressures on the
Chinese government.
Chinese Nationalism and Boxer Rebellion:
- Efforts to modernize China under
Emperor Guangxu.
- The Boxer Rebellion as a response to
foreign privileges.
- Qing court's realization for the need for
reforms.
Significance:
- Impact of external pressures on
China's economy and governance.
- The Boxer Rebellion as a manifestation
of Chinese frustration.
- The beginnings of reform and the
influence of Japanese constitutional
monarchy.
Critique:
- Criticism of foreign powers taking
advantage during internal conflicts.
- Highlighting the negative
consequences of forced reforms.
- Emphasizing the importance of
preserving culture amid
modernization.
The 19th Century: A Time of Great
Innovation
WHAT IS INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION?
- The late 18th and early 19th centuries
saw much economic, technological,
and social change known as the
Industrial Revolution. It signaled the
shift in economic systems from manual
labor-based and agricultural to

10. machine- and industrial-based
manufacturing. The Industrial
Revolution expanded factories,
urbanization, and technological
breakthroughs, all of which
significantly impacted society.
- The phrase "Industrial Revolution" was
first used in the middle of the 1800s to
describe the shift from a handicraft and
agricultural economy to one centered
on industry and machine production.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IS
DIVIDED INTO TWO PARTS:
THE FIRST AND SECOND INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
The First Industrial Revolution (1760-1840):
During this time, the steam engine, mechanized
textile production, and significant iron and coal
production improvements were all made. After
starting in Britain, it eventually extended to
other countries in Europe and North America.
The Second Industrial Revolution (Mid-19th
to Early 20th Century):
This phase's defining features were the
widespread use of telegraphs and railroads, the
growth of the steel industry, and the
advancement of the chemical and electrical
industries. It had an international impact and
expanded industrialization into new sectors.
WHAT WAS THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION?
- The Second Industrial Revolution, also
known as the Technological
Revolution, occurred between 1870
and 1914, or the beginning of World
War I. The Second Industrial
Revolution was a period of rapid
industrialization, technological growth,
scientific discovery, and mass
production that led to the growth of
cities and factories.
HOW DID THE FIRST AND SECOND
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONS DIFFER?
- While the First Industrial Revolution
saw advances in coal, iron, and
textiles. The Second Industrial
Revolution on the other hand was
spurred by changes in steel
production, petroleum, and electric
power.
IMPORTANCE OF ELECTRICITY IN THE
19TH CENTURY
ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION:
- Communication technologies were
developed in the nineteenth century. A
crude system for transmitting sound by
electricity was invented in the 1860s,
but it was not until the parallel work of
Bell, and House and Grey that the
telephone was invented. Telephony
then developed rapidly. The nineteenth
century also saw the discovery and
development of radio. In 1877, Clerk
Maxwell published his famous 'Treatise
on Electricity and Magnetism', in which
he proved the existence of and
predicted many of the properties of the
waves which later became known as
radio waves. In 1886, Heinrich Rudolf
Hertz demonstrated the production
and detection of these waves, and in
1896 Guglielmo Marconi used them for
radio communication over a couple of
miles. The first commercial radio
company was founded in 1897, and
the first commercial message sent in
1898. The close of the nineteenth
century therefore saw the first stirrings
of electrical communications
technology, as regards telephony and
radio.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING:
- The first type to be developed was arc
lighting, which relied on a current
running between two carbon rods to
cause a series of sparks and thus light.
The electrical principles behind this
had first been demonstrated by Davy
in 1802, but practical problems meant
that the technology took several
decades to develop further. Significant
development occurred in 1876 with the
invention of the Jablochkoff candle, an
improved version of the arc light which
burnt out less rapidly. Arc lamps began
to appear in public places from 1878
onwards. Many more patents were
lodged in the 1880s and 1890s, but the
two most important developments in
arc lights were the "enclosure" of the
light in a glass tube and the addition of
flame-providing salts to the carbon
rods. By 1890, about 1,400 arc lamps
were in use in England, increasing to
around 21,400 by 1910. However, arc
lamps were superseded by a new,
more reliable and convenient form of
lighting: incandescent lighting.
IMPACTS OF THESE INVENTIONS:

11. Phonograph
- Prior to the invention of the
phonograph, people in the mid-1800s
had two options when it came to
listening to music: attend a live
performance or play the music
themselves. The phonograph allowed
people to listen to whatever music they
wanted, when they wanted, where they
wanted, and for as long as they
wanted
Steam locomotive
- the invention of the steam
locomotivewas a major turning point in
history as it transformed society from
largely rural and agricultural into urban
and industrial, very much like today. It
impacted transportation, agricultural
development, and technological
innovations.
Typewriter
- The typewriter helped revolutionize the
world of work and change the lives of
working women in particular and in
business communication.
Telegraph
- the telegraph had a transformative
impact on communication, business,
and international relations during the
19th century. Its ability to transmit
information quickly over long distances
laid the foundation for subsequent
advancements in global
communication.
Automobile
- The automobile helped give people the
freedom to live, work, and travel
wherever they wanted
Electric Battery
- The most exciting electrical invention
at the beginning of the 19th century
was the battery. It produced a constant
electric current, opening the way for
many other discoveries and inventions;
it also provided power for the telegraph
and telephone industries.
Electronic communication
- It revolutionized long-distance
communication specially In economy
because It allows quicker transmission
of market information.
Electric lighting
- It improved the safety and security of
people back in the 19th century,
industry, and health and well-being.
Methods of Imperialism, Imperialism
in Africa, US Economic Imperialism
Etymology:
What is IMPERIALISM?
- The Latin word imperium, which
denotes ultimate power, "sovereignty,"
or simply "rule," is where the word
imperialism first appeared.
What is the idea of IMPERIALISM?
- Extending one's dominance into other
regions for the purpose of gaining
political or economic advantage. The
acquisition of resources is the aim of
imperialism, frequently by coercion
and exploitation. Economic, cultural,
political, moral, and exploratory control
are some of the reasons behind
imperialism.
- In ancient times, rulers in China,
western Asia, and the Mediterranean
extended their power through
imperialism. Between the 15th century
and the middle of the 18th, England,
France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and
Spain built empires in the Americas,
India, and the East Indies.
- Russia, Italy, Germany, the United
States, and Japan became imperial
powers in the period from the middle of
the 19th century to World War I. The
imperial designs of Japan, fascist Italy,
and Nazi Germany in the 1930s
culminated in the outbreak of World
War II. After the war, the Soviet Union
consolidated its military and political
control of the states of eastern Europe.
Exploration - Exploration was driven by the
desire to find new trade routes, especially to
America and Asia. As European sea powers
discovered new trade routes and countries
along the way, other countries had to do the
same to remain competitive.
Economic - Economic expansion quickly
became a primary motive for imperialism.
Explorers reported home about the riches and
fertile lands found during their travels, claiming

12. these territories for the purpose of exporting
goods, such as cotton, silk, tea, and tobacco.
Political - The desire of European nations to
build an empire and become a world power was
the primary motivation behind the political
motive for imperialism. Countries used their
military as the primary method for political
expansion. While many examples can be found
during the early years of imperialism, the
annexation of smaller countries, such as Poland
and the Netherlands by Nazi Germany at the
beginning of World War II is an excellent
example of politically driven imperialism.
Ideological - The ideological motives for
Imperialism were largely driven by social
Darwinism, systemic racism, and European
nations' belief in their superiority over the
people of the countries they annexed.
Otherwise known as cultural motives,
Europeans believed it was their duty to bring
civilization and culture to inferior nations
Religious - Much like as with ideological
motives, the religious motives for imperialism
are connected to a perceived religious
superiority. Missionaries accompanied explorers
to the new territories to bring the Christian
religion to the native people.
Pros and Cons of Imperialism
Pros:
1. Developing countries gain access to new
technologies.
Strong nations bring their technologies to the
weaker nations that they are influencing through
imperialism. This process has allowed the
principles of the Industrial Revolution to spread
to the developing world.
2. Healthcare access is improved through
imperialism.
Strong nations develop their strength because
of the overall health of its population. This
strength can only be developed through a
proactive system of healthcare access.
3. Improvement of agricultural production.
An example of U.S. imperialism provides
evidence for this benefit. With the sugarcane
market depressed in the Hawaiian Islands, local
farmers and agricultural workers were
struggling to make ends meet. The U.S. was
using tariffs as a way to impose their will on the
islands. By forcing the people to join the United
States, the tariff was removed, which then
created economic opportunities. Improved
irrigation and cultivation methods helped to
restore the viability of the crops as well.
Cons
1. Imperialism almost always creates conflict.
People take pride in their nation and culture.
They do not want someone else coming into
their home, demanding compliance to a
different perspective. Many of the conflicts in
the 20th century have been based on the
imposition of imperialistic tendencies and a
local rebellion against them. Numerous wars
have been fought by smaller nations for
independence against a stronger foe. Even the
United States became a nation because it
rebelled against imperialism in the 18th century.
2. Exploitation is much easier through the
imperialistic process.
Stronger nations must work to build weaker
nations up for the benefits of imperialism to
happen. Far too often, an opposite result
occurs. The stronger nation goes to the weaker
nation, exploits local resources for themselves,
and then leaves the local population to fend for
itself with fewer resources than it had before.
3. It changes the spiritual beliefs of local
populations.
Imperialistic nations often perceive themselves
to be the best at what they do. They believe that
their culture and society is the one true
standard that the rest of the world should follow.

13. That perspective is often founded in a specific
religious belief.
4. Imperialism spread slavery.
Expansion by strong nations almost always
creates slavery of some type. In past centuries,
it encouraged the outright ownership of others,
often against their will. In modern imperialism,
governments can force people to work for
specific businesses or be involved in specific
enterprises as the only way to earn a paycheck.
5. Discrimination is often formed through
imperialism.
The efforts at imperialism from the United
States are very evident in the territory of Puerto
Rico. A representative can be elected in Puerto
Rico to be sent to the U.S. Congress, but has
no voting power on legislation debated there.
Delegates can be sent to political conventions,
but Puerto Rico does not have electoral voting
power for a presidential election. That leads
people to treat the island differently, even
though they are American citizens, just like
anyone else on the U.S. mainland.
6. It can spread disease.
When Europeans first came to the New World,
the local populations had no immunities against
smallpox and other diseases. That caused
many cultures to be completely devastated.
Now the opposite issue occurs. Nations acting
in an imperialistic fashion find that the diseases
of the developing world have a detrimental
effect on their own populations.
7. It eliminates cultures.
Numerous ethnic groups have become extinct
over the centuries because of the actions of
imperialism. The Guanches living on the Canary
Islands, the Taino of the West Indies, and even
the Aborigines in Tasmania were all victimized
because the needs of the strong were
perceived to be more important than their own
cultural needs.
Effects of Imperialism seen in the modern
world.
Colonial Borders in the Middle East:
The arbitrary drawing of borders by colonial
powers in the Middle East, particularly after
World War I, has contributed to modern
conflicts. Countries like Iraq, Syria, and
Lebanon were created with little consideration
for ethnic and religious divisions, leading to
ongoing tensions and conflicts.
Legacy of British Colonialism in India:
The British colonization of India left a lasting
impact on the subcontinent. The partition of
India in 1947 into India and Pakistan, based on
religious lines, has led to long-standing
geopolitical tensions and conflicts, including the
Kashmir dispute.
Effects of French Colonialism in Southeast Asia:
French colonial influence in Southeast Asia,
particularly in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia,
has left a lasting legacy. The Vietnam War, a
result of French and later American
involvement, had profound and enduring effects
on the region's political and social landscape.
Apartheid and Its Legacy in South Africa:
The institutionalized racism of apartheid in
South Africa, which lasted until the early 1990s,
has had a profound impact on the country's
social fabric. Although apartheid officially
ended, its legacy is still felt in issues like racial
inequality, poverty, and access to resources.
Resource Exploitation in Africa:
The exploitation of natural resources by
European powers during the colonial period has
left a lasting impact on many African nations.
Economic dependence on resource exports,
coupled with issues like corruption and weak
governance, continues to pose challenges to
sustainable development in some regions.

14. Global Economic Inequalities:
The historical exploitation of colonies for
resources and labor has contributed to global
economic inequalities. Many former imperial
powers continue to enjoy economic
advantages, while former colonies face
challenges such as debt, poverty, and
underdevelopment.
PROBLEMS
General Problems in the Methods of
Imperialism:
Exploitation of Resources:
- Imperial powers often exploited the
natural resources of the colonized
regions for economic gain, leading to
environmental degradation and
economic imbalances.
​
Cultural Erosion:
The imposition of foreign cultures often
led to the erosion of local traditions,
languages, and customs, contributing
to cultural homogenization.
Political Subjugation:
- The establishment of direct or indirect
control over political structures limited
the self-determination of colonized
populations, leading to political
instability.
​ Economic Inequality:
- Imperial powers typically structured
economic systems to benefit
themselves, resulting in economic
inequality within colonized territories.
Social Disruption:
- The forced introduction of foreign
systems sometimes led to social
disruptions, as existing societal
structures were undermined.
Violence and Resistance:
- Imperialism often sparked resistance
and conflicts, resulting in violence and
human suffering.
Imperialism in Africa:
Scramble for Africa:
- The arbitrary division of Africa among
European powers during the Scramble
for Africa led to the creation of artificial
borders that did not consider ethnic,
cultural, or historical realities.
Resource Exploitation:
- The extraction of Africa's abundant
natural resources, including minerals,
rubber, and timber, often occurred with
little benefit to the local populations.
​ Cultural Suppression:
- The imposition of European cultures
contributed to the suppression of
African languages, traditions, and
customs.
Legacy of Conflict:
- The arbitrary borders created during
colonization contributed to ethnic and
tribal tensions, leading to conflicts that
persist in some regions today.
Loss of Autonomy:
- The colonization of Africa resulted in
the loss of political autonomy and
self-determination for many African
societies.
U.S. Economic Imperialism:
Economic Exploitation:
- The U.S. has been criticized for
engaging in economic imperialism by
exploiting the resources of other
nations for its own economic benefit,
sometimes through unequal trade
agreements.
Neocolonialism:
- Some argue that the U.S. uses its
economic power to influence and
control the policies of other nations,
perpetuating a form of neocolonialism.
​ Debt Dependency:
Developing nations may become economically
dependent on the U.S., leading to a cycle of
debt and economic vulnerability.
Labor Exploitation:
- U.S. economic interests have been
accused of contributing to labor

15. exploitation in developing countries
through outsourcing and low-wage
practices.
​ Environmental Impact:
- The pursuit of economic interests by
the U.S. may contribute to
environmental degradation in other
nations, impacting local ecosystems
and communities.
​ Global Economic Inequality:
- U.S. economic dominance is often
associated with global economic
inequality, with some arguing that this
contributes to disparities in wealth and
development.
​
CRITICISM:
Criticisms of Imperialism in Africa:
Artificial Borders:
- The arbitrary drawing of borders during
the Scramble for Africa divided ethnic
groups and created nations without
regard for the natural and historical
makeup of the continent, contributing
to ongoing conflicts.
Resource Exploitation and Wealth Drain:
- European powers exploited Africa's
resources without adequately
compensating local populations,
leading to economic imbalances and a
drain on the continent's wealth.
​ Cultural Suppression and Loss of
Identity:
- The imposition of European cultures
and languages led to the suppression
of indigenous African cultures,
contributing to a loss of cultural identity
and heritage.
Political Subjugation and Instability:
- The imposition of foreign political
systems disrupted existing governance
structures, contributing to political
instability and post-colonial conflicts.
​ Economic Inequality:
- The economic systems established
during colonization often favored the
colonizers and perpetuated economic
inequality within African societies.
Africa before (1880) and after (1913) European
occupation. [aka Scramble for Africa]
(im gonna kms)
Criticisms of U.S. Economic Imperialism:
Exploitative Economic Practices:
- The U.S. has been criticized for
engaging in exploitative economic
practices, such as unequal trade
agreements and corporate
exploitation, which can lead to
economic hardships in other nations.
Neocolonialism and Policy Influence:
- U.S. economic power is sometimes
seen as a form of neocolonialism,
where powerful economic interests
influence the policies of other nations
to serve American interests.
​ Debt Dependency and Economic
Control:
- Developing nations may become
economically dependent on the U.S.,
leading to a loss of economic
autonomy and control over their own
economic policies.
Labor Exploitation Through Outsourcing:
- U.S. companies outsourcing jobs to
countries with lower labor standards
has been criticized for contributing to
labor exploitation and undermining
workers' rights in those nations.
Environmental Exploitation:
- U.S. economic interests are accused
of contributing to environmental
degradation in other countries through
practices that prioritize profit over
ecological sustainability.
Global Economic Inequality and Wealth
Disparities:
- U.S. economic dominance is
associated with global economic
inequality, with critics arguing that this
perpetuates disparities in wealth and
development between the U.S. and
other nations.
ABBERATIONS:
Aberrations on Imperialism in Africa:
Infrastructure Development Argument:
- Some argue that imperial powers
contributed to infrastructure
development in African colonies,
introducing railways, roads, and other

16. facilities that, in the long run, could be
considered beneficial.
​ Introduction of Western Education:
- Supporters of imperialism posit that
the establishment of Western-style
educational systems in Africa had
positive effects, introducing modern
education and facilitating knowledge
transfer.
Economic Integration:
- Aberrations may emphasize the
economic integration facilitated by
imperial powers, asserting that the
introduction of cash crops and trade
networks connected Africa to the
global economy.
​ Civilizing Mission for Social Progress:
- Some proponents of imperialism
believed in a "civilizing mission" aimed
at bringing social progress to colonized
societies, arguing that European
influence contributed to modernization.
​ Prevention of Internal Conflicts:
- Aberrations may suggest that the
imposition of foreign rule prevented
internal conflicts and tribal warfare,
bringing a semblance of stability to
regions that may have been plagued
by internal strife.
Aberrations on U.S. Economic Imperialism:
Foreign Investment and Job Creation:
- Supporters argue that U.S. economic
activities in other countries, including
foreign direct investment, can lead to
job creation, economic growth, and the
transfer of valuable skills and
technologies.
​ Technology Transfer and Innovation:
- Aberrations might point to the positive
aspects of technology transfer,
contending that U.S. economic
engagement contributes to innovation
and technological advancement in
recipient nations.
Global Economic Stability:
- Some argue that the economic
influence of the U.S. is necessary for
global economic stability, as it
contributes to the functioning of
international financial systems and
institutions.
Humanitarian Aid and Development Assistance:
- Aberrations may highlight instances
where the U.S. provides humanitarian
aid and development assistance,
suggesting that such efforts are aimed
at improving living conditions and
fostering sustainable development.
Access to Markets and Economic Opportunities:
- Supporters might argue that U.S.
economic engagement provides
developing nations with access to
global markets, creating economic
opportunities and potential for growth.
COMMENTS:
Methods of Imperialism:
Complexity of Motivations:
- The methods of imperialism employed
by various powers were driven by
complex motivations, including
economic interests, geopolitical
competition, cultural beliefs, and a
desire for strategic advantages. This
complexity makes it challenging to
generalize about the intentions behind
imperialist actions.
Varied Approaches:
- Different imperial powers utilized
diverse methods to expand their
influence, ranging from military
conquest and colonization to economic
dominance and cultural assimilation.
The varied approaches highlight the
adaptability of imperialist strategies to
different geopolitical contexts.
Impact on Global Dynamics:
- The methods of imperialism had
profound and lasting effects on global
dynamics, shaping international
relations, political boundaries, and
economic systems. Understanding
these historical methods is crucial for
analyzing the contemporary
geopolitical landscape.
Imperialism in Africa:
Legacy of Borders:
- The arbitrary drawing of borders during
the Scramble for Africa continues to
influence contemporary political and
social dynamics. The legacy of these
borders has contributed to ethnic
tensions and conflicts, underscoring
the enduring impact of imperialism.
Cultural Resilience:

17. - Despite attempts at cultural
assimilation, many African societies
have demonstrated resilience in
preserving their unique cultural
identities. The ongoing efforts to revive
and celebrate indigenous cultures
reflect a resistance to the cultural
impositions of imperialism.
Economic Disparities:
- The economic exploitation during
imperialism created enduring
disparities between former colonizers
and colonized nations. Addressing
these disparities remains a complex
challenge in the pursuit of global
economic justice.
US Economic Imperialism:
Impact on Global Trade:
- The economic influence of the United
States has played a significant role in
shaping global trade patterns. While
this has contributed to economic
growth in some regions, it has also led
to concerns about dependency and
unequal economic relationships.
​ Technological Innovation:
- U.S. economic activities, including
technology transfer and innovation,
have had a profound impact on global
development. The spread of
technological advancements has the
potential to improve living standards
and drive progress in various parts of
the world.
Responsibility and Ethical Considerations:
- The economic power of the United
States comes with responsibilities and
ethical considerations. Striking a
balance between pursuing economic
interests and ensuring fair and ethical
practices is essential for fostering
sustainable global economic relations.
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