What does “LUCA” stand for and what evidence does LUCA provide about.pdf

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What does “LUCA” stand for and what evidence does LUCA provide about the possible origins of life? Solution Ans. LUCA stands for ‘Last Universal Common Ancestor’ that evolved around 3.7 billion years ago. It is the most recent cell (a thermophile) from which all species currently living on Earth are believed to have evolved. LUCA is believed to have exhibited the features of a present-day cell. It possibly had DNA as genetic material, DNA-based machinery for the processes of central dogma, DNA-based genetic code, aqueous cytoplasm surrounded by lipid bilayer and many other compositions similar to present day prokaryotic cells. The comparison of 16S rRNA of organisms, currently living or extant, suggest that the three domains of life (Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya) have LUCA as their common ancestor. The cellular organization and functions of these organisms are also similar to LUCA. Therefore, It presents an evidence that all present day organisms (DNA-based cellular life forms) evolved from a common ancestor LUCA (DNA-based cellular life form)..

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Compare and contrast eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Why do you think their endomembrane systems are different, is evolution involved? Paragraph format please, be very detailed and the answer is expected to be long! Solution Prokaryote,relatively simple unicellular organism lacking a nucleus and other features found in the more complex cells of all other organisms,called eukaryotes.In 1938 American biologist Herbert Copeland proposed that unicellular organisms lacking nuclei be classified in their own kingdom, Monera, also called Kingdom Prokaryotae.All bacteria were categorized in this newly established kingdom. This scheme was the first to establish separate kingdoms for prokaryotes (organisms without nuclei) and eukaryotes (organisms with nuclei).In 1990 American microbiologist Carl Woese proposed that bacteria be divided into two groups,the archaea,or archaebacteria,and bacteria, based on their structural and physiological differences.In some classification systems,the archaea are considered prokaryotes;in others, they are classified in their own domain, the archaea.Archaebacteria consist of a small group of primitive anaerobes (organisms that do not require oxygen).They are found in a narrow range of habitats–often in extreme environments with high temperature,high salt,or high acidity.In contrast, bacteria live in a wide range of environments with or without oxygen, at various temperatures, and at various levels of acidity. In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes,the plasma membrane is composed of two layers of phospholipid molecules interspersed with proteins,and regulates the traffic that flows in andout of the cell.The prokaryotic plasma membrane,however,carries out additional functions.It participates in replication of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) for cell division andsynthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP),an energy molecule.In some prokaryotes,the plasma membrane is essential for photosynthesis,the process that uses light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water to glucose. Fossil records indicate that eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes somewhere between 1.5 to 2 billion years ago.Two proposed pathways describe the invasion of prokaryote cells by two smaller prokaryote cells.They subsequently became successfully included as part of a now much larger cell with additional structures and capable of additional functions.They are Endosymbiosis and Membrane infolding.ProkaryotesEukaryotessize is 0.1-5.0 micrometressize is 5-100 micrometresnucleus is absentnucleus made of nuclear envelope,chromatin,nucleoplasm,nucleoliDNA is circularDNA is linearDNA is naked and not assosciated with histonesDNA is associated with histonesplasmids may occurplasmids are rare.cell membrane have in folding called as mesosomemesosome is absentmitochondria are absentpresentribosomes are 70S80Sgolgi apparatus,ER,lysosomes,centrosome absentall are presentsexual reproduction is absentsexual reproduction occurs.endocytosis and exocytosis are absentthey occur in e.

Compare and contrast eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Why do you th.pdf

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Give several pieces of evidence that RNA preceded proteins and DNA in living things. Do your answers to (1) mean that the first life was RNA-based, with RNA serving as both the catalyst and the genetic material? Briefly discuss the strengths and weaknesses of this hypothesis. It is believed that the machinery for photosynthesis evolved only once, in the cyanobacteria. However, several unrelated groups of eukaryotes, such as green plants, diatoms, and euglenoids, are able to photosynthesize. How can this be explained? Answer each question True or False (T/F). If the answer is false, explain why. Eukaryotic cells are more similar to archaea for genes involved in protein synthesis and DNA replication, but more similar to bacteria for genes involved in metabolism. RNA has been found in meteorites, and was produced in the Miller- Urey experiment, giving evidence supporting the \"RNA-first\" hypothesis of the origin of life. The last universal common ancestor of all living things lived less than 2 billion years ago. The first living things required oxygen (O_2). The^12C/^13C ratio is higher in living things than in atmospheric CO_2. Which of the following is your closest relative? Your second closest? a) a fungus; b) a dinoflagellate; c) a pine tree; d) a choanoflagellate; e) a ciliate; f) an archaean Why are marine organisms relatively common in the fossil record, but mountain-dwelling species relatively rare? Solution 1. RNA preceded proteins and DNA. This is strongly supported by the RNA World Hypothesis proposed independetly by Carl Woese, Francis Crick and Leslie Orgel in 1960s. It says that the ribosomes which are vital for protein formation are made up of RNA and the protein arrangement task during traslation is actually carried by RNA thus confirming that the early forms used RNA for their chemical reactions preceeding the use of proteins. Since RNA was instable, eventually organisms started to depend on proteins and DNA for their activities. 2. The RNA theory states that the RNA was the earliest genetic material for the early forms of life. This is due to the fact that RNA can act both as a genetic material and also as a catalyst (enzyme). Because to carry out life processes the genes need to be produced. And this production is dependent on enzymes inturn. A strong point that James Watson said is that RNA can translate into DNA in the reverse transcription process, while doing so RNA itself could have acted as an enzyme besides acting as a template to facilitate the reaction to carryout. This supports the phrase \'Life requires autocatalysis\'. The weaknesses of this hypothesis are it is highly unpredictable to have RNA nucleotides with the requirement of any enzyme. Which means RNA precursors cannot be formed without an enzyme. This conveys the message that there could have been another simple molecule which has the catalytic property and information storge system other than RNA. 3. The cyanobacteria were the first prokaryotic organisms t.

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During January 2005, an Italian investor investing in the Italian stock market earned a return of 1.47%. During the same month, an American investor investing in the Italian stock market earned a return of –2.358%. The U.S. dollar-Euro exchange rate at the end of January 2005 was 1.3035 $/€. What was the U.S. dollar-Euro exchange rate ($/€) at the end of December 2004? Solution F = S * ((1 + if) / (1 + id)) 1.3035 = S x (1+1.47%) / (1 - 2.358%) S = U.S. dollar-Euro exchange rate ($/€) = $1.25.

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ashokarians

Distinguish between protostomes and deuterostomes. Identify the Phyla that belong to each group. Solution The maximum off coelomate invertebrates develop as protostomes (\"first mouth\"): in these organism in which the oral end of the animal develops from blastopore. examples flatworms nematodes mollusks , annelids and arthropod ====================================================== In the deuterostomes including Echinodermata and the ancestors of the Chordata, the oral end of the animal develops from a second opening on the dorsal surface of the animal;the blastopore becomes the anus. :examples Chordata Echinodermata (starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, etc.) Hemichordata (acorn worms and graptolites) ================================================================== The Deuterostomes also show indeterminate development, in Deuterostomes ,each of the cells of the eight-cell embryo if separated remain capable of developing as complete organisms, in contrast to determinate development, in which the development fate of each cell in the adult organism has already been determined..

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Determine the y-coordinate of the centroid of the shaded area. Solution Ans- General topology grew out of a number of areas, most importantly the following: General topology assumed its present form around 1940. It captures, one might say, almost everything in the intuition of continuity, in a technically adequate form that can be applied in any area of mathematics. A topology on a set Main article: Topological space Let X be a set and let be a family of subsets of X. Then is called a topology on X if:[1][2] If is a topology on X, then the pair (X, ) is called a topological space. The notation X may be used to denote a set X endowed with the particular topology . The members of are called open sets in X. A subset of X is said to be closed if its complement is in (i.e., its complement is open). A subset of X may be open, closed, both (clopen set), or neither. The empty set and X itself are always both closed and open. Basis for a topology Main article: Basis (topology) A base (or basis) B for a topological space X with topology T is a collection of open sets in T such that every open set in T can be written as a union of elements of B.[3][4] We say that the base generates the topology T. Bases are useful because many properties of topologies can be reduced to statements about a base that generates that topology—and because many topologies are most easily defined in terms of a base that generates them. Subspace and quotient Every subset of a topological space can be given the subspace topology in which the open sets are the intersections of the open sets of the larger space with the subset. For any indexed family of topological spaces, the product can be given the product topology, which is generated by the inverse images of open sets of the factors under the projection mappings. For example, in finite products, a basis for the product topology consists of all products of open sets. For infinite products, there is the additional requirement that in a basic open set, all but finitely many of its projections are the entire space. A quotient space is defined as follows: if X is a topological space and Y is a set, and if f : XY is a surjective function, then the quotient topology on Y is the collection of subsets of Y that have open inverse images under f. In other words, the quotient topology is the finest topology on Y for which f is continuous. A common example of a quotient topology is when an equivalence relation is defined on the topological space X. The map f is then the natural projection onto the set of equivalence classes..

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ashokarians

Be specific.. LIST and GIVE AN EXAMPLE of each of the four types of market failure... (i.e. the reasons that we need government intervention) Solution The main reasons because of which we need government intervention are as follows:- 1.) Poverty alleviation:- Poverty is one of major problem in underdeveloped and developing nations. Government runs various poverty alleviation programmes. For example, Prime Minister\'s Rozgar Yojna (PMRY) in India. Through these programmes, government accelerates the economic growth. It helps in population control through awareness regarding various family planning programmes. It tries to reduces income inequalities in the nation. 2) Human capital formation:- It implies development of abilities and skills among the population of country. It is the process of acquiring and increasing the number of people, who have skills, experience and education, which are critical for social, economical and political development and growth of the nation. The state and union governments have been earmarking substantial financial outlays for development of education and health sectors in the country. 3) Rural development:- Government plays a very vital role in developing rural life through providing drinking water facility, proper sanitation and severage facility, Basic amenities like Housing etc. Government aims at improving social and economic conditions of people living in villages through various awareness programmes and campaigns. 4) Employment Generation:- Union and state governments played vital role in generating employment or creating opportunities for employment generation. Government provides \'Direct Employment\' by employing people in various departments for administrative purposes and in different industries, hotels, transport companies etc. run by the government. Therefore these are the Four areas ( Poverty alleviation, Human capital formation, Rural development and Employment generation etc.) which need government intervention to the large extent..

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What is the correct sequence of events for the life cycle of the pork tapeworm, T. sodium? Arrange the following statements in chronological order Solution Answering the sequence according to ascending order: 1. Eggs are produced by adult tapeworms living in definitive host 2. Eggs are released in the environment in the feces 3. Pigs eat grass contaminated, or fertilized with human feces 4. Inside the intermediate hosst, the eggs mature into larvae and encyst in the host muscles 5. The definitive host ingests the larvae and becomes infected.

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Which heterologous protein expression systems allow for the post-translational modifications of the recombinant proteins? Solution Yeast systems are generally regarded as safe heterologous recombinant (suitable for DNA recombination) system for the expression of proteins via heterologous expression (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). This yeast is unicellular eukaryotic system & its secretory pathway has associated with N-terminal signal sequences such as Pho5, Suc2 for post translational and co-translational modifications of secretory recombinant proteins (obtained through recombinant DNA expression) in endoplasmic reticulum. The post-translational modification can be done through \"signal peptidases\" & N-linked and O-linked (to serine/threonine) glycosylation..

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What is the structure of electric circuits? Can a branch of a circuit contain three elements? Can there be a branch which doesn’t contain any circuit elements? Solution First electric circuit means, the circuit having elements like resistors, capacitors and inductors along with sources. Any electric circuit comprises of node, branches, and meshes. The joining point of two elements is called node. The element between two nodes is called branch. In branch only one series element is possible to connect but in parallel it can have N number of elements. No branch with out elements in electric circuits..

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Turner syndrome is caused by monosomy of the sex chromosomes XO. Why is there no corresponding condition for monosomy of the sex chromosome YO Turner syndrome is caused by monosomy of the sex chromosomes XO. Why is there no corresponding condition for monosomy of the sex chromosome YO Solution Nondisjunction leading to YO cells are non viable.At least one X chromosome is needed for viability. YO condition is lethal hence there are no corresponding conditions for monosomy of the sex chromosome YO..

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What do ev/ebitda ratio and price to cash flow ratio show us and how do they compare? Evaluate the usefulness of these and other market multiple ratios in company evaluations What do ev/ebitda ratio and price to cash flow ratio show us and how do they compare? Evaluate the usefulness of these and other market multiple ratios in company evaluations What do ev/ebitda ratio and price to cash flow ratio show us and how do they compare? Evaluate the usefulness of these and other market multiple ratios in company evaluations What do ev/ebitda ratio and price to cash flow ratio show us and how do they compare? Evaluate the usefulness of these and other market multiple ratios in company evaluations Solution EV/EBITDA ratio (enterprise value divided by earnings before interest, tax, depreciation and amortization) is an important valuation multiple and the reason why it is so popular is that the ratio makes adjustments so that an investor can identify the real cash flow issue associated with a company. The ratio shows the real value of a business and hence can be used to easily compare companies that operate in different countries. Secondly EV/EBITDA ratio is less volatile as items like taxes and interest that can cause a valuation metric to be volatile are not a part of this ratio. Another important point to be noted is that the EV/EBITDA ratio is not affected by changes in capital structure. Price to cash flow ratio (share price divided by cash flow per share) is another useful valuation metric that is used. The ratio makes use of operating cash flow. This ratio is particularly useful for valuing those companies that have positive cash flows but are not profitable because of high amount of non-cash charges like depreciation and amortization. This ratio is useful because of the fact that cash flows cannot easily be manipulated. Other market multiple ratios that can be used are P/E (price-earnings) ratio, price to book ratio, EV/NOPAT ratio and price to sales ratio. These ratios are useful as it helps an investor to determine the market value of the asset relative to a key statistic that bears a logical relationship to the market value of the asset in consideration..

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What are the respiratory and fermentation pathways in Chlamydia pneumoniae? Solution Chlamydophila pneumoniae is, an obligate intracellular bacterium which infects humans and is one of the major cause of pneumonia. It is gram negative bacterium. As it is an obligate parasite it is difficult to distinguish between the host and parasite metabolism. There are major differences in the metabolic pathways in various developmental stages. C. pneumoniae requires oxygen to survive, but requires environments with lower levels of oxygen than present in the atmosphere These bacteria shows metabolism of glucose-6-phosphate to pyruvate via glycolysis, which allows them to generate ATP via substrate-level phosphorylation by the enzymes phosphoglycerate kinase and pyruvate kinase. The TCA cycle is complete in all Chlamydiae thus able to oxidize acetyl-CoA, accompanied by regeneration of the energy-rich molecules NADH, FADH2 and GTP. The electron transport chain of environmental chlamydiae is branched. H+ translocating NADH dehydrogenase, additional terminal oxidases, and cytochrome c oxidases, altogether were suggested to enable these bacteria to build up a proton gradient more efficiently and potentially allow them to respond to changing conditions such as fluctuating oxygen tensions. They also have increased capacities for host-independent production of ATP via oxidative phosphorylation..

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You have a piece of circular DNA that can be cut by the restriction nucleases EcoRI, HindIII, and NotI, as indicated in the Figure Below... Answer whether the following statement is TRUE or FALSE. If FALSE, explain why. (a) One piece of DNA will be obtained when this DNA is cut by NotI. (b) A piece of DNA that cannot be cut by EcoRI will be obtained by cutting this DNA with both NotI and HindIII. (c) Two DNA fragments that cannot be cut by HindIII will be obtained when this DNA is cut by EcoRI and NotI. (d)Two DNA fragments of unequal size will be created when this DNA is cut by both HindIII and EcoRI. Notl EcoRI EcoRI HindIII Solution 1. True Yes , if the DNA Is cut by only NotI, then only a single piece of DNA would be formed as there would be a cut in the circular DNA , thus forming a single piece single stranded DNA. 2. False Even if there is a cut with both NotI and HindIII there would be a piece of DNA between NotI and ECoRI which will still remain and won\'t be cut. 3. True Two DNA fragments will be obtained when cut with EcoRI and NotI that cannot be obtained with HindIII. A fragment between NotI and ECoRI and between the two ECoRI. 4. False Three unequal pieces of DNA would be formed. First, the HindIII, would cause a nick and the strand would open and form a single strand. Second, ECoRI would cause two nicks, as it is at two places, thus two more fragments, one between the two ECoRI and the other between the ECoRI and HindIII would be formed..

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Write a 2-3 page report on any one of the following topics. A supporting paper is provided for each topic. However, the report has to be prepared based on general literature beyond the supporting paper. The deadline for the submission of the assignment is 14th January, 12 noon, 2017. Your report should have proper references/bibliography. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited! Topic 1. Impact of invasive species on native species and ecosystems. Supporting paper/s: Gurevitch, Jessica, and Dianna K. Padilla. \"Are invasive species a major cause of extinctions?- Trends in Ecology & Evolution 19.9 (2004): 470-474. Molnar, Jennifer L., et al. \"Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity \" Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6.9 (2008): 485-492. Didham, Raphael K., et al. \"Are invasive species the drivers of ecological change?.\" Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20.9 (2005): 470-474. strayer, David L., et a \"understanding the long-term effects of species invasions.\" Trends in ecology & evolution 21.11 (2006): 645-651. Solution Impact of Invasive species on native species and ecosystems Native species are those originally originated and evolved in the region (Cox, 2004). The native species adapted the environment and co evolved with other species and the ecosystem was also evolved accordingly (Cox, 2004). When a foreign/ alien species is introduced to a new environment by general rule it don’t survive or the new species struggle to adapt the new environment and struggle to make its place in the ecosystem (Dunlap, 1999; Gonzalez-Browne et al., 2016). Surprisingly some species better adopt to new environment i.e. the new environment suits the species more than the original environment (Dunlap, 1999). Few species becomes invasive and the species population booms in the newly invaded territory (Alexander et al., 2014). The invasive species becomes overweighed in the natural balance of the native ecosystem and it inversely impact on the growth of some native species those shares common niches, food, breeding places, resources or the alien species predates on certain native species (Hickman et al., 2013; Kovacs et al., 2012). The invading species can also be a new prey for certain native species which will increase the population of that predating species (Anson and Dickman, 2013; Barber et al., 2008). Not only the direct relation of prey and predator or competition influences native species but the introduction of the invading species can also indirectly influence the abundance of the native species (Mello and Oliveira, 2016). The invasive species also interact with the new environment and the advantages it gets in the new ecotype also put impact on the evolution of the invasive species itself as the invasive species evolve becomes different from its original native state or source species (Zenni et al., 2016). Sometime the invading introduced species becomes free from its natural pathogen and free from immunological burden.

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ashokarians

Why are sex cells (gametes) haploid instead of diploid. Write a brief explanation/describe the what the consequences would be if gametes were diploid instead. Solution Sex cells (gametes) are haploid because they are formed by the process of reductional division called meiosis. Meiosis is a defined as double division of parent cell which results in the formation of 4 daughter cells each having half the number of chromsome than that of parent cell. It is the type of cell division in which chromosome number is reduced from diploid number (2n) to haploid number (n). This type of division is important while the formation of gametes as it maintains constant number of chromsomes generation after generation. If meiosis woulf not occur, gametes with diploid chromosome number will be produced and when these gametes will fuse to form zygote, the resulting zygote will have an abnormal ,double the number of chromosome (tetraploid) than that of the normal number of chromosome found in species. Tetraploidy is very lethal in animals , therefore meiosis is important in maintaining normal chromosome number..

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ashokarians

What role did Warfarin play in the development of pesticide-resistant rats? A. It caused the mutations, which lead to its resistance. B. It killed off the non-resistant rats. C. It selected for resistant rats. D. Both b and c. Solution Answer is \"D\". Both b and c. It kille off the non-resistant rats. It selected for resistant rats. Warfarin is a special type of medication used as a blood thinner..

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What is the role of health risk appraisal in health promotion and disease prevention? What is the role of health risk appraisal in health promotion and disease prevention? Solution The role of health risk appraisal in health promotion and disease prevention is : Thus, for both health promotion advises and health disease prevention steps requires proper and detailed appraisal of the present and past medical histories of the cell..

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ashokarians

What is Rev protein in the HIV genome and why is it important in the HIV life cycle? Solution The two most important regulatory factors for HIV (human immuno deficiency virus) gene expression are, “Tat and Rev.” REV is a phosphoprotein present in the nucleus or nucleolus. It binds to the RRE and functions to promote the nuclear export, functional activation of RRE containing viral mRNAs and stabilization. In lentiviruses, it is the most functionally conserved regulatory protein..

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ashokarians

Under what condition would field research be undertaken? a. The researcher needs direct control over the variables under study. b. The researcher needs to draw clear conclusions about the population. c. The researcher needs to show rigorous testing of causal hypotheses. d. The researcher needs to understand behavior in a natural setting. Solution b. The researcher needs to draw clear conclusions about the population..

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Sue heads due west from Dry Gulch on U.S. 6.5 at a steady speed of 55 mph (miles per hour) while Don heads due east from Wet Hollow (which is 830 miles west of Dry Gulch) on the same hiway at 65 mph but he starts 2 hours after Sue did. How many miles did Don travel before they met? Solution Two hours after Sue started, their distance is 850 - 55*2 = 740 miles. Then , another T = 740/(55+65) = 740/120 = 37/6 hrs, they met. And so Don drove 65 * 37/6 = 2405/6 miles before thy met..

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