Week 7, Reading Section 7.1 IntroductionI. IntroductionThe La.docx

Week 7, Reading Section 7.1: Introduction
I. Introduction
The Late-1960s and 1970s witnessed the arising of the Feminist
Movements. One of the key causative factors, but by no means
the only one, was the publication in the Late-1940s of Simone
de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex. De Beauvoir, a Philosopher,
Existentialist, and colleague and intimate of Jean Paul Sartre,
wrote the book, because she recognized what she considered an
odd phenomenon: when she was associated with Sartre and his
work, she was respected by their colleagues. But when she
ventured out, on her intellectual own, in non-collaborative
works, she was not respected by those same colleagues.
Deciding she wanted to examine the possible reasons for this
discrepancy, she delved deeply, researched, came to certain
conclusions, and wrote the book. And WHAT a BOOK!
After investigating ancient and modern cultures, she concluded
that the definition of what it meant to be “human” was set, in
modern, paternalistic cultures by a male standard. In her words,
“One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.” She argued
that woman was always “the Other,” “the Outsider,” to these
male definitions of “human.” Put another way, men decided
what it meant to be a woman. De Beauvoir argued for women’s
equality with men.
Twenty+ years after the publication of The Second Sex, a new
Women’s Movement, referred to variously, as Second- or Third-
Wave Feminism arose, first, in Europe and the United States,
then in other parts of the World. Theorists re-examined, and, in
the words of the French Philosopher, Jacques Derrida,
“deconstructed” the major sub-fields of Philosophy, including
Epistemology, Metaphysics, Cosmology, Ethics/Moral
Philosophy, Social and Political Philosophies, Philosophy of
Natural Sciences, Philosophy of Language, Philosophy of the
Mind (Psychology), Philosophy of Religion.
The variety and richness of the theories of Feminism are beyond

the scope of this brief module. Rather, we shall focus on one or
two particular forms of Feminist Ethics. (Like all other areas of
Philosophy, there is not only one form of Feminist Ethics,
Epistemology, Metaphysics, or Social or Political Philosophy,
or of the other branches of Philosophy.) One of the theories we
shall see is called the Ethics of Care, whose principal theorists
are Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings. The other theory is the
Capabilities Theory of Martha Nussbaum. Below is a link to an
entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, which gives
an excellent overview of Feminist Ethical theories, in general.
Resource: Feminist Ethics
Week 7, Reading Section 7.2: The Ethics of Care
II. The Ethics of Care
Ethics and Moral Philosophy, since the earliest Greek theories
until David Hume, have been founded on the premise that
Reason provides the foundation of all ethical thought. From
Plato and Aristotle, until Hume, Emotions have been viewed as
inadequate bases of any of the branches of Philosophy, but most
especially Moral and Ethical Thought. Since Aristotle’s views
had been imported into Western Thought by Aquinas, it was
Aristotle’s viewpoint on the preference of Reason, over
Emotions or Passions, in Philosophy.
With David Hume, as we have seen, that orientation was
reversed. Hume argued that Compassion should be the basis of
Moral thought, since Reason could not provide the definitive
answer to ethical/moral problems. Kant revisited this issue and
re-asserted the primacy of Reason. Since Kant, until Feminist
Theories arose in the Later-20th Century, Reason was once
more predominant.
A. Carol Gilligan
A more recent theorist, Lawrence Kohlberg, developed a 6-stage
moral development framework. Levels 5 and 6 were the highest
stages of moral developmental status, with each based on
Reason. From his research, Kohlberg relegated women to a
highest level of 3 or 4, because the women in his studies often
acted on Empathy, Sympathy, or similar, Emotion-based

systems. Kohlberg’s research assistant, Carol Gilligan, once
free of the dangers of “disagreeing with the boss,” did research
of her own, and reached very different conclusions.
Gilligan concluded young women and men were socialized
differently, and, therefore, thought differently, especially, but
not only, in ethical/moral matters. Men operated from a more
dispassionate, so-called “objective” and Reason-based
viewpoint, while women considered the needs of others, not
based on Reason, but rather on Compassion and Caring, in
making moral decisions. In addition, she concluded that, in fact,
women and men looked at moral issues, differently and
instinctively, in general. As male theorists had been setting the
standards, for centuries, on “the right thing to do,” they
relegated women’s approaches to “inferior” status, most
especially because those approaches were based on Emotions
and Caring.
In her paradigm-shifting text, In a Different Voice, Gilligan laid
out the differences between women’s and men’s approaches to
ethics and morality. Different approaches did not mean one was
“better” than the other. She thereby laid claim to a position of
equality for women’s views, for the first time. Other Feminist
theorists would build on Gilligan’s work. Still others would
take different paths.
B. Nel Noddings
Another Feminist theorist, Nancy Chodorow, had argued that
little girls and little boys learned different ways of relating to
others and to the world, based on contemporary child-rearing
techniques. Little girls were encouraged to foster a relational
connectedness, while little boys developed, based on separation
and autonomy. Interestingly, Chodorow faulted these facts and
suggested a solution, based on women’s and men’s equal
responsibilities for child-rearing and providing for the family.
Carol Gilligan’s work drew from Chodorow’s, in identifying the
different ways in which women and men approach moral issues,
as noted.
Philosopher Nel Noddings refined those approaches more

specifically. She identified a “Caring” instinct in women’s
methods of confronting and resolving moral situations. Men, as
noted, rely upon Abstract concepts and principles, based on
Reason. It is from this “Caring Instinct,” that the system of the
Ethics of Care is derived.
Rather than a set of specific principles for dealing with all
moral situations, the Ethics of Care suggest a methodology,
based on evaluating the needs of others in the given situation.
Here is a common example.
Suppose that you are working in a nursing home, which caters
to Dementia and Alzheimer’s patients. One afternoon you see
one of the patients, an elderly man, ostensibly having a very
animated conversation with the figures in a painting on the wall.
You have a moral dilemma. Should you tell him, based on a
Reasoned approach, that his conversation is not truly taking
place? Or should you leave him, alone? (Important fact: his
actions are not disturbing any of the other patients or the staff
and those actions are not threatening anyone’s wellbeing.)
What should you do? The Ethics of Care would suggest that,
after determining that he is not harming anyone else by his
actions, nor placing himself in any physical danger, you should
leave him to enjoy a conversation that he thinks is taking place
and that is adding to his happiness, even though you know that
the figures in the painting are not answering him, as be believes
they are. There is no (Abstract) Duty, in that situation, to tell
him the truth.
Put another way, the Ethics of Care suggest the decision-maker
take into account the other person’s needs, on a care-giving
level, rather than on a dispassionate, reasoned basis. For her
part, Noddings found the Ethics of Care a better approach to
Abstract Reason and Application of so-called Objective
Principles, divorced from situational factors.
Please note that, generally, the Philosophers we have seen so
far, including the Feminist theorists, have been addressing
ethical and moral issues from the perspective of how individual,
human beings should confront and resolve such issues.

Conversely, as we shall see in the next section, Martha
Nussbaum takes a more systemic, and societal approach.
Week 7, Reading Section 7.3: Capabilities Theory: Martha
Nussbaum
III. Capabilities Theory: Martha Nussbaum
One of the more well-known Philosophers, in a popular sense, is
Martha Nussbaum, who has written on a wide variety of
subjects and issues. She began from a classical, Aristotelian
vantage. And she has written extensively on women’s rights,
collaborating with Nobel Prize winner Amartya Sen, on socio-
economic development issues.
Recognizing that modern Philosophy had inadequately
addressed the problems of inequality of treatment for women
and people with disabilities, she has developed a more
societally-based and systemic approach to women’s rights and
to rights in general. That is the Capabilities Approach, which is
founded on two premises: (1) Freedom is essential to the
development of all human beings, and (2) to insure maximum
freedom for all members of society, society and government
must provide each member the capabilities to develop her/her
freedom. Renowned Historian James McPherson has referred to
the latter as “Positive Liberty.”
What Nussbaum means by “capabilities,” are certain skills and
attributes, which individuals need, in order to live and enjoy
life. There are certain capacities that are necessary for this to be
realized, on a large-scale. Thus, she concludes it is the role/duty
of society and government, to ensure that each individual is
provided with these capacities, to facilitate her/his pursuit of
the use of her/his gifts, to be productive and moral agents and
to contribute to society.
Resource: The Capability Approach
Resource: Feminist Perspectives on Objectification
In this way, she broaches the separation between so-called
Economic Libertarianism, as pronounced and espoused by
Robert Nozick, and Communitarianism and the work of John
Rawls. In effect, she also removes the oversight in Rawls’ work,

which makes it more directly of assistance to women and people
with disabilities. Rawls’ original orientations had been toward
the poor and cultural minorities.
As you approach and delve into this week’s substantive topic
and issues, Cloning and forms of Artificial Reproductive
Technologies, apply the Ethics of Care and Capabilities
Theories to those issues.
Week 7, Reading Section 7.4: Cloning and Artificial (or
Assisted) Reproductive Technologies
IV. Cloning and Artificial (or Assisted) Reproductive
Technologies
These are not new topics and issues. However, due to their
complexities and subtleties, they are ones, on which we do not
have only one or two moral/ethical consensus. In the Mid-
1970s, it was announced that the first “test-tube baby” had been
born. What that sound-byte head-line meant was that
conception/fertilization of the newborn had taken place, outside
the parents’ “natural” milieus; i.e., what we now know as “In
vitro” fertilization had been done. Today, it is an expensive, if
also more commonly offered, medical practice, sought by
couples, who, for one reason or another, desire to have a family,
but cannot conceive on their own.
Resources:
Assisted Reproductive Technology and sociology. (UMUC
Library One Search)Wienclaw, Ruth A. Research Starters:
Sociology (Online Edition), 2015. 6p., Database: Research
Starter
IEP: Cloning
SEP: Cloning
In the Mid-1990s, headlines around the world announced that
British scientists had produced a fully “cloned,” whole animal,
Dolly the Sheep. For the first time, Science Fiction had become
Science Fact. The Science Fiction and Thriller genres of
popular fiction had been dealing with cloning or artificial
production of human beings and animals, for many decades, but
was relegated by Mainstream society, to niche pop-culture or

kitschy aficionado constituencies, like Rocky Horror Picture
Show or Doctor Who. Imagination is one thing. Fact is quite
another.
As research into both subjects will show, there are more types
of both Cloning and Artificial Reproductive Technologies, than
the two illustrated examples. For instance, there are
Reproductive Cloning, Research Cloning, Therapeutic Cloning,
Stem-Cell Cloning, and Full-organism (including Full-human)
Cloning. So far, the only, general consensus, internationally,
that has been emerging over the past twenty years is that full-
human cloning ought to be banned. (But a full, international
treaty or covenant has not yet been finalized.)
Stem Cells, Nuclear Transfer and Respect for Embryos. (UMUC
Library One Search) Clausen, Jens. Human Reproduction &
Genetic Ethics. Mar2010, Vol. 16 Issue 1, p48-59. 12p. DOI:
10.1558/hrge.v16i1.48.
For other types of Cloning, controversy continues, because one
key source for experimental material, stem cells, is from human
embryos, often abandoned in cryogenics banks. Advocates, for
and against the use of human embryonic stem cells, have been
voicing their positions for the past 15-20 years.
Resource: Ethics of Stem Cell Research
Stem Cell Research and Technology. (UMUC Library One
Search) Zneimer, Susan M., Ph.D. Salem Press Encyclopedia of
Science, January, 2014. 4p., Database: Research Starters
As In Vitro Fertilization has shown, there are also commercial,
socio-economic, and business aspects of these issues. Should
stem cells, or any human material be bought and sold? Consider
the treatment of organ transplant issues, in this context. Should
the mythical creature, “the market” make our determinations for
us? Should governments, since they are (at least theoretically)
accountable to their publics.
In the Early-2000s, it was also announced that the Human
Genome Project, supported by U.S. and UK Governments’ and
Wellcome Trust grants, had completed the first, full mapping of
the human genome, a/k/a DNA. (Interestingly, the HGP beat a

private consortium, supported by for-profit corporate funding.)
Research into the Genome/DNA continues.
For some segments of publics around the Globe, the “mad
scientist” scenario of horror literature and films seemed just on
the horizon. In approaching these issues, please keep one thing
in mind: Natural Scientists, in general, for a wide variety of
reasons and causative factors, tend not to be “made scientists.”
Due to the nature of the Natural Scientific Method, they tend to
be cautious. Thus, the Medical Ethicists have played and
continue to play an important role in this entire process. And
many Medical Ethicists are also Lawyers. For Law is the place,
where Moral, Ethical,
Human Cloning: Three Mistakes and an Alternative (UMUC
Library One Search) Baylis, Françoise. Journal of Medicine &
Philosophy. Jun 2002, Vol. 27 Issue 3, p319. 19p.
In the world of Dolly, when does a human embryo acquire
respect? (UMUC Library One Search) Cameron, C.; Williamson,
R.; Journal of Medical Ethics: Journal of the Institute of
Medical Ethics, Vol 31(4), Apr, 2005 pp. 215-220. Publisher:
BMJ Publishing Group; Database: PsycINFO
There are no easy answers to these questions and issues. Nor
should there be. They are complex, not reducible to quick, easy,
disposable, and unquestioned answers. At the same time, they
are not unanswerable. It will be that there are more than a few
possible, good answers. . . The decision on your answer, for
yourself, lies with you, in a reasoned and well-supported
Argument, based on the theorists and theories we have seen. . .
[Remember Weeks 1-3.]
NCDA Exploration
Review the minimum competencies for career counselors in the
Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey (2012) text. With the proliferation
of information available via the internet, it has become
increasingly important for career counselors to be
knowledgeable of resources accessible through virtual sites.

This week you will begin the process of utilizing the internet to
obtain career-related information. Visit the National Career
Development Association (NCDA) Website via the URL listed
under Websites in the Readings section of this week. After you
have thoroughly explored the site, discuss a component which
you found particularly valuable. Share your insights. Finally,
analyze the component as it relates to the work of a Career
Counselor. Post should be at least 300 words.
Introduction to Assessment Instruments
After reading the Patton and McIlveen (2009) article and paying
particular attention to the Assessment section, critique at least
one of the career assessments currently being utilized in the
career counseling field. Address the following questions in your
response: What specifically is the instrument used for? In what
situations might this instrument be most appropriate to use?
What are the strengths of the instrument? What, if any,
weaknesses have been identified? You may need to conduct
follow-up research to adequately address these questions. Post
should be at least 300 words.
Values Sorting Exercise
Understanding values is integral to finding career satisfaction.
Research shows that when values and decision making are
misaligned, individuals tend to have challenges in their careers.
To help gain perspective in this area, complete the values
sorting exercise in the Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey (2012) text.
Following the exercise guidelines, identify your top ten values
first. Then, narrow your values down to five and include
definitions. Refer to the example in the textbook. Consider the
ways in which you express your top five values on a daily basis.
In what ways could you improve the alignment of your values
with your daily activities? Share your insights on this process in
the discussion forum. You may share your values if you choose.
How might this particular exercise help in the career counseling
process? Post should be at least 300 words.

Case-Study of Ronald
According to Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey (2012), “careers are
person-specific and created by choices we make throughout our
lives. Careers emerge from the constant interplay between the
person and the environment”. The authors also state that
“careers are personal and encompass the total constellation of
life roles that we play. Thus, managing our careers effectively
also involves integrating roles effectively”. Considering this
information, review the case study of Ronald in the Niles and
Harris-Bowlsbey (2012) text. After reading the case study,
select one of the recent theories from Chapter 3 and write a
response indicating how you would apply the theory to describe
the career development of Ronald. What interventions might
work in this case? Post should be at least 300 words.
Group Career Counseling
At a time of economic hardship, employee shortages, and
resource constraints, more and more group counseling sessions
are being utilized as a means to reach larger groups. As a result,
career counselors must become knowledgeable in group
counseling techniques, topics, and/or interventions that are
appropriate in a group setting. With this information in mind,
address the following questions:
a. What are the advantages of conducting career counseling
groups? What are the disadvantages?
b. Which career development concerns do you think might be
most appropriate for a group counseling experience?
c. What career development concerns do you think might be
inappropriate for a group career counseling experience?
Post should be at least 300 words.
Counseling Specific Populations
During the past two decades many scholars and researchers have

focused attention on determining how human interaction is
impacted by differences such as age, race, culture, gender,
sexual orientation, etc. While it is evident that these factors do
impact our day to day interactions, many debate the extent to
which career counseling outcomes are affected or whether some
counseling methods and techniques may be more effective with
specific populations than others. Some scholars and researchers
believe counseling techniques and intervention strategies should
differ depending on the specific population. Do you agree? Give
an example that justifies your response. How can we address
different needs without stereotyping? Post should be at least
300 words.
Cybercounseling
The internet has become a powerful tool in the delivery of
career counseling and information services. Among the
developments in computer-based counseling is cybercounseling.
As a result of the proliferation of cybercounseling, ethical
guidelines have been created from which career centers and
Counselors can gain guidance. Three key organizations,
National Career Development Association (NCDA), American
Counseling Association (ACA), and National Board of Certified
Counselors (NBCC), have each developed their own set of
ethical guidelines. Review the ethical guidelines in the Harris-
Bowlsbey (2012) text. Prior to addressing the questions of this
discussion, conduct brief research on cybercounseling. Based on
the information you found and considering the ethical
guidelines from the textbook, address the following questions:
Do you see cybercounseling as an asset to counselors? What are
the potential benefits to the client? What concerns do you have
about conducting cybercounseling? Post should be at least 300
words.
O’Net Website Review
As you know, access to technology has changed the way career
counselors go about providing services to clients. The breadth

of resources and tools available online is exhaustive. Some
information can be accessed by clients free of charge from any
computer with internet access. One such site is O’Net Online.
O’Net includes a wealth of valuable information on careers
including electronic data on projected growth/need, salaries,
and skills/education requirements. While much of this
information can be accessed by clients, research shows that
skilled career counselors are vital to helping individuals work
through career-related decisions and challenges. Thus, being
knowledgeable about such resources is vital to providing quality
service.
Visit the O’Net Online site listed in your required readings for
this week. From the main page, click on “Find Occupations” and
select “Career Cluster”. Search for at least three different
occupations on the “Browse by Career Cluster” page. After
reviewing the information, address the following questions:
What types of information did you find? In the capacity of a
Career Counselor, would you find the information helpful?
Why? Was there any downside to the website or to the way
information was presented? Post should be at least 300 words.
Calling and Vocation in Career Counseling
Many clients who seek career counseling are searching for a
change as a result of not finding meaning or fulfillment in their
work. Much research has been done on incorporating the
constructs of calling and vocation into career counseling as a
means to assist clients in the process of clarifying their career
goals and ultimately reaching a position of fulfillment. After
reading the assigned article, “Calling and Vocation in Career
Counseling: Recommendations for Promoting Meaningful
Work” (2009), critique the utilization of these constructs in
career counseling. How might these constructs help or hinder a
client seeking career advisement? What do you see as the
strengths and weaknesses of these constructs? Post should be at
least 300 words.

Planning Interventions
According to Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey (2012), “counselors may
play a variety of roles related to the design and implementation
of career development programs and services in their work
settings. These roles may include advocacy, coordination,
participation, design, management, and evaluation”. In Week
Six, you will be developing an intervention for a special
population. Interventions are also referred to as career
development programs. As part of the preparation for the final
summative assessment, this week you will build knowledge and
background on the steps for designing and implementing career
development interventions.
Evaluate one of the programs described in the Niles & Harris-
Bowlsbey (2012) text. Based on the description, do you believe
this program would be effective for the target population? Why?
What would you add to improve the intervention? Post should
be at least 300 words.
Final Project Draft and Peer Review/Self-Check
For this discussion, you will create and submit a draft of your
final project, a 3-4 page draft of your final paper. Then, you
will peer review at least one fellow student’s submission. The
instructor may post a peer review schedule as part of an
announcement and in an "Instructor Guidance Post" within the
Week 5 "peer review discussion group.”
This is a peer review and the instructor will not be offering
feedback on drafts.
Make sure that you do the following in your submissions:
A. Describe the target population including relevant career
related statistics.
B. State the goals and objectives of your “presentation” or
paper.
C. Identify and describe at least one career theory that you will
use in your presentation/paper.

D. Reference two sources at a minimum in addition to the
course text. (Professional/scholarly journals are peer reviewed
and focus on the profession/application of psychology (located
on Proquest, EBSCOHost, PsycNET, etc.). Non-scholarly
articles include newspapers, periodicals, secular magazines,
etc., and are not peer reviewed. Websites not approved include
wilkipedia.com and about.com.)
E. Use the notes feature to add specific information that cannot
be seen by the audience on the PowerPoint slides. (Note: This is
applicable only if Option 1 of the final assignment was chosen
by the student.)
For each component (A-E above, as applicable), provide a score
of 1-5, with 5 being the “highest quality” and 1, the lowest.
Also, provide written feedback for each component, particularly
focusing on those in which a rating of 3 or lower is given.
When providing written feedback please do so in a way that is
considerate and respectful. Focus on suggestions for
improvement (as opposed to highlighting all of the “negatives”
of the presentation).
You may wish to use language with each other like:
1. “I would suggest that…”
2. “You might improve by adding the following…”
3. “Clarification on this slide might be helpful.”
4. "You might be able to make the topic more clear by…”
5. “You might consider removing or rephrasing…”
Ethical Considerations in Career Counseling
All career counselors are subject to ethical standards. As you
learned in Week One, the National Board of Certified
Counselors (NBCC), National Career Development Association
(NCDA), and the American Counseling Association (ACA),
have each established ethical guidelines for career counselors.
As you might expect, you will be faced with situations
throughout your career that require you to reflect on and abide
by these standards. Identify a topic which could present
personal ethical/moral issues for you in your work as a career

counselor. There are suggested topics in Chapter 14 of the Niles
& Harris-Bowlsbey (2012) text; however, you are free to select
one of your own. After identifying a topic, answer the following
questions:
Why would the case you selected present a dilemma? What
specific ethical codes apply to the case you selected? How
would you go about handling the situation? What resources
might you use in coming up with the best response? Post should
be at least 300 words.
Introduction
As you will recall, from Week 3, the Plagues of the Fourteenth
Century had disastrous effects on Europe. Many of today’s
developments can be traced as having their root, causative
factors in that Century. There were two others: the Protestant
Reformation of the Sixteenth Century and successive Religious
Wars, culminating in the Thirty Years War, 1618-48 and the
English Civil War, 1642-48. In the wake of these events, the
Renaissance and the Enlightenment, respectively, Philosophers
began to question all the presuppositions of Life.
You are about to encounter another such development, which
grew from this questioning: Social Contract Theory.
Resource: Social Contract Theory [PDF]
Up to the times of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,
few, if anyone, in Europe, questioned the origins of Society and
the State. The prevailing theory was Aristotle’s, as it had been
imported into Western Christianity, by Thomas Aquinas. This
theory said that human beings were “Social Animals.” The
underlying interpretation of that position is that human society
is a given of human existence and has always been that way.
Week 6, Reading Section 6.2: Thomas Hobbes and John Locke
II. Thomas Hobbes and John Locke
The questions that Social Contract theorists, starting with
Thomas Hobbes and continuing with John Locke, asked were:

What were the origins of Society? What makes a “good” form of
society? How does the State (meaning “government”) come into
being?
Both Hobbes and Locke started from what they called the
“State of Nature,” a wilderness, where all “men” (Hobbes
speaks only of “men”; one wonders from whence he believed
“men” came, without mention of women;) begin, having
absolute rights and equality. Put another way, if one “man”
encountered another, and a conflict arose about a resource, like
food, came about, the right to kill would, regrettably, still be
available to both. Fortunately, it occurred to our species that
that was a lousy way to run a planet. Thus, the idea of “forming
society” by “social contracts” occurred to someone. That was
the moment that human beings left “the State of Nature,” and
founded Society (a/k/a “Civil Society”).
A. Hobbes
Resource: End-of-Life Decisions [PDF]
Hobbes, being a friend and confidant of the Stuart Family, was
a monarchist, and presupposed the existence of a “Sovereign.”
In The Leviathan, Hobbes suggested that, in forming the Civil
Society, people had to surrender their rights, in exchange for
two things: (1) protection from each other, and (2) protection
from outside threats. The question was: to what or whom did
they have to surrender those rights? Hobbes’ answer was “the
Sovereign,” a/k/a “the Leviathan,” an allusion to a mythical sea
creature. What Hobbes meant was that “the Sovereign,” was the
English Monarchy. The Stuart Family at the time, sat on the
unified Throne of England, Wales, and Scotland at the time.
Resource: Thomas Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy
Resource: Hobbes's Moral and Political Philosophy
Hobbes also argued, rather unpersuasively, that, since the
Sovereign had all the power and could not be held to obey a
Social Contract, the people should still cede all their rights to
the Sovereign. What he was saying was, “Trust me,” or, more
aptly, “Trust the Sovereign, which you cannot hold
accountable.” Sound silly?

Resource: Thomas Hobbes: Social Contract
B. Locke
John Locke thought so. After Hobbes’ death, Locke, in his Two
Treatises on Government coined the concepts of the “consent of
the governed,” of government as agent/servant of society, and
of representative government, such as parliamentary or
legislative supremacy, rather than monarchical reign. The
English colonists, including Tom Paine, in the Late-
18th Century drew on Locke’s writings, for the justification of
their break with the Mother Country, between 1775-83.
Resource: John Locke: Political Philosophy
Resource: John Locke
Week 6, Reading Section 6.3: Later Theorists: John Rawls and
Martha Nussbaum
III. Later Theorists: John Rawls and Martha Nussbaum
In the 20th Century, writers such as John Rawls, Sandra
Harding, and Martha Nussbaum, breathed new life into Social
Contract Theory. Rawls revisited the origins of society with his
concepts and thought-experiment of the Veil of Ignorance and
the Original Position. Harding removed the inherent sexist
presuppositions of Rawls’ theories, and Nussbaum focused on
the idea of “capabilities” as ways to enforce and protect rights.
Resource: Contemporary Approaches to the Social Contract
A key thing to remember is that Social Contract Morality
systems are not based on Cultural Relativism. Social Contract
theorists are Natural Rights thinkers, who have believed in
Universal moral and politico-social rights and values. While
social agreement on norms is important, those norms also have
to be “good” and “right” ones. The premise on which the Social
Contract theorists have operated, over the centuries after
Hobbes, is that, if given their own “enlightened self-interest,”
as well as a sense of compassion, human beings, following their
Reason, will pick those “good” and “right” values. There have
been nasty exceptions, of course, in History, but, fortunately,
for our species those are still seen as exceptions.
Those are the theories and concepts, underlying Social Contract.

In the following section, we shall briefly address this week’s
substantive issues, World Health and the Allocation of Health
Care.
Week 6, Reading Section 6.4: World Health and the Allocation
of Health Care
IV. World Health and the Allocation of Health Care
A. World Health
As the Planet “shrinks,” due to mass communications,
transportation systems, and global/international trade and socio-
economics, the interdependence of the human populations,
divided by national loyalties and geography, becomes more
pronounced. Along with that interdependence comes the
necessities of addressing on supra-national levels, issues of
world health, including spread of diseases and overall health
care provision. These are not the only relevant issues, but they
are two of the more important ones. Thus, allocation of health
care is no longer only a national concern, but also an
international and global one.
Who cares about health inequalities? Cross-country evidence
from the World Health Survey. King, Nicholas B.; Harper, Sam;
Young, Meredith E.; Health Policy and Planning, Vol 28(5),
Aug, 2013 pp. 558-571. Publisher: US National Library of
Medicine.
Global Aging and the Allocation of Health Care Across the Life
Span. (UMUC Library One Search) Daniels, Norman; American
Journal of Bioethics, Aug2013; 13(8): 1-2. 2p. ISSN: 1526-5161
PMID: 23862589, Database: CINAHL Complete
Commentary: Globalization, Health Sector Reform, and the
Human Right to Health: Implications for Future Health
Policy. (UMUC Library One Search) Schuftan, Claudio;
International Journal of Health Services, Jan2015; 45(1): 187-
193. 7p. ISSN: 0020-7314, Database: CINAHL
B. Allocation of Health Care
Over the past eighty years, ever since the advent of the New
Deal, the questions of Allocation of Health Care and the
responsibilities of the Health Care Professions have existed in

public policy forums. It was during the New Deal that activists,
such as Eleanor Roosevelt campaigned for provision of Health
Care to Children and Adults. Medicare and Medicaid were
Federal programs, created in the 1960s, for the Aged and for
poor people, against considerable opposition. Some of the
States have also created programs for both groups, over the
decades.
Proposals for national health care for all Americans, were put
forth on the Federal level, by the Administration of Bill
Clinton. But those proposals were defeated those interests,
which benefited from the existing system of private provision
of health care to selected portions of the working public.
Those proposals were raised once more in 2009 at the Federal
level, and legislation was passed in 2010, requiring all
Americans to have health insurance. The Supreme Court has
subsequently upheld the general outline of that program. That
program has been called “Obamacare,” but the irony of that title
is that the various forms of proposals have existed, since, first,
the Progressive Era and, then, FDR, Eleanor Roosevelt, and the
New Deal.
The ethical/moral questions, regarding Allocation and Provision
of Health Care, involve, among others, the following: (1) should
all people be provided Health Care? (2) How can such programs
be paid for? (3) Should there be a so-called “One-Payer”
system, administered by government? (4) How can “the market”
be used to keep Health Care affordable for most Americans, i.e.,
the middle and working classes, who cannot afford it, but aren’t
“poor enough” to qualify for Medicaid or similar State
programs. These are some, but not all, the issues within this
field, as you will see in the Weekly Discussion.
Resource: Justice, Inequality, and Health
Resource: Public Health Ethics
I. Introduction

During this week, you will study the School of Moral
Philosophy, known as Deontology. It was created by the
German Philosopher, Immanuel Kant, in the Late-Eighteenth
Century, during the later period of the Enlightenment. Later
Philosophers, such as W.D. Ross, John Rawls, and Martha
Nussbaum, among others, have added to Deontology.
Kant believed that people were Reasoning Moral Agents, who
had ethical duties and responsibilities. As you will see, below,
Deontology posits that people have a Duty to do The Right
Thing. They also have duties to treat their fellow human beings
as Ends, not means. That translates into not treating our
fellows, as objects we can manipulate and use. Human beings
have an innate dignity, which no other human being may take
away. . .
As you will see, below, Kant’s system had the following
elements. First, what he called the Categorical Imperative was a
systematic way to determine what the Right Thing to Do is,
based on Reason, not Emotions or Feelings. Second, all human
beings have a Duty to do the Right Thing, consciously, and not
by habit, once they have used the Categorical Imperative to
determine the correct course of action. Third, that Duty to do
the Right Thing is an Absolute requirement. There can be no
exceptions, once one knows the correct ethic in a situation.
Resource: Kant's Moral Philosophy
Week 5, Reading Section 5.2: Immanuel, Kant, and Deontology
II. Immanuel Kant and Deontology
Immanuel Kant is one of the greats of Philosophy. He
contributed numerous concepts, ideas, and systems to the
subject. He was a Metaphysician, an Epistemologist, a Moral
Philosopher, and a Social Philosopher, among his various
interests. We owe much to his work.
In Moral Philosophy, Kant reacted against Hume’s ideas. Kant
believed that Ethics and Morality should be based on Reason,
not on Emotions, not even the Emotion of Compassion. He also
believed that Reason could provide us with the answers to the

problems of the Right Thing to Do. He also rejected the idea
that results, alone, could make an action moral or ethical. He
ruled out habit, or accident, too. In the rejection of unthinking
or rote Habit, he disagreed with Aristotle.
A. The Categorical Imperative
In arguing that Reason must govern Moral/Ethical systems,
Kant was following the traditions of the Greeks (Plato and
Aristotle), and Thomas Aquinas, among others. His views were
based on secular, rather than strictly religious, considerations.
In that regard, he believed that people should not follow the
Divine Command Theory, or any other unreasoned approach.
He formulated the Categorical Imperative, as a methodology
and process, for applying Reason to Moral and Ethical problems
and arriving at the correct Norm/rule. Kant did not base his
thinking on outcomes or results. An accidentally good result
could not turn an otherwise unethical action into an ethical one.
The way in which the Categorical Imperative works is: the
person must (1) look at the situation, (2) identify possible
Norms, and (3) choose the one rule/Norm, which, if the applied
would be a Universal Norm, and would govern all people,
including the person making the decision. ‘Act as though you
would will that Norm to be a Universal,’ said Kant.
B. Requirements for Ethical Action
Kant’s basic principles were the following. First, the
Categorical Imperative, above, was the method by which people
could reason ethical/moral action in a situation. He argued that,
in determining what we should do, we should “will that the rule
be a universal norm,’ applying to all people equally. There
could be no exceptions.
For example, Kant believed that lying was in all circumstances
morally wrong. We have an Absolute Duty to tell the truth.
When we apply the Categorical Imperative to the question of
lying, we see: (1) that lying undermines the trust, which a
society needs, in order to function in healthy and productive
ways for all its members and (2) that we would not want to be
lied to. Thus, we would will the norm of truth-telling as a

Universal and Absolute Norm.
Second, once we have identified the Norm/Rule to follow, we
must follow it EVERY time, with no exceptions. Kant was,
therefore, an Absolutist Ethicist. Later Philosophers and
commentators have faulted him, for his Absolutism, since there
are instances of competing Norms, when picking one,
absolutely, can harm someone.
Third, we had to be aware (conscious) of the Duty to do the
Right Thing. Kant rejected unthinking, habitual behavior as a
source of moral actions. In that regard, he rejected part of
Aristotle’s Moral Theory. Aristotle held that good actions
resulted from people learning Habitual behavior and then acting
on it. The Habits were based on the Virtues of
Knowledge/Wisdom, Courage, Temperance, Compassion, and
Justice.
While Kant believed that the substance of the Virtues were good
and could be justified by the use of the Categorical Imperative,
he disagreed that habitual doing of the virtues, without being
conscious or the duty to do so produced ethical actions. It is the
conscious recognition and adherence to the Absolute Duty to do
the Right Thing that produces Right actions.,
Fourth, the Duty was Absolute. We always act upon the Duty,
with no exceptions. Being lazy or cutting corners is not
allowed, according to Kant.
Resource: Moral Rules: Kant's Deontological Ethics [PDF]
C. Treatment of Our Fellow Human Beings
In all of this, we must treat our fellow human beings with
dignity and respect, and must treat them as Ends-in-themselves,
never as means. Since our fellows are independent and
Responsible, Moral Agents, they are our equals. And Equality is
a system that is discoverable, using the Categorical Imperative.
We must never use a fellow human being, as a means.
Manipulation, exploitation, oppression, and objectification are
morally wrong, in all circumstances, according to Kant. Using
someone, to get something for oneself is never a moral action,
even if that person nominally consents to being used.

Week 5, Reading Section 5.3: Nursing Homes and Care of the
Aged/Elderly
III. Nursing Homes and Care of the Aged/Elderly.
Although the Earth’s population has been increasing,
considerable segments, especially in the Developed World, are
aging. While the populations of the Developing World, what we
used to call the Third and Fourth Worlds, have increased and
continue to do so, the populations of the Developed Nations
have slowed in increase, have plateaued, or are decreasing,
Japan being an example of the last instance.
In the United States, the so-called Baby Boomers have entered
their 50s, 60s, and 70s. Though caring for older/aged/senior
people is always an important concern in our society, today the
numbers of seniors are higher than ever before. No doubt, you
have encountered this issue in your own family, with aged
parents and extended family members. As an introductory
matter, please see the following article, regarding issues within
the current Aged Care system:
Global Aging and the Allocation of Health Care Across the Life
Span.. Daniels, Norman; American Journal of Bioethics,
Aug2013; 13(8): 1-2. 2p. ISSN: 1526-5161 PMID: 23862589,
Database: CINAHL Complete.]
Everyday ethics in the care of elderly people, Ingrid Ågren;
Sandman, Lars; Andersson, Edith; Nursing Ethics, Vol 13(3),
May, 2006 pp. 249-263. Publisher: Sage Publications; [Journal
Article], Database: PsycINFO]
In the U.S., there is no centralized policy or set of policies on
Care of the Aged. There is a patchwork of approaches, from
private family care, to private nursing homes, and to Medicare
nursing home coverage. Should there be a unified approach?
Should it be voluntary or mandatory? What of the rights of the
families to determine the care of their older loved ones and of
the rights of the aged? These are a few of the relevant issues.
Remember: there are no “right” or “wrong” answers, here. . .
Here are articles on related issues:

Resource: Disability and Health Care Rationing
Resource: Justice and Access to Health Care
[Please note: In Week 6, you will learn about issues of World
Health and of Allocation of Health Care.]
In the Discussion to follow, you will address issues in this area
of Care of the Aged.
Week 4, Reading Section 4.1: David Hume's Antecedents
I. David Hume’s Antecedents
David Hume was a British Philosopher, in the tradition of the
Empiricists, John Locke and George Berkeley. He is credited,
among many contributions, with revisiting the question of
whether Ethics/Morality should be based on Reason vs.
Emotions/Passions. Unlike Aristotle and many other Western
thinkers before him, Hume argued that Ethics could not be
based on Reason, since Reason provides only alternative
choices, based on analyses of issues and situations.
Thus, Hume answered the question, by concluding that Ethical
Thought must be based on Emotion, in general, and Compassion
for one’s fellows, in particular. Reason provided a moral
decision-maker with facts and choices, along with positions for
each choice. But many Ethical dilemmas involve conflicting
values and choices. Reason, alone, could not lead a decision-
maker to choose one alternative as “the best.” As we shall see in
Week 5, Immanuel Kant, the creator of Deontology, disagreed
with Hume.
Resource: Empathy and Sympathy in Ethics
As the Eighteenth Century gave way to the Nineteenth and to
the Industrial Revolution, with its concentration of productive
activities into factories and the squalid conditions under which
workers labored and they and their families existed, reformers
arose, seeking solutions to those conditions and problems.
Three such reformers were Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill,
and Harriet Taylor, who came to be called Utilitarians, after the
Principle of Utility that Bentham and Mill promulgated.

Resource: David Hume
Week 4, Reading Section 4.2: General Theory of Utilitarianism
II. General Theory of Utilitarianism
First Bentham, then Mill and Taylor, analyzed the World in
terms of Pain and Pleasure/ Happiness. The predominant
condition, especially in Industrial societies in Europe, and later
in North America, for the vast majority of people, was Pain and
Displeasure. For these three writers, Happiness and Pleasure
were characterized by the removal or abatement of Pain,
whether of a physical or an emotional nature. Given the
conditions our modern media show us, as existing in many parts
of the World, it is not difficult, even now, to imagine such
conditions existing in the predecessors of our own societies.
Disease, war, famine, civil strife, violence, among other factors,
were the primary causes of Pain.
Resource: Notes on Utilitarianism
The Utilitarians argued that moral/ethical actions were those,
which, on balance, reduced Pain and increased, thereby,
Pleasure/Happiness. By positing the definition of Happiness/
Pleasure, as the Removal of Pain, they provided a measure by
which to gauge such ameliorative efforts. One weakness is that
those definitions are circular: (1) Happiness is the absence of
Pain; (2) Pain is the absence of Happiness. Nevertheless, it was
a more concrete, starting point, than more esoteric concepts of
“the Good,” as suggested by Aristotle and his successors.
Therefore, to be moral, an action had to produce Happiness, by
reducing Pain in the World, for the majority of those human
beings, affected by that action. As we’ve seen, a moral theory
that depends on effects, results, or consequences, is called
a Consequentialist theory. Utilitarianism, thus, is squarely
within the School of Ethical Consequentialism.
Due to more sophisticated analyses over the past two hundred
years and gradually improving living conditions for certain
segments of human populations, the term “Happiness” has
become more complex to define. More recent theories have

refined Utilitarianism into the following formulation: creating
the greatest good for the greatest number of people affected by
the decision/action. These later views have also conceded that
the rights and/or good of a few might have to be sacrificed, for
the benefit of the many. One critic of this sacrifice has been
John Rawls, whose work in the 20th Century revitalized Social
Contract Theories (Week 6).
Resource: Act and Rule Utilitarianism
Resource: Utilitarianism
Week 4, Reading Section 4.3: Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart
Mill, and Harriet Taylor
III. Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, and Harriet Taylor
Jeremy Bentham, a social reformer and Member of Parliament
in the Early Nineteenth Century, was very interested in the
reform of what we call the Criminal Justice System and of
prisons. Building on Hume’s work, as well as on Adam Smith’s,
he formulated the Principle of Utility, as noted, above. In later
commentaries on his work, successor theorists have identified
two forms of Utilitarianism: Rule and Act Utilitarianism. (We
shall see them, below.) John Stuart Mill, a student and
colleague of Bentham, and Harriet Taylor were life-long
friends, soul-mates, and collaborators. They wrote on subjects
of Utility/Utilitarianism, Social Reform, Women’s Rights, and
Human Liberty.
Resource: Life and Writing of Jeremy Bentham
Resource: John Stuart Mill
Resource: Harriet Taylor Mill
A. Rule vs. Act Utilitarianism
As subsets of Utilitarianism, these two variants start from the
perspective that it is result or consequence, which determines
the morality of an action. What distinguishes these approaches
is a slightly more sophisticated focus in each case. In Rule
Utilitarianism, a proper set of rules and/or of procedures has to
contribute to that outcome and be followed . Put another way,
the rightness of an action is not totally dependent upon

happenstance, chance, or fortunate/good luck.
Resource: Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill [PDF]
In Act Utilitarianism, the spotlight is on the Act, alone. As this
was Bentham’s view and he was the originator of Utilitarianism,
we can conclude his intention was to focus on effect, only. This
means that, while “right intention” by the Actor was laudable, it
was not a requirement for an action to be the right one. One can
see Bentham’s intellectual lineage, back to Adam Smith, whose
work posited that people, while pursuing their Enlightened Self-
Interest (which actually includes operating within a set of moral
parameters), will, by engaging in Mutually Advantageous
(market) transactions or exchanges, create the by-products of
moral actions.
During everyday life, we behave in similar ways. Sometimes we
are thinking through possible results or consequences,
sometimes we are not, and usually we cannot foresee even
certain major consequences. This is what is known as the Law
of Unforeseen and Unintended Consequences.
Week 4, Reading Section 4.4: Immigration
IV. Immigration
In the Discussion to follow, you will be required to address and
argue various aspects of Immigration and related concerns. One
consideration to include in your deliberations is that, under
most circumstances, people do not migrate, on a semi-
permanent, or permanent, basis, because they are happy,
content, and safe in their existing circumstances. While the
motivations might vary, by the person, seeking safety from
threats and a better, often material, life for themselves and their
families is often a baseline.
Resource: Immigration
Latino Immigration and Social Change in the United States:
Toward an Ethical Immigration Policy. (UMUC Library One
Search)
Authors: Davies, Ian. Foreign Language Department,
Edgewood College, Madison, WI, US

Source: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol 88(Suppl 2), Sep,
2009. pp. 377-391.
The Great Conversation and the Ethics of Inclusion. (UMUC
Library One Search)
Authors: Wagner, Paul and Lopez, Graciela
Source: Global Virtue Ethics Review. 2016, Vol. 7 Issue 2,
p4-33. 30p.
Environmental and Ethical Aspects of International
Migration(UMUC Library One Search)
By: Abernethy, Virginia. International Migration Review, v30
n1 p132-50 Spr 1996. (EJ528779), Database: ERIC
The border crossed us: Education, hospitality politics, and the
social construction of the "illegal Immigrant" (UMUC Library
One Search)
By: Carlson, Dennis. Educational Theory, v59 n3 p259-277 Aug
2009. (EJ857970), Database: ERIC
ADDITIONAL OPTIONAL READING
Resource: The History of Utilitarianism
Resource: Strong Moral Theories and the Major Players in
Moral Philosophy [PDF]

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