2. Learning Objectives
On completion of this chapter, you should be able to
answer the following questions:
What is philosophical advocacy?
What is the “different voice” Carol Gilligan identifies?
What is the issue of “representation” in academic
philosophy?
Who is Peter Singer?
Who is Martha C. Nussbaum?
Why does Nussbaum describe her philosophy as “Neo-
Stoic”?
Who is Pierre Hadot?
What does Hadot see as the goal of the sage?
3. Introduction
Traditionally, the philosopher has been viewed as a
detached observer, someone outside the mainstream of
society.
In this chapter, we examine philosophical advocates, that
is, philosophers whose work identifies, clarifies, and
actively opposes a perceived injustice.
Philosophical advocates give philosophical credence to
personal experience based on gender, ethnic background,
or social status.
4. Public Philosophers
Philosophical advocates do not always remain on the
sidelines of the major social controversies of our time.
Sometimes philosophical advocates are public
philosophers – writers or speakers whose philosophical
positions are expressed in ways accessible to a broad
audience.
The most effective public philosophers identify vital
philosophical issues of the day.
When public philosophers also “practice what they
preach,” they function much like sages or prophets in their
capacity to provoke individual self-assessment and
collective consciousness-raising.
5. The Reemergence of
Other Voices
Modern philosophy’s emphases on objectivity and
personal detachment have become increasingly disturbing
to growing numbers of philosophers.
Converging social, political, and intellectual movements
are contributing to reawakened interest in other voices and
other approaches to doing philosophy.
6. Gilligan’s Different Voice
Carol Gilligan’s research into moral development has led
her to distinguish between a traditional, masculine-oriented
“voice” and a feminine-oriented “different voice.”
This different voice is not confined to objective argument
(or scientific evidence), but expresses other “ways of
knowing.”
Gilligan argues that excessive reliance on “rationality”
results in injustice by excluding those who do not speak in
the “objective voice” from full participation in philosophy,
science, law and higher education.
7. Peter Singer,
the Dangerous Philosopher
The Australian philosopher Peter Singer (b. 1946) is a
controversial public philosopher who believes in making
people uncomfortable as a way of raising moral
consciousness.
Singer applies utilitarian principles to such current issues
as animal rights, infanticide, euthanasia, and world
poverty.
Singer emerged as an international figure with the
publication of Animal Liberation (1975) and Practical
Ethics (1979).
8. Singer’s Solution to
World Poverty
In “The Singer Solution to World Poverty,” an article
published in the New York Times rather than in a
philosophy journal, Singer challenges everyone not
already living in abject poverty to give away all income
over $30,000.
Single adults could, of course, give away much more.
Singer himself gives one-fifth of his income (including
royalties from his books) to famine-relief agencies.
Singer argues that “whatever money we are spending on
luxuries, not necessities, should be given away.”
9. Martha Nussbaum,
Lawyer for Humanity
The philosopher Martha C. Nussbaum (b. 1947) describes
public philosophers as “lawyers for humanity.”
Nussbaum suggests that too many professional
intellectuals fail to use their theories and talents to improve
the human condition by fighting for equality, justice, and
freedom.
Nussbaum functions as a citizen of the world by writing
about philosophical issues for the general public in The
New York Review of Books, The New Republic, national
newspapers, and other nonacademic publications.
10. Philosophy for the Sake of
Humanity
With notable exceptions, as Western philosophy
developed, philosophers increasingly dismissed and
distrusted subject (private) emotional responses to
philosophical problems.
Nussbaum challenges modern philosophy’s wariness of
emotions and what she sees as its correspondingly limited
view of philosophy (and life) in The Therapy of Desire and
Upheavals of Thoughts: The Intelligence of Emotions.
Her books that have attracted the attention of readers
inside and outside of academic circles.
11. Philosophy for the
Sake of Humanity
Building on her knowledge of Hellenistic philosophy,
Nussbaum presents what she describes as a “Neo-stoic”
philosophy.
Neo-stoic philosophy takes the “art of life” seriously – by
treating philosophy as more than an intellectual or
academic exercise.
In the final analysis, Nussbaum reminds us that although it
cannot perfect human life, philosophy has unique skills to
help us tell our stories in ways that can free us from at
least some unhappiness and guide us toward better lives.
12. Philosophy as a Way of Life
Pierre Hadot (b. 1922), Professor Emeritus of the History
of Hellenistic and Roman Thought at the Collège de
France, takes seriously the sage’s goal that philosophy
become a way of life.
Pierre Hadot’s Philosophy as a Way of Life presents a
distillation of his accumulated knowledge and experience
as a professional scholar and lover of wisdom.
Hadot asserts that the conflict between wisdom and “the
world” can never be totally resolved.
Still, he believes that life is better with philosophy than
without it – taking wisdom seriously raises our sights and
requires more of us than does abandoning the search.
13. To Live Like a Philosopher
Hadot invites us to transform ourselves.
Philosophy is a conversion, a transformation of one’s way
of being and living, and a quest for wisdom.
In What is Ancient Philosophy?, Hadot expresses his
conviction that the ancient concept of philosophy as a
practical way of life is still possible and that the
rediscovery of philosophy as a way of life has a certain
urgency in today’s world.
14. A Vision for You
It is too soon to tell whether or not philosophical advocacy
will produce new philosophical archetypes.
Archetypes of Wisdom was written not just to convey
philosophical facts and arguments, but also to evoke
philosophical yearnings that most of us experience – but
don’t always recognize as being philosophical.
This yearning is the love of wisdom, and hopefully it
triggers a “felt need” for an honest vision of the human
condition and our particular place in it.
Fare thee well, philosopher…
15. Discussion Questions
Present and then assess Peter Singer’s views regarding our
obligations toward alleviating world poverty. Is he too
strict? Make your case that he is or is not.
Compare Nussbaum’s and Hadot’s arguments on behalf of
philosophy as a way of life. How are they different? How
are they similar?
16. Chapter Review:
Key Concepts and Thinkers
Philosophical advocate
Public philosopher
Carol Gilligan (b.1936)
Peter Singer (b. 1946)
Martha Nussbaum (b. 1947)
Pierre Hadot (b. 1922)
