3. EarlyAntecedents
9/20/2023 3
• Evidence suggests that the
Chinese had a relatively
sophisticated civil service testing
program more than 4000 years ago
(DuBois, 1970, 1972).
• Every third year in China, oral
examinations were given to help
determine work evaluations and
promotion decisions.
4. EarlyAntecedents
9/20/2023 4
Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E. to 220 C.E.)
• Test Batteries (two or more tests used in conjunction) were used
• Topics were civil law, military affairs, agriculture, revenue, and geography.
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 C.E.)
• National Multistage Testing Program involved local and regional testing centers
equipped with special testing booths.
• Only those who passed this third set of tests were eligible for public office.
Local Provincial National Public Office
5. EarlyAntecedents
9/20/2023 5
• Reports by British missionaries and diplomats encouraged the English East
India Company in 1832 to copy the Chinese system as a method of
selecting employees for overseas duty.
• Because testing programs worked well for the company, the British government
adopted a similar system of testing for its civil service in 1855.
• After the British endorsement of a civil service testing system, the French and
German governments followed.
• In 1883, the US government established the American Civil Service
Commission, which developed and administered competitive examinations for
certain government jobs.
6. Charles Darwin and Individual
Differences
9/20/2023 6
To develop a measuring
device, we must understand
what we want to measure.
According to Darwin’s theory, some
possess characteristics that are
more adaptive or successful in a
given environment than are those of
other members. (The Origin of
Species, 1859)
Through this process, he
argued, life has evolved to its
currently complex and
intelligent levels.
7. Charles Darwin and Individual
Differences
9/20/2023 7
Sir Francis Galton, a relative
of Darwin’s, soon began
applying Darwin’s theories to
the study of human beings.
Hereditary Genius (1869) - some
people possessed characteristics
that made them more fit than others.
Galton initiated a search for
knowledge concerning human
individual differences which
is now one of the most
important domains of
scientific psychology.
8. Charles Darwin and Individual
Differences
9/20/2023 8
Galton’s work was extended
by the U.S. psychologist
James McKeen Cattell, who
coined the term mental test
(Cattell, 1890).
Cattell’s doctoral dissertation was
based on Galton’s work on
individual differences in reaction
time.
Cattell perpetuated and
stimulated the forces that
ultimately led to the
development of modern
tests.
9. Experimental Psychology and
Psychophysical Measurement
9/20/2023 9
• J. E. Herbart used mathematical models
as the basis for educational theories that
strongly influenced 19th-century
educational practices.
• E. H. Weber followed and attempted to
demonstrate the existence of a
psychological threshold, the minimum
stimulus necessary to activate a sensory
system.
• G. T. Fechner devised the law that the
strength of a sensation grows as the
logarithm of the stimulus intensity.
10. Experimental Psychology and
Psychophysical Measurement
9/20/2023 10
Wilhelm Wundt set up a laboratory at the
University of Leipzig in 1879, and was credited
with founding the science of psychology
E. B. Titchner succeeded the works of Wundt
and founded structuralism
11. Experimental Psychology and
Psychophysical Measurement
9/20/2023 11
• G. Whipple, a student of Titchener
recruited L. L. Thurstone.
• Whipple provided the basis for
immense changes in the field of testing
by conducting a seminar at the
Carnegie Institute in 1919 attended by
Thurstone , E. Strong, and other early
prominent U.S. psychologists.
• This seminar came up with the
Carnegie Interest Inventory and later
the Strong Vocational Interest
Blank.
12. Experimental Psychology and
Psychophysical Measurement
9/20/2023 12
Thus, psychological testing developed from at least two lines of inquiry:
• one based on the work of Darwin, Galton, and Cattell on the measurement of individual
differences, and
• the other (more theoretically relevant and probably stronger) based on the work of the German
psychophysicists Herbart, Weber, Fechner, and Wundt.
• Experimental psychology developed from the latter.
• From this work also came the idea that testing, like an experiment, requires rigorous experimental
control.
13. Experimental Psychology and
Psychophysical Measurement
9/20/2023 13
There are also tests that arose in response to important needs such as classifying
and identifying the mentally and emotionally handicapped.
• Seguin Form Board Test (Seguin 1866/1907), was developed in an effort to educate and
evaluate the mentally disabled.
• Kraepelin (1912) devised a series of examination for evaluating emotionally impaired people.
14. The Evolution of Intelligence and
StandardizedAchievement Test
9/20/2023 14
Binet-Simon Scale
• First version of the test was published in
1905.
• This instrument contained 30 items of
increasing difficulty and was designed to
identify intellectually subnormal individuals.
• Binet’s standardization sample consisted of
50 children who had been given the test
under standard conditions – that is, with
precisely the same instructions and format.
• The 1908 Binet-Simon Scale has been
substantially improved and introduced the
significant concept of a child’s mental age.
Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale
(Terman, 1916)
• L. M. Terman of Stanford University had
revised the Binet test for use in the United
States.
• Was the only American version of the Binet
test that flourished.
• The standardization sample was increased to
include 1,000 people, original items were
revised, and many new items were added.
16. The Evolution of Intelligence and
StandardizedAchievement Test
9/20/2023 16
Army Alpha & Army Beta
• Robert Yerkes, who was then the
president of the American Psychological
Association was requested for assistance
by the army.
• Yerkes headed a committee of
distinguished psychologists who soon
developed two structured group tests of
human abilities: the Army Alpha and the
Army Beta
Required reading
ability
Army Alpha
Measured the
intelligence
of illiterate
adults
Army Beta
17. The Evolution of Intelligence and
StandardizedAchievement Test
9/20/2023 17
Achievement Tests
• In contrast to essay tests, standardized
achievement tests provide multiple-
choice questions that are standardized
on a large sample to produce norms
against which the results of new
examinees can be compared.
• Standardized achievement tests caught on
quickly because of the relative ease of
administration and scoring and the lack
of subjectivity or favoritism that can
occur in essay or other written tests.
• In 1923, the development of standardized
achievement tests culminated in the
publication of the Stanford Achievement
Test by T. L. Kelley, G. M. Ruch, and L.
M. Terman.
18. The Evolution of Intelligence and
StandardizedAchievement Test
9/20/2023 18
Wechsler Intelligence Scales
• A mere 2 years after the 1937 revision of
the Stanford-Binet test, David Wechsler
published the first version of the Wechsler
intelligence scales the Wechsler-Bellevue
Intelligence Scale (W-B) (Wechsler,
1939).
• Wechsler-Bellevue scale contained several
interesting innovations in intelligence
testing. It yielded several scores, permitting
an analysis of an individual’s pattern or
combination of abilities.
• Wechsler’s inclusion of a nonverbal scale
thus helped overcome some of the
practical and theoretical weaknesses of the
Binet test.
• Among the various scores produced by the
Wechsler test was the performance IQ.
• Performance tests do not require a verbal
response; one can use them to evaluate
intelligence in people who have few verbal
or language skills.
20. The Evolution of Intelligence and
StandardizedAchievement Test
9/20/2023 20
Personality Tests (1920-1940)
• Personality tests measured presumably
stable characteristics or traits that
theoretically underlie behavior.
• Traits are relatively enduring dispositions
(tendencies to act, think, or feel in a certain
manner in any given circumstance) that
distinguish one individual from another.
• For example, we say that some people are
optimistic and some pessimistic.
• The earliest personality tests were
structured paper-and-pencil group tests.
• These tests provided multiple-choice and
true-false questions that could be
administered to a large group.
• The first structured personality test, the
Woodworth Personal Data Sheet, was
developed during World War I and was
published in final form just after the war
(see Figure 1.6).
22. The Evolution of Intelligence and
StandardizedAchievement Test
9/20/2023 22
Personality Tests (1920-1940)
• Projective personality tests provide
ambiguous stimulus and unclear response
requirements.
• The Rorschach test was first published by
Herman Rorschach of Switzerland in1921.
• David Levy introduced the Rorschach in the
United States.
• The first Rorschach doctoral dissertation
written in a U.S. university was not
completed until 1932, when Sam Beck,
Levy’s student, decided to investigate the
properties of the Rorschach test
scientifically.
• Today, however, the Rorschach is under a
dark cloud.
24. The Evolution of Intelligence and
StandardizedAchievement Test
9/20/2023 24
Personality Tests (1920-1940)
• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) by Henry
Murray & Christina Morgan in 1935
• TAT was more structured.
• The TAT required the subject to make up a story
about the ambiguous scene.
• TAT purported to measure human needs and thus
to ascertain individual differences in motivation.
25. The Emergence of NewApproaches to
Personality Testing
9/20/2023 25
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI)
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI) published in 1943, began a new era for
structured personality tests.
• MMPI authors argued that the meaning of a test
response could be determined only by empirical
research.
• MMPI, along with its updated companion the
MMPI-2 (Butcher, 1989, 1990), is currently the
most widely used and referenced personality
test.
26. The Emergence of NewApproaches to
Personality Testing
9/20/2023 26
Factor Analysis
• Factor analysis is a method of finding the minimum number of dimensions (characteristics,
attributes), called factors, to account for a large number of variables.
• In 1940s, J. R. Guilford made the first serious attempt to use factor analytic techniques in the
development of a structured personality test.
• By the end of that decade, R.B. Cattell had introduced the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire (16PF) – remains one of the most well-constructed structured personality tests and
an important example of a test developed with the aid of factor analysis.
27. The Current Environment
9/20/2023 27
• Beginning in the 1980s and through the present, several major branches of applied psychology
emerged and flourished: neuropsychology, health psychology, forensic psychology, and child
psychology.
• All areas of psychology depend on knowledge gained in research studies that rely on
measurements. The meaning and dependability of these measurements are essential to
psychological research.
• To study any area of human behavior effectively, one must understand the basic principles of
measurement.
• A thorough knowledge of testing will allow you to base your decisions on facts and to ensure that
tests are used for the most beneficial and constructive purposes.
29. EarlyAntecedents
9/20/2023 29
• Culture may be defined as “the socially transmitted
behavior patterns, beliefs, and products of work of a
particular population, community, or group of people”
(Cohen, 1994).
• Culture prescribes many behaviors and ways of
thinking. Spoken language, attitudes toward elders,
and techniques of child rearing are but a few critical
manifestations of culture.
• Indeed, the influence of culture on an individual’s
thoughts and behavior may be a great deal stronger
than most of us would acknowledge.
30. Some Issues Regarding Culture and
Assessment
9/20/2023 30
Non-Verbal Communication &
Behavior
• Facial expressions, finger and hand signs,
and shifts in one’s position in space may all
convey messages.
• Of course, the messages conveyed by such
body language may be different from culture
to culture.
• When an assessment is conducted with
the aid of a translator, different types of
problems may emerge:
- subtle nuances of meaning may be lost in
translation, or unintentional hints to the correct or
more desirable response may be conveyed
- translated items may be either easier or more
difficult than the original
- some vocabulary words may change meaning or
have dual meanings when translated.
31. Some Issues Regarding Culture and
Assessment
9/20/2023 31
Standards of Evaluation
• Cultures differ from one another in the extent
to which they are individualist or collectivist
(Markus & Kitayama, 1991).
• Individualist culture (typically associated
with the dominant culture in countries such as
the United States and Great Britain) is
characterized by value being placed on traits
such as self-reliance, autonomy,
independence, uniqueness, and
competitiveness.
• Collectivist culture (typically associated
with the dominant culture in many
countries throughout Asia, Latin America
and Africa), value is placed on traits such
as conformity, cooperation,
interdependence, and striving toward
group goals.
32. Historical and Cultural
Perspective ofAssessment
Cohen, R. J. & Swerdlik, M. E. (2018). Psychological Testing & Assessment,
9th edition. McGraw-Hill Education, New York
Kaplan, R. M. & Saccuzzo, D. P. (2018). Psychological Testing : Principles,
Applications, & Issues, 9th edition. Cengage Learning, Boston, MA
