Vol 15 No 10 - September 2016

International Journal
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Vol.15 No.10

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VOLUME 15 NUMBER 10 September 2016
Table of Contents
Self-Evident, Excessive or Opposed: Student Teachers’ Associations with ‘Gender Equality’ ....................................1
Maria Hedlin
Impact on Teaching: Consistent Knowledge Development, Reflection and Practice .................................................. 15
Dr. Abha Singh
Designing, Building and using Interactive eTextbooks according to the Organization of Discovery Learning Acts
in Vietnam ............................................................................................................................................................................. 38
Thai-Lai Dao, Ngoc-Giang Nguyen and Trung Tran
School Leadership and English Language Teachers’ Approaches in Teaching English Language: The Case of
Selected Schools in Sidama Zone, Southern Ethiopia ...................................................................................................... 62
Eshetu Mandefro, Mebratu Mulatu, Tesfaye Abebe and Yohannes Yona
Defining Teacher Effectiveness in Secondary Education: The Perceptions of Greek Students ..................................73
Konstantina Koutrouba
Teaching and Learning Strategies Adopted to Support Students Who are Blind in Botswana ................................ 92
Joseph Habulezi
On-Demand Lecturers in a Medication Calculation Course in the Bachelor’s Degree in Nursing Program: A
Quantitative Study.............................................................................................................................................................. 104
Kristin Hjorthaug Urstad, Bjørg Frøysland Oftedal and Brynjar Foss
Efficacy of Music Therapy and Bibliotherapy as Interventions in the Treatment of Children With EBD: A
Literature Review ............................................................................................................................................................... 113
Raol J. Taft, Jannah L. Hotchkiss and Daesik Lee
Quality of Academic Resources and Students’ Satisfaction in Public Universities in Kenya................................... 130
Augustine M. Kara, Edward K. Tanui and Jeremiah M. Kalai

The Understanding of Contemporary Vocal Pedagogy and the Teaching Methods of Internationally Acclaimed
Vocal Coaches...................................................................................................................................................................... 147
Dr. Trish Rooney
Understanding the Developing Persuasive Writing Practices of an Adolescent Emergent Bilingual through
Systemic Functional Linguistics: A Case Study.............................................................................................................. 163
Dr. Joshua M. Schulze
Relationship between the Principal's Leadership Style and Teacher Motivation ...................................................... 180
Wasserman, Ben-eli, Yehoshua, Gal

1
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 1-14, September 2016
Self-Evident, Excessive or Opposed: Student
Teachers’ Associations with ‘Gender Equality’
Maria Hedlin
Linnaeus University
Kalmar, Sweden
Abstract. This is a qualitative study undertaken in a Swedish teacher
education setting. The aim is to obtain data that can be helpful for
teacher educators planning their teaching about gender equality policy.
The assumptions which the students base their pre-understandings on
are in focus. The empirical material consists of 105 student teachers’
descriptions of their associations with the term ‘gender equality’
[jämställdhet]. In the material, three competing discourses are found.
One discourse is the discourse of the fair gender equality. Within this
discourse, gender equality seems to be quite an uncomplicated issue.
Gender equality is, or should be, something natural. A second discourse
is the discourse of the exaggerated gender equality, linking gender equality
to conflicts, aggression and excessive demands. A third discourse is the
discourse of the opposed gender equality. Within this discourse, gender
equality is described as a contested issue met with resistance and
hostility. Being able to identify and examine these competing discourses
may work as a first step in identifying assumptions that students hold
about gender equality and gender issues.
Keywords: gender equality, gender issues, teacher education, student
teachers, discourses
Introduction
In the present paper, I examine a group of student teachers’ pre-understandings
that can be linked to gender equality. This is done through a discursive analysis
of student teachers’ associations with the term gender equality. Many countries
have gender equality policies in education. In European Union policy teachers
are given the task of challenging gender stereotypes and traditional gender roles
(Eurodice 2010). This means in turn that student teachers need to be prepared
for this job, something that has not always worked so well. As Frånberg (2010)
points out, it requires a lot of knowledge and skills to challenge established
practices and mindset (cf. Bondestam 2010). Researchers have highlighted
shortcomings in how gender and gender equality issues have been addressed in
teacher education (Hedlin & Åberg 2012; Lahelma 2014). The right competence
to address the issues has not always been available (Malmgren & Weiner 2001;
Skelton 2007; Younger 2007). Younger and Warrington (2008) talk about a
© 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2
gender invisible within teacher training in the UK. Also, gender and teacher
education have long been an under researched field (Skelton 2007). This might
be due both to notions concerning gender being unreflected and to a widespread
belief that gender inequality no longer is a problem. Peace (2003), for instance,
describes British students as associating gender inequality with past times. And
Brodie (2008) argues that gender politics of the 20th century have been displaced
and marginalized in contemporary Canadian politics. Instead, ‘we are all equal
now’ is a stance. In British, Canadian as well as in Australian contexts, the
individual is focused on in a way that implies that gender no longer is an issue
(Walkerdine 2003; Ringrose 2007; Brodie 2008; Romack 2011). This is in line with
a belief that women and men no longer meet gender-specific expectations.
McRobbie (2010) refers to this as the claim of post-feminism. Nevertheless,
student teachers at their placement schools have to deal with gendered
expectations. According to Braun (2011), not being prepared for this may lead to
the decision to drop out of the training. Thus there is reason to give gender
issues more attention in teacher education.
When it comes to gender equality, the Nordic countries are often described as
prominent in the field. Brunila and Edström (2013) even call gender equality ‘a
clear Nordic trademark’ (p. 309). However, the Nordic teacher trainings have
been criticized in a similar manner as in other countries. Regarding the Finnish
teacher education, a reluctance to address gender issues has been reported.
According to Lahelma (2011), this is partly due to the view that gender issues are
no longer relevant. There is a claim that gender patterns virtually no longer exist
in Finnish society; gender equality is already achieved. Parallel with this view is
a widespread belief that the gender patterns that still can be observed depend on
biological differences that neither can nor should be challenged. Studies from
Iceland show similar results. Gudbjörnsdottir (2012; 2014) found shortcomings
concerning Icelandic teacher educators and the student teachers’ basic
knowledge needed to challenge prevailing gender stereotypes and incorrect
notions of unchangeable gender differences. Sweden was early to formulate a
gender equality policy in the curriculum for its nine-year compulsory schools
[for children aged 7-16]; this was done in the late 1960s. Yet, Swedish teacher
education has, as well, been criticized for flaws when it comes to preparing
prospective teachers in their task. The training has been criticized for not
connecting to the knowledge and research in this area. Issues relating to gender
and gender equality too often have been discussed in an “everyday talk”
manner (Havung 2006; Erixon Arreman & Weiner 2007).
Pre-understandings based on common sense are often contradictory and may
include many misunderstandings. As Toohey (2002) points out, teachers would
benefit from identifying their students’ prior knowledge more often before they
plan their teaching. If the teacher is aware of students’ prior knowledge and the
assumptions it is based on, the opportunity to pursue an education that reaches
the intended target will increase. The task of the teacher should therefore be to
examine the students’ pre-understandings, so that teaching can be planned
accordingly.

3
This study
The overall aim of this study is to obtain basic data that can be of help to
educators during teacher education when addressing gender equality issues.
The research questions that guide the study are:
• What discourses recur in Swedish student teachers’ associations with
gender equality?
• What assumptions do these discourses hold?
The discourse concept draws on social constructionism, which emphasizes that
we cannot experience and construct knowledge of the world around us in any
other way than through the concepts, categories and languages we already have.
Our knowledge of the world will, therefore, always depend on the time and
culture in which we live. Discourses are ‘socially constructed systems of
meaning that could have been different’ (Jørgensen & Phillips 2000 p. 28).
Laclau and Mouffe (2001) emphasize the constituting dimension of language.
Language is structured in patterns (discourses) that are both preserved and
changed as we use it. The premise is that our social world is discursively
constructed in a certain way, and that we need some order to orient ourselves in
life; at the same time, however, society and the social world could have been
constructed differently, in other ways. Some descriptions and meanings are
established, while the options are neglected or not even recognized as
alternatives.
According to Laclau and Mouffe, there is an ongoing discursive struggle in which
various social forces, such as political groups, are trying to make an impact on
definitions of certain concepts. They try to spread their discourse, their special
way of describing an issue or a problem. Some discourses may be relatively
fixed at certain historical moments. They are considered self-evident and are
therefore not questioned, even though only temporarily. There is always some
kind of ambiguity or contradiction. Even well-established discourses are
contrary to other discourses, which constitute reality in other ways, and
therefore threaten to undermine them. The concept floating signifier is used for a
concept that various discourses attempt to define in their own specific way
(Laclau & Mouffe 2001; Jørgensen & Phillips 2000). The discursive struggle thus
concerns the associations and meaning to be attributed to a particular floating
signifier. In this study, gender equality is the floating signifier that is in focus.
Not unlike Laclau and Mouffe, Bakhtin (1999) also describes language as a place
where there are ongoing social conflicts. He talks about the dynamic diversity of
voices that language carries. The past, present and future, as well as various
ideological groups, are represented in language. According to Bakhtin, the
statements that are made are filled with dialogic overtones. This means that every
statement, every opinion, is connected with previous statements. The words that
the speaker uses when expressing something, are not just the speaker’s own
words. They are also the words of others, in the sense that they hold echoes and

4
reverberations of others’ utterances. New statements confirm, contradict, take off
from, and require previous statements within the field. Every opinion is thus in
some sense to be seen as a response to other opinions. Those who speak can thus
simultaneously be considered responding. This is because the view expressed
not only presupposes an existing language, but also presupposes previously
stated connected utterances. A given statement can be considered as a link in a
chain of other statements in the area, by building on them, going into polemics
with them and so on. Bakhtin writes: ‘Any utterance is a link in a very complexly
organized chain of other utterances’ (Bakhtin 1999, p. 124).
In Sweden gender equality was established as a political field in the 1970s, and
by now it is something that all Swedes have to relate to. It also means that
anyone who discusses gender equality issues engages in a discussion that has
been going on for some decades (Florin & Nilsson, 1999; Kjellberg 2013).
In this study, the empirical material consists of a single-question questionnaire.
An invitation to take part in the questionnaire in the spring semester of 2014 was
made to 109 student teachers. It was emphasized that participation was
completely voluntary, and four students declined participation. Thus, there were
105 students who took part in the study. Of these, 73 were women and 27 were
men. The vast majority were born between 1990 and 1994, and thus were 20-24
years of age when the study was carried out. According to other studies, both
Swedish men and women in this age group state that they are in favour of
gender equality (SOU 2014:6). Nevertheless, it may be noted that in this study no
comparison between women’s and men’s responses is made.
The students were doing their second semester in teacher education, training to
be primary school teachers. They had not had any courses addressing gender
equality in their education. However, as gender equality is an often used
concept as well as a recurring issue in Swedish societal discussions (Kjellberg
2013), the students were expected to be familiar with the concept. In the
questionnaire, the students were given the task of freely writing down the
associations that ‘gender equality’ raises. It should be emphasized that it is the
discourses that can be interpreted in the students’ answers that are in focus. The
analysis focusing on the discourses means that the students, their backgrounds
and motives, are not within the focus of this study.
By reading the material repeatedly and searching for both similarities and
differences in the students’ answers, three discourses were interpreted
(Jørgensen & Phillips 2000). They were the discourse of the fair gender equality, the
discourse of the exaggerated gender equality and the discourse of the opposed gender
equality.
Three gender equality discourses
Below, the three discourses that were interpreted in the material are presented.
Both the discourse of the fair gender equality and the discourse of the

5
exaggerated gender equality are salient in the material. The discourse of the
opposed gender equality takes a less prominent place in the data.
The discourse of the fair gender equality
When gender equality is studied as a floating signifier, one of the meanings
recurring in the material is that gender equality is about justice and at the same
time it is, or should be, something self-evident. I have called this way of looking
at gender equality the discourse of the fair gender equality. Within this
discourse, gender equality is described as something uncomplicated. Phrase-like
definitions are prominent. Gender equality is a matter of fairness, and a person’s
gender should not be of any importance. Or, as one student put it: ‘We shall all
be treated equally. Focus shall be on who you are as a person and not on your
gender.’ ‘Equally’ and ‘same’ are words that recur frequently. Yet another
student who repeats the word ‘same’ makes the following associations with the
term gender equality: ‘The same conditions regardless of gender. The same
expectations regardless of gender.’ Another student writes: ‘Gender equality:
that men and women are of equal worth and are treated in the same way.’ An
additional example is: ‘We are all of equal worth. We all have equal influence
regardless of gender.’
The quotes connect to the official Swedish definition formulated in the 1980s:
that gender equality means that women and men have equal rights,
responsibilities and opportunities to have a job that provides economic
independence, to care for their children and their home, and to participate in
political and social activities. A fourth area that was added in the 2000s is about
gender-related violence. The objective is to stop men’s violence against women
(Gustafsson & Kolam 2008). Of the four areas, work, family life, social life and
gender-related violence, two areas are found frequently when the arguments are
more concrete. The two areas are work and family life.
Working life in focus
Concerning working life, the salary issue is a frequent theme. Sometimes it is
just stated that pay should be the same for men and women without this being
further developed. For example, an informant writes: ‘Everyone, regardless of
gender, within an occupation is entitled to the same pay.’ Others suggest that it
is women who fall short and receive lower pay than men. A student writes that
the information about women being subject to salary discrimination comes from
the media. The information seems somewhat uncertain, but the student says that
it has been in the newspaper, which can be interpreted as a way to support an
uncertain statement:
‘Concerning gender equality, a lot has changed compared with past
times. Women have more of a say now. But salaries? Women still
receive lower salaries than men. This is something I read in the
newspaper about a year ago.’
Whether it really is true that women and men have different conditions in the
job market may also be doubted:

6
‘There’s often a lot of discussion concerning men having higher
positions than women, as well as higher salaries than women. It need
not always be so, but it’s often what I hear in discussions anyway. For
it to be gender equal according to me, there must be the same
requirements for men and women, which I believe that it is in most
places.’
In the quote above, the student maintains hearing certain things in discussions.
The wording suggests that the student does not participate actively in these
arguments, but even those who do not participate have to relate to significant
discussions. Bakhtin (1999) talks of dialogic overtones, meaning that utterances
are products of dialogues with others. In this case, what is said in the discussions
is doubted; nevertheless, the student mentions it and relates to it.
Family life in focus
When family life is discussed, it is stated that women and men should be equally
responsible for the care of children and for household chores. Gender equality is
understood as cooperation: ‘Gender equality for me is cooperation, for instance
in the home. If I am preparing dinner, my boyfriend takes the laundry or the
kids. The work in the household is evenly shared.’ A student clarifies that this
means that chores should not be split so that women perform certain chores and
men others: ‘In a family living together, the standard family with woman and
man, all work in the household is shared. Nothing is called ‘women’s tasks’ or
‘men’s work’.’
If it really were the case that no chores were called women’s tasks and men’s
work, this remark would be superfluous. This statement may rather be
interpreted as a way of relating to an unwanted division of chores by gender.
The above discourse of the fair gender equality, in which gender equality is
regarded as something that is, or should be, uncontroversial, is contrasted by a
different description, in which gender equality is associated with excesses and
absurdities. This discourse will be discussed below.
The discourse of the exaggerated gender equality
Within this discourse, gender equality is associated with aggression towards
men, excesses and absurdities, and demands for gender neutrality.
Aggression against men
Gender equality is associated with feminists, which in turn are connected to
aggressiveness and conflict. In this context, a student talks of ‘ultra-feminists’.
Another respondent refers to ‘militant feminists who claim that women are best.’
A third student refers to feminists who try to obtain advantages, women who
have their own gain in focus when trying to get influence in society. The student
writes:
‘No one should get benefits because they happen to have one gender
or the other. [...] Further, my opinion is that the concept of gender
equality for many is associated with feminists. Many feminists think

7
that women should improve their situation in society for their own
benefit, instead of achieving gender equality.’
The quote above suggests that the word feminist has a particularly negative
charge, which has been discussed by researchers (McRobbie 2010; Kolam 2014).
A student claims that there is a kind of feminism that seeks to offend men. By
highlighting this aggressive feminism and then rejecting it, the student’s own
attitude appears to be reasonable even though it is not described. The student’s
own vision is contrasted to ‘ninja feminism, the desire to oppress men.’ Another
student talks about ‘some’ who are even more belligerent:
‘In my opinion, the focus is on the wrong matters; instead of
increasing the status of women, some rather wish to chop off men at
their ankles. For me, gender equality rather is that men and women
have the same opportunities.’
Yet another student maintains that women in a calculating way may refer to
discrimination in order to get advantages: ‘Gender equality issues may lead to
misuse and fighting; women may take the opportunity to claim that there is
some gender inequality just because they were discriminated against in the
past.’ Here gender discrimination is described as a historical phenomenon,
something that is no longer relevant. An image of Swedish society as gender
equal is thus put forward (cf. McRobbie 2010). Women who improperly refer to
gender discrimination are met, however, by resistance as described in the quote.
Their behaviour leads to disputes.
Excesses and absurdities
Further, within this discourse there is a talk of ‘the torment for the same for
everyone’, which is regarded as exaggerated. Those who associated gender
equality with exaggerations, however, themselves use some ample
exaggerations in their arguments. ‘Everyone’ is made out as talking about
gender equality ‘everywhere’. One student writes:
‘Everyone says that everything should be gender equal everywhere.
But it’s impossible to get everything gender equal when everyone has
different makings. Why does everyone want to be gender equal?’
It is not only the talk and the wish for gender equality that is described as
something that has gone too far; gender equality itself has gone too far. In one
answer, it is suggested that those who are in favour of gender equality maintain
that everyone should think the same. That those approving of gender equality
have unreasonable expectations is thus expressed. In addition, it is argued that
‘everything’ is about gender equality: ‘The word itself has become tedious;
everything is supposed to be about gender equality, but it cannot be. People in
our world are too different to think the same.’
Demands for gender neutrality
Gender equality is also associated with women and men not being allowed to do
as they wish. According to the reasoning of one student, gender equality is

8
associated with gender disappearing, that ‘gender should be wiped away,
everyone becomes hen’. The word ‘hen’ refers to a new Swedish word that has
been actively discussed in the media. Hen is a pronoun that can be used
generically, rather than saying ‘he or she’, ‘she/he’ or the formal-sounding ‘the
person concerned’. Hen may also be used for someone whose gender one does
not know or if gender is irrelevant. In 2012, both books and magazines where the
pronoun hen was used were published. Many of those who advocated the use of
hen wanted to challenge the gender norms that language holds. This questioning
led in turn others to raise their voices and protest against the launched hen-
word, which was called ridiculous. The advocates were seen as excessive
gender-equality zealots. The debate was very polarized (Milles 2013).
A student expresses a wording that clearly shows that the hen-word symbolizes
an unwelcome attempt to challenge the gender patterns that the school’s gender
equality policy in fact targets. The student seems to fear that the hen-word will
lead to women and men being abolished as categories, that they will be replaced
by a single gender, the hen-gender. The student writes: ‘There should be two
different sexes. Women are women; men are men. There is no such thing as hen.’
In an answer from a student, it is stated that ‘our differences should be
accepted;’ this in turn is associated with girls not being allowed to wear dresses.
According to the student behind the wording, there is a demand for gender
neutrality, which means that girls’ dresses are not accepted:
‘People can look askance if a girl always wears pink dresses.
Everything should be so neutral nowadays! There is no limit
anymore. Of course girls must be allowed to wear green/blue pants,
but girls with dresses must also be accepted!!’
As the quote above shows, a resistance against a maintained widespread
demand for gender neutrality is expressed. This opposition is also emotional;
both single and double exclamation points are used.
Even within this discourse, work and family are recurring areas of commentary,
as presented below.
Working life in focus
Many students mention gender quotas in employment, something to which they
are opposed. A student writes: ‘For me gender equality is associated with
gender quotas at workplaces. But I think it is a bit strange. The most qualified
should get the job; their gender should not be either advantage or disadvantage.’
Others associate gender quotas with ‘nagging’, and with this choice of words
their negative associations are accentuated. Someone writes: ‘That nagging
about quotas for women and men in different positions/situations and
professions only for it to look good on paper helps no one. Put more focus on the
individual.’ In this case, quotas are associated with both women and men
getting precedence. One respondent expresses, however, that it is women who
get priority. The association with gender equality is formulated as follows:

9
‘When women are the subject of gender quotas at various workplaces [it is]
because there is a majority of men.’
One student associates women’s work with part-time work, a matter that has
been much discussed in Sweden in recent years. For Swedish mothers, it is
common to work part-time (Nyberg, 2013). The major disadvantages part-time
work brings in the form of low sickness benefits, low pensions and so on, have
been given considerable media attention. In the debate, part-time work has been
described as a trap for women (Lomberg 2012). The student’s associations may
be interpreted as a reaction and a response to this discussion (cf. Bakhtin 1999).
The student writes that gender equality is associated with: ‘Women who choose
to work less are getting attacked because they do not work, and use their ‘new’
freedom to the maximum.’
Family life in focus
Another student gives voice to the resistance against the proposition to
individualize Swedish parental leave. In the current design, the days that
provide financial compensation are divided equally between the father and the
mother, but with the possibility for one parent to transfer most of their days on
to the partner. In practice, most fathers transfer a large part of their parental
leave to the mothers (Haas & Hwang, 2008). For a long time it has been
suggested that the parental leave should be individualized, and thus organized
in the same way as the general social security system. The alternative for fathers
to transfer their days to the mothers would thus cease, which is assumed to lead
to the fathers staying home with their children to a much greater extent (Klinth
2013). The student suggests that it is desirable that both parents take parental
leave, but how the division and distribution of days is to be undertaken should
be up to parents to decide. The associations with gender equality are connected
to the proposed individualization of the parental insurance, something that the
student sees negatively. The association with gender equality is formulated as
follows: ‘For parental leave to be shared and that there was an issue about it
being equally divided. (Thus a bill saying it must be split. Of course it should be
shared in some way, but you ought to be allowed to choose for yourself how this
will be done).’
An example of how gender equality is associated with household chores is given
when a student advocates that women and men share the chores, but
nevertheless points out that women do not have to change half of the car tyres.
The student writes:
‘Gender equality in a traditional couple (man-woman) works when
both of them have the opportunity to do both female and male
chores. But that does not mean that because changing tyres is a male
task and the man likes to do it, the woman has to change two of the
tyres for the situation to be gender equal.’
When bringing up a woman having to change two car tyres, the student
describes a division of tasks that seems rather caricatured, even ridiculous, and

10
then rejects it. In that way one’s own posture appears as reasonable even though
it is not very specifically expressed.
A third discourse, which has a marginal space but can be seen in the material, is
the discourse of the opposed gender equality. This discourse will be discussed
below.
The discourse of the opposed gender equality
Within this discourse gender equality is not seen as something self-evident and
uncomplicated. Neither is gender equality associated with excessive demands.
Instead gender equality is described by some students as an issue they
themselves are engaged in, and they have experienced a strong resistance
towards it. One student says that gender equality is associated with something
extreme even though it is a matter of human equality. In this way, it becomes
clear that the reasoning expressed within this discourse relates to, and can be
considered in response to, the discourse of the exaggerated gender equality. The
student writes: ‘It has become negatively charged to be pro gender equality; they
say feminists carry it too far. But this is not the case. Being a feminist and
fighting for gender equality is fighting for human equality regardless of gender.’
In a similar vein, another student describes how feminists are met with
negativity: ‘I work at a women’s shelter and I am a feminist. I am often told that
feminists just want power, when in fact it is gender equality we strive for. [...] As
a feminist, I often get unfair criticism, which I think is due to ignorance and
fear.’
According to yet another student, discussing gender equality issues is
demanding. Gender equality ought to be a fairly uncontroversial matter, but
instead it is very emotionally charged. The student writes:
‘Asking for a gender-equal society is not really asking too much, but
if you are a woman and you say such things, automatically you need
to have a wide supply of arguments to defend yourself and your
opinions. I believe that gender equality issues are the largest and
most emotionally charged issues we have today, and that is why it is
so demanding to discuss them.’
Conclusion
Three different discourses have been interpreted based on a study of gender
equality as a floating signifier. The three discourses can be understood as
competing ways of describing the surrounding world. Laclau and Mouffe (2001)
speak of discursive struggles where different ways of describing the world are in
conflict. The discursive struggles in this material are both about the degree of
equality in society and whether gender equality should be associated with
consensus or conflict. By highlighting the discourses and their different
assumptions, they may be subject to critical examination.

11
It is clear that the three discourses are based on completely different
assumptions regarding whether Swedish women and men live under equal
conditions. The Swedish gender equality policy is directed towards the areas of
working life, family, influence in society, and gender-based violence. Within
these areas there are plenty of statistics and research that can be used to bring
clarity as to whether Swedish society is gender unequal, gender equal or if it
even has gone so far that men should feel physically threatened by women.
Since 2012, the Statistics Sweden website has had gender statistics that are linked
to the gender equality objectives. The statistics are extensive and updated twice
annually (SCB 2014; See also the Nordic Council of Ministers 2015). The students
in this study present many opinions, opinions which deserve to be highlighted
and compared with the knowledge available.
The second assumption which is in the centre of the discursive struggle, whether
the issue of gender equality should be associated with consensus or conflict,
cannot as easily be examined with the help of statistics. It can, however, be
discussed and related to research in the area. Within the discourse of the fair
gender equality, gender equality appears as a relatively uncomplicated objective.
To a large extent, gender equality seems a conflict-free issue. A conflict
dimension is, however, clear in both the discourse about the exaggerated gender
equality and the discourse of the opposed gender equality. Within the discourse
of the exaggerated gender equality, feminism is connected to women with
excessive demands and aggression towards men (cf. Wahl et al. 2008; Kolam
2014; Kimmel 2010). This may be surprising given that feminism in Sweden can
be associated with political measures and policies for which there is a broad
consensus among the political parties. Since a number of party leaders in 2004
declared that they were feminists, the parties’ feminist claims are recurringly
highlighted in the political debate. Leading politicians, both men and women,
call themselves feminists, and most of the parties in the Swedish parliament
represent themselves as feminists (Asker, 2004; Alnevall 2009). In addition,
almost half the population (47%) in Sweden state that they are feminists (TT
2014). Despite this broad backing for feminism, paradoxically negative
associations recur among the students. In this way, the discourse is obviously
also in conflict with the discourse of the fair gender equality (cf. Bakhtin 1999).
Within the discourse of the exaggerated gender equality, feminists are described
as women who do not represent the right kind of femininity norms. Feminists
are described as extremists, aggressive and selfish, with their own benefits in
focus. Based on Bakhtin’s (1999) discussion of how contemporary debates hold
ideas and notions from the past, this discourse may be interpreted as being
based on traditional femininity norms saying that women should stand back for
the benefit of others. Historically, women and femininity have been connected to
a self-sacrificing ideal; women would primarily put others’ needs first (Johnson
et al. 2005). Women who differ from this ideal too clearly can still expect to be
punished socially; they risk being seen as unfeminine and self-centred (Skeggs
1997; Jackson & Tinkler 2007).
Quite strong exaggerations are being used in the discourse on the exaggerated
gender equality. ‘Everything’ is about gender equality, as one student maintains.

12
Gender equality is associated with excessive and also ridiculous claims. A
caricatured picture of gender equality in a relationship is presented; the woman
and the man seem to be forced to change two tyres on the car each to be
regarded as gender equal. Even in this way, a situation where gender equality
has gone too far is depicted; the situation has become absurd. In a study by
Kjellberg (2013), similar situations are described. In that study informants say
that you should not have to ‘wash every other plate’ or ‘tick’ how many times
you change your children’s diapers. In that way, it is conveyed that the speakers
themselves have a reasonable attitude. The couple does some sharing of
household tasks and it seems good enough, even if the division of tasks might be
uneven in terms of time and content. Also, in a study by Magnusson (2006), the
informants highlight extreme cases and distance themselves in a similar way. By
highlighting negative examples of excessive accuracy concerning the division of
household chores (so-called millimetre justice), the one who strives for a more
just division of chores is depicted in a negative light and presented as silly.
The discourse of the opposed gender equality can be interpreted as a direct
response to the discourse of the exaggerated gender equality. Within this
discourse it is described how feminism is associated with excesses and egoism,
which is said to be completely untrue. With this, Bakhtin’s (1999) discussion of
dialogic overtones is illustrated. Users of the discourse of the opposed gender
equality are forced to relate to the discourse of the exaggerated gender equality.
As much as its claims are said to be untrue, it cannot be ignored. Further, the
hostility directed at feminists may be interpreted as an illustration of Sara
Ahmed’s (2010) feminist killjoy. Ahmed uses the concept to describe how
feminists disrupt others’ good feelings of contentment by pointing out sexism
that others do not want to see.
In this study, the aim was to obtain data that could be helpful for teacher
educators planning their teaching about gender equality policy. To be able to
challenge our students’ everyday assumptions and beliefs the importance of
making formative assessments in education has been emphasized (Evans 2013).
This study can be considered as a formative assessment of the knowledge
concerning gender equality and gender issues within a group of Swedish
student teachers. To discuss the different understandings and discourses with
the students may be one way to show them the complexity of the issue.
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15
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 15-37, September 2016
Impact on Teaching: Consistent Knowledge
Development, Reflection and Practice
Dr. Abha Singh
Western Illinois University
Illinois, USA
Abstract. Application of professional knowledge is developed and
practiced through teacher experiences and reflection. If we want to
understand the practices of teachers’ teaching gifted students, it is
essential to understand the development of practices with gifted
students and their professional knowledge development as active
practitioners. It is imperative to know what diverse factors lead to their
own professional knowledge in their unique situations. The teacher is
one of the most important factors in providing high quality of
education. Gifted education is no exception. Teachers of gifted students
should know how to implement interventions with diverse learners and
learners with unique needs. This research is a case study of two earlier
career teachers in gifted education participating in professional
development. We focused on how teachers’ needs combine with
practicum experience result in individual unique professional
knowledge. The results are as follows. The first, even though they are
both beginning teachers of the gifted, their development phases as
teachers of the gifted were different depending on their previous
experience. The second, there different previous experience and
practicum experience determined the direction and degree of the
development of professional knowledge. The third, unique contexts are
different from regular teacher, especially, isolation was a big barrier for
their development. The last, their development was different due to
their passion about teaching gifted students and continuous reflection
on their practice and students reaction were strong motives for the
development of their professional knowledge.
Keywords: Knowledge; Practical knowledge; Experience; Interest;
Reflection; Application
Introduction
The teacher is one of the most important catalysts in providing high quality of
education. Much research has verified that student achievement is strongly
influenced by teachers’ background in content areas and by classroom practices,
both of which are related to teachers’ professional development (Missett,

16
Brunner, Callahan, Moon, Azano, 2014 & Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, 2010 &
Field, 2013). Gifted education is no exception. Teachers of gifted students must
know how to provide enriched and/or advanced academic content to a diverse
population of students possessed of unique academic and socio-affective needs.
Most researchers in gifted education acknowledge that teachers’ are an
important catalyst in the talent development process (Rubie-Davies, 2010 &
Gagné, 2003). Little research is available, however, to develop a comprehensive
understanding of teachers of the gifted. The research that is available primarily
focuses on characteristics of effective teachers’ from the perspective of process-
product research. It is important, however, to better understand the teachers as
active practitioners whose beliefs and practical knowledge play a critical role in
classroom practices (Rubie-Davies, 2010 & Jarvis & Henderson, 2015 & Johnsen
et at, 2002).
Professional area specific expertise content knowledge is the ‘content applicable
knowledge of teachers implemented as an outcome of their experiences as
teachers and their reflective practices on these experiences (Baudson, Preckel,
2013). Therefore, the role of both teacher education and professional
development should be to support teachers’ learning, not only about theory, but
also about theory-into-practice, or teachers’ internalization of theory and
developing practical knowledge. Most programs in teacher education have
adopted the practicum as an early experience in the coursework required of
future educators; as well, professional development in gifted education
recommends a practicum experience to prepare educators to work in the field.
Facilitating an effective practicum experience in gifted education, however, is an
exercise in complexity. Teachers earning an endorsement in gifted education are
typically certified as general education teachers. This means that they have
internalized individual beliefs and practical knowledge not only about their
specializations in general education, but also about gifted students and their
needs. Their beliefs and practical knowledge have developed most often
through exposure to gifted students in their classrooms and through casual
conversations with other educators, but without systematic exploration of the
research in the field of gifted education. The practicum experience must facilitate
widely varying experiences, respectfully exploring the pre-existing beliefs and
practical knowledge held by professionals with established attitudes,
dispositions, and previous informal and formal educational experiences. The
experience must also honour the different professional needs that educators
bring to practicum, depending on their prescribed roles in gifted education,
school contexts, and the developmental levels in their careers. In essence, the
direction and the degree of development of practical knowledge during the
practicum experience must be different for each professional seeking to better
understand and implement interventions that will address the needs of gifted
students (Davis, Rimm & Siegle, 2011 & Jung, Barnett, Gross, McCormick ,2011)

17
Professional knowledge
Professional content knowledge has been investigated and evaluated as both
comprehension and interpretation of contextualized and complex teaching
(Berman, Schultz, & Weber, 2012 & Bianco, Harris, Garrison-Wade, Leech, 2011
& Loughran, 2002). The conceptualization of application of content knowledge is
addressed in research to focus on a specific kind of knowledge. It describes
teachers’ application of content knowledge of specific situations and the
functional quandaries they face in carrying out purposeful action in those
settings. Professional content functional knowledge guides a teacher’s actions in
application (Jones, Miron, Kelaher-Young, 2012). This knowledge is gradually
built from personal and practical experience; is not readily articulated by the
teacher; and is used in complex ways during the processes of planning for and
executing teaching activities in addition to understanding the decisions that
were made earlier. It consists of factual or declarative knowledge, as well as
strategic or procedural knowledge and beliefs, including norms and values.
Specific school context plays an important role in developing functional and
realistic knowledge. (Castro, 2010 & Lynn, 2002)
Teachers’ professional knowledge is not ‘formal knowledge for teachers’ that is
primarily produced and disseminated by researchers but rather, ‘teachers’
knowledge’ that is generated by teachers themselves as an outcome of their
occurrences while teaching as their introspection on these experiences (Davis,
Rimm, Siegle, 2011). The understanding of professional knowledge includes
three important implications. The first is that a teacher’s role as an active
practitioner is of primary importance for generating personal practical
knowledge. The second implication is that teachers’ reflections about the nature
of their professional experiences determine the development of their practical
knowledge. The third is that every teacher has a different level of professional
knowledge and has different beliefs because of their individual reflections on
varying experiences in their lives, both personal and professional. Even
experienced teachers can articulate professional skills that they want to
strengthen, depending on their roles, their school contexts, and the
developmental levels in their careers.
Research on the development of professional knowledge has explored both pre-
service teachers and beginning in-service teachers (Jones, Miron & Kelaher-
Young, 2012 & Kagan, 1992). Most pre-service teachers’ initial content
knowledge about practice is theoretical and not intuitive because it is learned
outside the context of personal experience and has not yet been experimented
with through praxis. Such content understanding is intellectual and will not
impact practical application until it is experimented with and modified through
reflective practical applications Rubie-Davies, (2010). A traditional practicum
and/or the practice teaching experience can give pre-service teachers authentic
practice to test their conceptual knowledge and develop their own professional
knowledge through teacher education.
Professional development in gifted education is different. The education of in-
service teachers of the gifted most often relies on professional development

18
experiences; those who have experience in the classroom will have different
needs from pre-service teachers, who have conceptual knowledge but not
experiential practical knowledge. Most of those participating in professional
development experiences in gifted education are classroom teachers, although a
lesser number of in-service educators with some experience teaching the gifted
are also involved in professional development experiences in gifted education.
Regardless of background, in-service teachers already have already internalized
individual beliefs and some practical knowledge about gifted education; even
those teachers in the general education classroom likely have experience
working with gifted students.
Another challenge in the development of professional knowledge among
teachers of the gifted is their situational context as staff members within their
school districts. Teachers of the gifted frequently are disconnected from
classroom teachers, without a circumscribed role in either a specific grade level
or a particular field of study. Siegle, et al, (2014) reported that many teachers of
the gifted who participated in professional development experiences felt
isolated. There are some teachers that have less understanding about gifted
education and it made it challenging for them to collaborate with colleagues and
administrators about giftedness. This absence of peers with whom they can
reflect on their unique experiences with gifted students likely plays a negative
role in developing professional knowledge among teachers of the gifted.
Finally, the beliefs and professional knowledge among teachers of the gifted will
vary widely, depending on their level of experience in the general education
classroom, or their absence of any teaching experience before an assignment in
gifted education. Their conceptualization of teaching will differ based both on
their disciplinary preparation and the grade levels for which they are licensed.
Importantly, educators assigned to work with gifted students often must adapt
to variable professional assignments, from coordinator for gifted programs to
teacher of the gifted in programmatic settings that can change from year to year;
these flexible professional assignments require an equally flexible approach to
internalizing practical knowledge. The development of professional knowledge
among teachers of the gifted will require divergent paths. In order to better
understand teachers of the gifted, it is critical to gain greater understanding of
the efforts made by individual teachers as they pursue their development of
practical knowledge in their unique situations.
This case study elaborates on the practicum experiences of two teachers assigned
to positions in gifted education in their respective districts. Both teachers were
new to their assignments to gifted education, and although both participated in
similar professional development experiences, each demonstrated a unique path
in the development of professional knowledge. Through an examination of the
teachers’ experiences, this study explores the factors affecting the development
of professional knowledge in gifted education.
Methodology and Participants
The research study design chosen for this study can be categorized as
‘descriptive study’ (Yin, 2014 & Miriam, 1998). This qualitative approach, as

19
described by Mirriam (1998), states that it is “useful, though, in presenting basic
information about areas of education where little research has been conducted”
(p. 38).
Merriam reiterates: “case study is appropriate when the objective of a program
is to develop a better understanding of the dynamics of a program. When it is
important to be responsive, to convey a holistic and dynamically rich account of
an educational program, case study is a tailor made approach” (p. 39). The
research design below demonstrates how the research was conducted.
Table 1: Research Design
Phase I
Input to
Teachers
of Gifted
Learners
A.Readings :
Gifted child
educator/parent of a
gifted child/gifted child
advocate
10 hours of Reading
B. Readings:
Selected readings on
Practicum Goals/s based
on individual learning
need.
5 hours of Goal based
selected readings
A. 1.Reading
Reflections: For each
reading.
A. 2.Development of
Practicum Goal/s
B. 1. Reading
Reflections: On Selected
readings provided for
practicum goal/s based
on individual learning
need.
Output
of
Teachers
of Gifted
LearnersC. Observing:
In a class where gifted
students’ are being taught
in a content area the
teacher is not licensed to
teach.
15 hours of observing
C.1. Maintaining a
journal log documenting
15 hours of observing in
a gifted students’ class.
C.2. A final project is
developed which
addresses the practicum
goal/s
15 hours of project
development
Phase II
This research study is a case study of two teachers new to gifted education. Both
participated in a 16-week practicum experience; the practicum was the capstone
of a 12-semester-hour endorsement program in gifted education, completed after
both teachers had been assigned to work with gifted students. The research
focuses on the ways in which the teachers’ needs combine with their practicum

20
experiences and result in individual and unique practical knowledge developed
by each teacher to help each achieve greater success in their personal settings. By
exploring each case, the research will suggest the factors that most affect the
direction of the development of personal practical knowledge.
The research participants were teachers who teach gifted learners in a
Midwestern state in USA. The research begins with the participants receiving
the practicum readings and reading reflection forms by mail with an
introductory letter. The introductory letter describes the requirements for this
project. A meeting is conducted by the Principal Investigator soon after the
introductory letter and the readings have been received by the participants. All
the readings and reading reflection are also posted in an online site for
participants to obtain the information they need. The Principal Investigator calls
or emails the participants to address any questions/s. The need to develop
practicum goal/s based on a need the participants sees in an area of choice as a
gifted educator, parent of a gifted child or a gifted child advocate is
communicated with the participants. As soon as the Principal Investigator is
informed of goal/s "other" readings for the project which support the practicum
goal are located. The required readings make up 10 hours of reading and they
need 5 hours of more reading to make the 15 hour need. As well, the
participants need to demonstrate a log for 15 hours of observing in an area they
are not licensed to teach. Also, they have 15 hours of working towards a final
project which supports their practicum goal.
The salient characteristic of this graduate-level practicum study is the
personalized nature of each teacher’s experience. Teachers determine their own
goals, based on their perceptions of personal, student, school, and/or district
needs. Their goals and subsequent products address these perceived
professional needs; as well, they impact on the development of their practical
knowledge. Practicum participants react to assigned readings, as well as to
individualized readings selected to help them achieve personal goals; the
readings and reading reactions, including summaries and evaluations of major
themes and applications of content to students and schools, also contribute to
the development of practical knowledge. Finally, focused observations of
classes of gifted students or hands-on work with gifted students are required.
The observations enhance the participants’ understanding of gifted students, of
curriculum that other professionals believe to be appropriate, and of teaching
practices that peers utilize. During practicum, teachers synthesize new
understandings in gifted education from the readings, reflections, goals, and
observations, reframing their own practices with gifted learners.
Teachers are required to observe gifted students or work directly with gifted
students at the level for which they are not licensed (certified) to teach. In other
words, elementary teachers need to observe or work in secondary settings and
secondary teachers need to focus on the elementary school. This requirement
was established by a Midwestern State, since the endorsement in gifted
education is a K-12 endorsement, allowing teachers who are likely certified at
one level or the other to work with gifted children of any age. The requirement
is productive, as well, because it serves to broaden the educational experience

21
and deepen the overall understanding of gifted education. Practicum
participants could explore their district’s K-12 gifted programming
opportunities, or at least become more familiar with the curriculum options at
levels before or after the levels with which they’re most familiar. They could
gain greater awareness of the different learning needs of gifted students of
varying ages, and they could develop expertise in requisite teaching strategies.
Nicole is a full-time teacher of the gifted in an “Extended Learning Program”
(ELP) in two elementary buildings. She is in her third year of teaching at the
elementary level, with assignments to work with gifted and talented students
and no prior experience teaching general education students.
Camie has been a full-time classroom teacher for 17 years. When she began her
practicum experience, she was teaching speech, debate, contemporary literature,
drama, and sophomore literature. She had the opportunity to teach the Talented
and Gifted (TAG) 10th-grade English class, serve as the TAG sponsor for various
activities, and coordinate two classes allowing TAG students to complete
independent projects. Through that experience, she became interested in earning
her endorsement in gifted education. She had an opportunity to teach ‘Letters
about Literature’ TAG elementary students in two different elementary schools
as a practicum experience.
Work with or observations of gifted students are essential to facilitate
participants’ self-evaluation in terms of both knowledge and beliefs about gifted
education and gifted students. Time focused on conscious observation provides
the lens to reframe existing beliefs. Teachers who have substantial teaching
experience in the general education classroom, for example, have internalized an
extensive inventory of effective practical knowledge. Because they might be
complacent about the feasibility of translating successful general education
practice to the gifted classroom, they need to envision effective practice in a
novel setting and reframe their understanding and practice.
Maintaining a journal related to the practicum experience also is required. Every
week, practicum participants are provided different prompts; they respond
utilizing an online platform that allows asynchronous response and discussion.
The prompts encompass four categories, including reflection on and evaluation
of personal practice during the practicum semester; individual learning from the
practicum experience; emerging understanding of best practices to support
gifted learners; and perceptions of barriers to improving practice. The sharing of
experiences, challenges, and unfolding understandings in gifted education
facilitates teachers’ reflections and reframing of practical knowledge, as well as
providing both a learning community and a sense of collegiality.
Independent projects culminate the practicum experience as participants
synthesize information from readings, reflections, online discussions, and
observations of / hands-on work with gifted learners, and fulfil their goals for
the course. These independent projects encapsulate the goals that teachers
envisioned for their gifted students, for parents, for their colleagues, or school

22
districts. They range from new plans for units of study to well-articulated gifted
programs for districts; from letters to parents detailing a program’s
identification policy to PowerPoint presentations for staff in-services; from
bibliographies for a new bibliotherapy curriculum to the framework to help
gifted learners imagine and enact service learning in their communities; from
articles articulating the concerns about gifted boys and their choices to withdraw
from gifted programs to plans for panels of successful women to interact with
adolescent gifted girls about dreams for the future.
The most research on gifted students teachers’ functional content knowledge is
existent in narrative and descriptive examination illuminating teacher’s stories,
including the ways teachers’ discover usefulness of experiences and events they
come across in their own teaching practice experiences (Siegle, Moore, Mann,
Wilson, 2010). Teachers’ written reflections about their teaching are one of the
instruments facilitating greater understanding of teachers’ evolving thinking
and practice in the classroom; as well, the act of writing reflections serves as a
catalyst to activate teachers’ prior understandings and help them internalize
new ways of thinking (Wentzel, Battle, Russell, Looney, 2010). Staiger, Rockoff,
(2010) emphasized that experience alone does not lead to learning, but rather
reflection on experience is essential. Reflection about teaching experience is
effective when it leads the teacher to make meaning from practice in ways that
enhance understanding, enabling the teacher to assess settings and events from a
variety of viewpoints. Effective reflective practice enables the teacher to frame
and reframe professional activity and to comprehend his or her own ‘wisdom-
in-action’. In essence, effective reflective practice encourages the explicit
articulation of professional knowledge (Szymanski, Thomas, 2013).
Just as teachers need opportunities to reflect on their experiences in order to
develop a repertoire of practical knowledge, an analysis of the teachers’
experiences can help researchers better understand the ways in which teachers
internalize implicit theory and subsequently articulate practice. This research
explored the ways in-service teachers reflected on their experiences during a
practicum experience required for endorsement in gifted education. During the
practicum, the teachers considered their practice from various points of view in
gifted education.
In summary, teachers are required to examine, evaluate, and reframe their
beliefs, knowledge, and practice continuously through the practicum experience.
Participants unpack implicit understandings and explore them through
journaling. They determine their personal interests for further research in the
field of gifted education, and they react to and apply new knowledge. They
dedicate time to conduct focused observations of or work with gifted students,
and they have an opportunity to explore the familiar in unfamiliar ways.
Finally, they establish goals for themselves, and they create professional
independent projects to share with practicum colleagues, as well as with
authentic audiences. Time for and encouragement of reflection is the major
theme throughout practicum that serves as the catalyst for the development of

23
practical knowledge and the reconstruction of personal understanding to
develop new ways of thinking about gifted education.
Data collection and analysis
In this study, all components of the practicum experience were used to
investigate teachers’ evolving professional knowledge. Analysing teachers’
reflections in response to journal prompts was the primary strategy utilized to
trace the development of teacher’s professional knowledge. Journaling was
especially critical in terms of understanding teachers’ perceptions of professional
growth through the practicum experience and their evolving thinking about
gifted education. Reactions to readings were used to determine beliefs and
knowledge about gifted education. Reflections from the observations of classes
of gifted students, work with gifted students, and the strategies used to facilitate
student interaction and learning, were useful in reflecting new understandings,
as well as changes in beliefs and knowledge about gifted education.
Independent practicum projects were essential for understanding how
practicum experiences resulted in participants’ development of practical
knowledge. Personal interviews and e-mail were used to answer additional
questions.
Through analysis of data, we inferred four themes:
The themes were developed based on the teachers’ responses in reading
reflections, observations, and development of project.
1. Teachers’ beliefs about gifted education including, for example,
justifications about the need for gifted education, beliefs about appropriate
teaching strategies, and perspectives about gifted programs within their
districts;
2. Issues in the field that interested or concerned them (including
perceived needs for improving their own pedagogical practice, concerns about
their roles within their schools, and their passion for supporting gifted students);
3. Perceptions about their own learning through the practicum experience
(for example, greater understanding about gifted students’ learning styles,
insights into effective gifted education curriculum and programs, and awareness
of the development of practices in their classrooms); and
4. Barriers in working in the most effective ways with gifted students (often
centered around frustrations with their roles and the pervasive lack of time, lack
of support from parents and school personnel, and concerns about their own
content knowledge and teaching strategies).
This study investigated the ways in which these four themes evolved during the
practicum experience by focusing on two practicum participants. Both of the
educators are new to the field of gifted education, and both expressed great
enthusiasm about their new roles in education. As well, both were dedicated to
their professional development through practicum, but they illustrated very
different paths in the development of practical knowledge. Their responses to
practicum components have permitted an exploration of the relationships
among their unique interests or concerns in gifted education, their unfolding

24
practicum experience itself, their perceptions about their learning, and
importantly, how they developed practical knowledge in distinct ways
Results
Nicole is a full-time teacher of the gifted in an “Extended Learning Program”
(ELP) in two elementary buildings.
She describes her role as:
1. Teaching fourth- and fifth-grade cluster groups for reading/math
extensions once per week;
2. Initiating first-through-third-grade whole-class activities to begin to
identify high-ability students with advanced academic needs;
3. Providing curriculum resources and ideas to classroom teachers; and
4. Serving as a mentor to address the individual social/emotional needs of
students identified for ELP.
Nicole’s characteristics of development of practical knowledge
Nicole illustrated the “survival stage” in terms of practical knowledge, and she
demonstrated the prototype of beginning teachers. She expressed sincere
concern about her teaching practice, especially differentiation strategies. She had
to spend a great deal of time planning lessons. Nicole commented that her
“biggest difficulties involve time and planning. In order to know what effective
lessons involve you also need previous knowledge and
understanding/application of differentiation strategies… Trying to plan with
several [essential] criteria [in mind] becomes very difficult.’ Nicole continued:
“For the most part, it was sink or swim in this job. There can only be so much
guidance provided and then you need to jump in and start learning on your
own… it was tough for me.”
Nicole needed to articulate new an appropriate lesson plans in order to meet the
needs of her gifted students. She believed it was essential for her to understand
the scope and sequence of the general education curriculum for first through
fifth grades in order to prepare relevant enrichment and extensions. In addition,
she tried to incorporate into her lessons the criteria for differentiation strategies
described in the professional literature. All of this was challenging for Nicole.
With no prior experience in the general education classroom, she felt a lack of
confidence both in knowledge and practice.
Nicole wanted to apply differentiation strategies to her class, but her
understanding about differentiation was at the theoretical level; she had not
internalized practical knowledge about differentiation. She implicitly
understood the difference, reflecting, “I went to work with third-grade whole
class; we were working on logic puzzles/deductive thinking… I felt more
confident with this particular lesson, because I had some background
experiences with logic and resources to pull from. I think this helps when
planning and developing lessons.” (Nicole had no opportunities to observe
classroom differentiation, and she had to develop and implement differentiation
strategies in her class by herself. Her concerns about her teaching practice did

25
not diminish completely during the practicum experience, and her interests or
concerns in gifted education emphasized her specific role. An insightful
educator, Nicole understood that “As I continue to reflect, I realize this job is
challenging for me because there is no set structure. I thrive off clear set goals
and structure. It’s not gifted education. It’s not about the right answer— it’s
about pushing through the frustration and doing your best.” In essence, Nicole
was slowly but successfully developing practical knowledge through trial and
error and reflection. Her greatest difficulty with differentiation strategies was
determining how to adjust lessons to meet everyone’s needs. Noting, “I am still
very uneasy about identifying/integrating the strategies... I feel like it’s all
product differentiation, no content or process.” At times, she felt that her lessons
were too fragmented, and she recognized the difficulty she had in incorporating
differentiation strategies into content. Enacting differentiation was at a level of
superficial rather than practical knowledge to her. Nicole expressed satisfaction,
though, with an experience that exemplified her evolving understanding. She
recognized that her practice was no longer superficial, but knowledge
successfully utilized in the classroom.
In a small cluster group, I presented a challenge math problem. Each of the
children started solving it in their own way—one child used a table, another
used a diagram, and another used basic equation/computation. After reflecting
on this lesson, I realized this was a way of differentiating based on process….
Part of my job is to realize how they were approaching [the problem] and guide
them using their strategy. It was amazing to see how these students were
putting the pieces together. I was pretty excited. Maybe I am offering more
differentiation than I originally thought.
As Nicole reflected on her efforts to meet the needs of her gifted learners, she
became increasingly able to recognize what differentiation looks like in the
classroom, and she was able to articulate what had been only conceptual
understanding about differentiation, making it practical. She internalized
differentiation as a component of her repertoire of practical knowledge. Through
trial-and-error and reflection, she was gaining confidence in her knowledge and
in her practice. The increasing confidence served as a catalyst to develop new
practical knowledge: “My depth of thinking about delivery has increased.
Throughout the past two years, I have picked up on different pieces, so I feel
confident in my overall knowledge of talented and gifted—but now I am ready
to take it to the next level-to keep questioning/modifying ideas to fit the needs
of my students.”
Because Nicole was certified as an elementary school teacher, she was required
to complete at least one credit hour of practicum at the secondary level.
Although the requirement is a logical one, since the Talented and Gifted
Endorsement permits the recipient to work with children from kindergarten
through the senior year, in this case, Nicole was required to focus much of her
time and attention on issues at the secondary level, even while she was
preoccupied with classroom differentiation for her elementary students.
Reading recommended articles about differentiation allowed Andrea to reflect

26
on her personal practice, as well as better understand strategies about higher-
level questioning, problem solving, and problem-based learning. The learning
was theoretical, however, and noting “I would like to learn more about effective
units/samples being used at the elementary level… I would like to see
differentiation strategies being applied in the classroom along with those
mentioned in the required readings”. Nicole perceived that reading alone
limited her development of practical knowledge.
Through her experiences at the secondary level, Nicole learned a great deal
about programming provided for gifted students in her district’s high school, as
well as the characteristics of secondary gifted students. She participated in high
school counsellors’ meetings, and she learned about the high school online
Advanced Placement (AP) and honours classes available in her district; she
checked the progress of AP students as they independently worked online,
providing support for their efforts. She served as a mentor for AP students,
counselling them about time management issues, and she commented that “it’s
amazing how different kids can be one-on-one as opposed to with their peers.
Some students discussed concerns or problems they would like to work on”.
Finally, Nicole supervised a secondary class dedicated to inviting guest speakers
to make presentations to the students. Her secondary practicum experience did
not directly address her most pressing concerns and interests in gifted
education, nor did it develop her teaching practice. Her experience, however,
did make it possible for her to work directly with the high school gifted
coordinator and assist with secondary gifted programming.
Nicole’s practicum goal focused on looking for ways to create mentorships
between gifted high school students and gifted elementary students, allowing
the secondary students to share their areas of academic passion with the
younger students. Nicole encouraged shared learning opportunities across the
grades for high-ability learners with similar interests. In other words, although
Nicole emphasized her need to enhance her own practice in terms of
successfully implementing differentiation with elementary learners, in this case,
her practicum experiences and goals had limited impact on her most pressing
concerns/ interests in gifted education. The professional practical knowledge
she internalized had more to do with understanding and coordinating
administrative program components than with academic process.
Factors affecting the development of practical knowledge:
Nicole keenly perceived that she had too many roles to play in gifted education
and limited time to plan lessons and work with directly with gifted students;
both problems were barriers to the development of practical knowledge. Her
assigned responsibilities included providing resource ideas to classroom
teachers; modelling differentiation strategies in general education classrooms for
grades one through three; creating small cluster groups of fourth- and fifth-
grade gifted students; and working with the cluster groups in two different
buildings in order to extend their curriculum. For her practicum experience, she
endeavoured to help a secondary mentor meet the social/emotional needs of
high school students identified as gifted and to assist in acceleration requests. As

27
a result, she had limited time to prepare for her instructional role with gifted
students, especially since she was still mastering content knowledge as well as
differentiated teaching strategies.
Nicole was assigned to work with her gifted students for only one hour each
week. She knew that understanding academic and social- emotional needs were
critical in terms of providing the best opportunities for gifted students;
understanding individual needs as well as evaluating students’ learning,
however, requires time. Nicole questioned, “Is meeting with these students for
about one hour per week truly affecting them and enhancing their education?
Where and when does the true learning occur? What is a realistic expectation for
this job?”
Through her practicum experience, Nicole assisted with high school
programming and worked with a secondary gifted coordinator. She participated
in a counsellors’ meeting and developed greater understanding about her
districts’ AP/honours classes, serving as a mentor for students enrolled in online
AP classes. She met with secondary students and interviewed them,
substantially augmenting her understanding of what gifted education
encompassed at the secondary level. As well, she learned that harnessing the
academic passions of students was a powerful educational tool, regardless of the
age of the student. Nicole’s practicum goal to facilitate a high school mentoring
program, encouraging secondary students to volunteer to share their academic
passions/interests with elementary students, was successful. With the help of
the secondary gifted-program coordinator, she discovered a high school student
who was interested in teaching an after school Web-design class for her
elementary students. That success confirmed her belief that making connections
between older and younger students, enabling them to share their love of
learning, would be a positive and productive experience for all of the students.
Her practicum experiences, however, also limited her development of practical
knowledge at the elementary level in important ways. Her first practicum
experience was a passive one, as an observer at the secondary counsellors’
meeting, taking notes on high school gifted programming. Although she
broadened her understanding about the characteristics and needs of gifted high
school students, and she had opportunities to learn more about beginning to
meet those needs through several counselling sessions with individual students,
her primary concerns about her teaching practice at the elementary level were
not diminished. She had no opportunity to observe gifted classes at the high
school level, since students were working independently, online, or at the
elementary level because she provided all programming in her small district.
Her development of professional practical knowledge, traditionally understood
to emphasize classroom practice, was limited, with few opportunities to
strengthen the practices in which she was most interested.
Nicole felt isolated in her role and in her school. It had taken two years for her
to feel comfortable with the general education teachers in her district. When she
visited colleagues’ classrooms to demonstrate whole-group differentiation, she

28
believed that the general education teachers would be enthusiastic to learn about
ideas or resources available to meet the needs of students requiring more
challenge. For the most part, however, the classroom teachers remained aloof
from Nicole’s lessons, using the time to complete their own work. Actually she
wanted more team approach and to talk about strategies with regular teachers.
While Nicole hoped to plan lessons with the teachers’ whose classrooms she
would be visiting, it was difficult to find either the time or colleagues invested in
the process. Nicole planned the lessons, alone, especially after her mentor in the
field of gifted education moved away after Nicole’s first year in the district.
Even her mentor had not been able to bring the concept of differentiation to life
for her; Nicole wanted to go beyond theory to observe what differentiation
looked like in the elementary classroom. She believed that observations of best
practices would appreciably enhance her practical knowledge of differentiation.
Without these options, though, and with an expectation that she would provide
general education teachers with ideas for classroom differentiation, Nicole had
to rely on trial and error, as well as reflection on her own practice, to develop her
understanding.
During practicum, Nicole did find that “talking to others about my learning and
experience is the best strategy for me”. In summary, Nicole was developing her
practical knowledge about differentiation largely by herself, without guidance
or support from other general education teachers or a mentor in the field of
gifted education. The sense of isolation made her feel that authentic professional
development was difficult.
d) Making efforts and passion to development of her own practical knowledge:
Continue new trial and reflection
In spite of the barriers to the development of practical knowledge, Nicole was
dedicated to improving her professional practice, and she made conscious
efforts to implement innovative strategies with new content that her students
needed. Nicole wrote “As far as my teaching practice, I have been really
evaluating my materials. Are they beneficial? Is the level of thinking
appropriate? Am I doing right? Is this the most effective way? Am I
accomplishing what I should be”? Every time she prepared new lesson plans,
she considered ways to facilitate student choice to enrich the general education
content, encouraging learners to expand both in depth and breadth. She
reflected that:
I believe one of the most powerful practices in gifted is student choice. This
semester I have found myself reflecting on the following questions – Does this
connect to their personal experiences and interests? Are they excited about the
topic? How can I make connections?...I am re-evaluating how to make the
groups more flexible and directed toward different needs that arise-not just
academically but affectively as well.
She recognized that reflection was critical, noting “Part of my job is continually
reflecting on my teaching and trying to find ways of improving. I think I’ve

29
learned the important lesson of reflecting constantly on my work/efforts/ideas.
This is one way of ensuring that I am growing as a learner”. Clearly, this
demonstrated that Nicole was growing as a professional.
Camie
She had the opportunity to teach the Talented and Gifted (TAG) 10th-grade
English class, serve as the TAG sponsor for various activities, and coordinate
two classes allowing TAG students to complete independent projects. Through
that experience, she became interested in earning her endorsement in gifted
education. She had an opportunity to teach ‘Letters about Literature’ TAG
elementary students in two different elementary schools as a practicum
experience.
Camie’s characteristics of development of practical knowledge
a) Earlier career in gifted education, but enthusiasm and growth stage over survival
She was a beginning teacher in gifted education, but she was in a growth stage
over survival. According to Lynn’ opinion about career cycle of teachers (2002),
Teachers who are in growth stage have reached a high level of competence in
their jobs but continue to progress as professionals. They love their jobs, look
forward to going to school and to interacting with their students, and are
constantly seeking new ways to enrich their teaching. July became teaching
Letters about Literature for the first time, but she did not feel much difficulty in
lesson plan and teaching TAG elementary students. And she enjoyed this
challenge.
“I loved this lesson plan [corresponding comment or a compliment]. It went so
well. I used examples from the website and also I created some examples.
Students had to decide if each example was either a corresponding comment or
a compliment. It became a debate at first then it finally starting to sink in. The
students are catching on to the purpose of this program…”
She believed she was doing differentiation in her high school class and her
confidence in teaching strategies can be showed from following comment.
“I noticed that in my high school courses – I was using differentiation more.
Students all read the same book, but were given different opportunities to
present literary devices from it. I had re-enactments, oral presentations, visual
art, original video productions, acting, and movie posters, it just allowed the
kids to shine in their talented area. Plus – it reinforced the concepts much more
to each student. It makes the learning for the students better.”
In summary, she was teaching new subject (Letters about Literature) different
students (elementary students). But she could find resource and modify them for
her lesson and apply her differentiation strategy to new subject easily.
b) View of gifted education was widening over her own teaching practice. Deepen and
widen understanding gifted education in reality.

30
Even if she has confidence in her teaching practices, she had some difficulties in
understanding TAG students’ learning style in elementary school. Through
teaching elementary students, she realized that learning style and knowledge
background between elementary students and high school students were
different and she needed to organize her lesson more and pre-assessment.
“The kids at the elementary school want to learn. They want to be heard. They
want to try new things. … I’ve learned that elementary students need more time
to have experiences. I need to remind myself that the prior knowledge may not
be there.”
Another problem to her was the relationship among parents. She realized some
elementary students’ parents intervened in their children’s work and gave TAG
teachers pressure to working with students. Before then she just teaching and
coaching high school students. This opportunity gave her a chance to consider
about the identity and role of teacher of the gifted. She started to think about
many issues in gifted education, the relationship of Teacher and TAG parent, the
problem of Underachiever and unmotivated TAG students in high school
students. System problem, for example, supporting TAG teacher, Justification of
gifted education, and time allowed for TAG teacher to teach gifted students.
“I think some parents have the wrong impression about TAG teachers. I think
some think we sit around all day and just wait for work to come our way.
Parents seem to be more involved…. Shortage of money, ELP teachers are
always asking for donations such as pencils, books, etc. ELP teacher seem to
spend quite a bit of money out of their won packets at conferences to use things
in their classroom… It amazes me how some have a pull-out program where
they only meet with the child once a week… Justification of their job”
As a result, this experience gave her an opportunity to reflect on her practice and
students in high school, to broaden understanding about gifted education and
catalyst to develop her practice.
‘I am more aware of learning style in my classroom. I am more aware of articles
in educational journals on the topic. It has made me want to be a better teacher. I
don’t want any student to not be challenged on a daily basis in my classroom.’
c) Practicum experiences resulted in extending to leading TAG teacher and providing
resources in elementary school.
July’s practicum experience teaching elementary TAG students did not resulted
in just broadening understanding gifted education and developing her practical
knowledge of new subject. It was a catalyst to reframe her practice in high
school and a motive to develop practical knowledge from different views.
“I really had fun with letters of literature. It was new to me and I just wanted to
find out everything associated with it. I think, as teachers, sometimes we can get

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Vol 15 No 10 - September 2016