Visual Impairment Nursing

Visual Impairment Nursing
Introduction Visual impairment is a common and debilitating symptom of multiple sclerosis (MS).
Acute optic neuritis (AON) occurs in over 50% of patients and subclinical optic nerve injury is
frequent even in the absence of optic neuritis (Arnold, 2005). Double vision and oscillopsia from
efferent disorders may also significantly impact vision–related quality of life. Despite the prevalence
of visual deficits, it has only been over the last decade that MS clinical trials have begun to regularly
include visual outcomes [57]. This trend has been supported by the implementation of highly
sensitive tools with the ability to detect structural and functional visual deficits in patients with MS.
Among structural instruments, optical coherence tomography ... Show more content on
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VEP amplitude is a measure of the number of actionable fibers relaying information to the visual
cortex. Reductions in amplitude can be transient or the result of axonal loss following AON [ , ]. In
addition to measures of amplitude, VEP measures latency, which is a reflection of visual pathway
myelin, a measure that uniquely highlights demyelination and remyelination [54, ]. Multi–focal VEP
measures multiple, focal VEPs to create a topographic record of optic nerve amplitude and latency
[54, ]. Kantorova and colleagues have found there to be a positive association between VEP latency
and EDSS score for both AON and non–AON MS patients, suggesting VEP tests to be more
sensitive measures of detecting disease evolution than MRI [ ]. In the context of MS, mfERG,
another instrument used to expand knowledge of the summed responses of the visual field, provides
highly stereotyped information about the optic nerve head component, which is thought to reflect
axonal properties of the GCL [44, ]. Continued study and validation of these tests as they relate to
function are necessary and will allow us to further refine our understanding of the visual
impairments affecting MS
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Alzheimer's Memory
What is Alzheimer's? Alzheimer's is one of the most devastating forms of memory loss. It slowly
destroys memory loss and thinking skills. It affects as many as five million Americans. There is no
cure as yet for this disease. Scientific research is gaining momentum to discovering ways to treat
and possibly preventing Alzheimer's. The Alzheimer's research community welcomed the
opportunity to collaborate with HBO seeking to raise new awareness and understanding of this
devastating disease. In the two films "Advances in Brain Imaging" and "Identifying Mild Cognitive
Impairment" it gives some information on how Alzheimer's attacks the brain and what they plan on
doing to prevent this disease. What was learned from the film "Advance ... Show more content on
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This film highlights the importance of distinguishing among the various dementias that can occur
with aging. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is an intermediate stage between the expected
cognitive decline of normal aging and the more serious decline of dementia. It can involve problems
with memory, language, thinking and judgment that are greater than normal age–related changes. If
you have mild cognitive impairment, you may be aware that your memory or mental function has
"slipped." Your family and close friends also may notice a change. But generally these changes
aren't severe enough to interfere with your day–to–day life and usual activities. some people with
mild cognitive impairment never get worse, and a few eventually get better. According to a mayo
clinic studies show that approximately 15% of individuals aged 70–90 have mild cognitive
impairment. They really try to remember something but they really can't. You lose your train of
thought when in a conversation it happens over the time of aging. Most of these patients have
sleeping problems, memory loss. This mild cognitive impairment goes into Alzheimer's. They came
to the conclusion that they can treat these people with medication which would help a little but the
medication doesn't kill the disease it doesn't stop the production. But scientist is testing new ways of
treating Alzheimer's which they

Major Structures Of The Human Brain Essay
The Five Major Structures of the Human Brain
University of Phoenix
PSY 240
October 27, 2012
Olivia Fransis
The human brain is nothing short of incredible. In a way it's the world's most powerful computer
because it can process tasks at lightning speeds and simultaneously be in control of our reflexes and
every other voluntary and involuntary functions. It is the most important and complex organ as well
as our core for learning
At the point of birth, the brain weighs an average of 350 to 400 grams and can weigh from about
1,300 to 1,400 grams as an adult. The brain is composed up of roughly 77 to 78% of water, 10 to
12% lipids, 8% proteins, 1% carbs, 2% soluble organics, and 1% inorganic salt. The brain can
actually grow as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The telencephalon is at the front of the brain and is made up of the basil ganglia, the cerebral cortex,
the olfactory bulb, and the corpus striatum. The functions of the telencephalon include: determining
intelligence, personality, sense of smell, sense of touch, sensory impulse interpretations,
organization and planning.
The diencephalon is located in between the cerebral hemispheres and is greater than the midbrain. It
is composed of the thalamus and hypothalamus structures. The thalamus acts as a relay point for
nerve impulses that are inbound from around the body that are then dispatched to the appropriate
area of the brain for processing. The hypothalamus controls hormone secretions produced from the
pituitary gland. These hormones control growth and instinctual behaviors such as eating, drinking,
sex, anger, and reproduction. The hypothalamus also controls when a new mother begins to lactate.
Some of the functions of the diencephalon include: sensing impulses moving throughout the body,
controlling autonomic functions, endocrine functions, motor functions, homeostasis and basic senses
such as hearing, vision, smell, and taste.
The cerebrum is the bigger portion of the brain and it consists of 85% of the overall weight of the
brain. It has a unique outer surface with deep wrinkles, which is the cerebral cortex that consists of
"gray matter". The cerebrum is what makes the human brain as powerful as it is. Unlike

Crebrum Research Paper
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is involved in mental activities, such as thinking,
learning and memory, as well as the perception of senses and the initiation and control of voluntary
muscle contraction. It has 3 basic functional areas:
1. Sensory areas: receive and process nerve impulses from the senses
2. Motor areas: send impulses to muscles, especially for voluntary muscular movement
3. Association areas: interpret information from the senses and are concerned with intellectual and
emotional processes
The cerebrum is made up of left and right hemispheres, cerebral hemispheres, that can be further
subdivided into 4 lobes: the frontal lobe, the temporal lobe, the occipital lobe and the parietal lobe.
The non–limbic portion ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In terms of validity, the testing undertaken measured exact reaction times with different stimuli
present (independent variables), therefore testing exactly what was stated. There were numerous
variables controlled, leaving little room for marginal error, however, minor factors may have been
present, though not significant enough to impact results or make results invalid.
Uncontrolled variables include factors such as: air temperature, humidity, sleep of participant (i.e.
how tired they are), coordination of participant, the extent to which the song and associated video
clip affects the participant, previous exposure to the reaction test program (e.g. a participant may
have participated before), time of last meal (i.e. energy available), exposure to computer technology,
underlying medical conditions (e.g. being colour blind), hearing ability, sight abilities, cognitive
abilities and so

Cortical Visual Impairment
HISTORY: For early diagnosis of disorders presenting marked cortical visual impairment, VEPs
were considered crucial diagnostic test since advent of EEG and multiple variants to this protocol
have come into existence as described below.
a. FLASH VISUAL EVOKED POTENTIAL:
Adrian et al (1934) proved that the regular repeating flash stimulus could induce the electric
response from the visual cortex. E. Herba et al (2006) employed FVEPs to show that the maternal
zinc supplementation may have a beneficial influence on visual cortical responses in newborn rats.
FVEPs have been regarded as the consequence of increased excitability of cortical circuitry to flash
stimulation (FVEP) (Aguglia et al., 1991; deSeze et al., 1998; Finsterer et al., 1999; ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Low–speed blinking light (i.e., blinking frequency of less than 3.5 Hz) generates transient VEPs and
characterized with a negative peak of around 75ms and a positive peak of around 100ms. According
to waveform patterns VEPs, categorization seems appropriate as transient VEPs and SSVEPs. The
function of pattern size quantifies visual acuity through electrophysiological parameters of
amplitude and latency26–31. The amplitude and latency of the VEP have been studied in adults,
children, 32–33 and term infants 34. In the preterm infants, it shows developmental kinetics of the
VEP response and the age of its stabilization34, 35–37.The lack of clinical relevance of the VEP in
infants in whom ROP stages 4b and 5 developed also has been established38–40. While transient
VEPs occur in reaction to visual stimuli which blink at a frequency of less than 3.5 Hz, SSVEPs
occur in reaction to stimuli of higher blinking

Brachial Plexus Injury Research Paper
Throughout the sports world today, injuries a very common. An injury is "as any significant
condition limiting function that caused an athlete to seek medical care by a trainer or physician,
caused a practice or match to be discontinued, and resulted in lost time from athletic participation
for 1 or more days" (Pasque). It is not uncommon to hear of a player pulling a muscle, tearing their
ACL, getting a concussion, etc. Certain sports have a higher probability of getting certain injuries
than others. For example, in football, wrestling and hockey, "injury to the brachial plexus, or
brachial plexopathy, is one of the most common upper extremity injuries" (Kuzman). Football and
wrestling are two high impact sports that have high risk for both ... Show more content on
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There is a reason these are more common in contact sports other than non–contact sports. Some of
"the most common injury mechanisms were tackling, running, being tackled, twisting, turning,
jumping and landing" (Wong). Each of these movements are exactly what football players and
wrestlers have to do. Football players are all the time getting hit from behind or even hit from the
side knocking them unconscious. Most of the time the "lower extremities are often injured during
tackling as players cannot respond quickly enough to avoid such rapid and unpredictable
movements (Wong). Also the age range and gender does not play a factor. It would be more
common in males in a way just because football and wrestling are a more male dominant sport.
Rules for the sports are changing to try and prevent/decrease the amount of injuries in both sports.
Studies have shown since the rules have changed the injuries have gone down but are still

Social, Ethical, And Economic Problems
AD was first identified in 1906, however, research into its causes and treatment only gained
momentum over the past 30 years. Research into AD and the exact physiological changes that
trigger the development of AD still remain unknown. The only exceptions are certain rare, inherited
forms of the disease caused by known genetic mutations. (Dekkers, W., & Marcel, O. R. 2006)
There are some major links to those who are affected by (AD). The link that connects family history
those who have a parent, or sibling with Alzheimer 's are at a greater risk of developing the disease.
(Dekkers, W., & Marcel, O. R. 2006) AD is not a usual part of growing older, however, it is one of
the highest risk factor for the disease. Currently, millions of people are affected by AD worldwide
and the number is expected to rise well over 106 million by the year 2050, this rise will cause
serious clinical, social, ethical, and economic problems. (Dekkers, W., & Marcel, O. R. 2006)
According to scientific evidence most individuals with AD are age 65 or older making it the number
one cause for Alzheimer's. Developing Alzheimer's increases radically about every five years after
age 65. AD slowly wears away at memory and the ability to retain new information little by little,
your brain begins to degenerate. (Dekkers & Marcel 2006) AD eventually effects the ability to carry
out the simplest of tasks. The effects of AD are different in every patient but, the most common
symptom begins slowly and

Radiculopathy Case Studies
DOI: 6/19/2003. Patient is a 57–year–old female clerk who sustained a work–related injury on
6/19/2003 to her back due to a motor vehicular accident.
The patient was subsequently diagnosed with other cervical disc displacement, mid–cervical region;
radiculopathy, cervical region; carpal tunnel syndrome, right upper limb, encounter for issue of
repeat prescription.
MRI in 2013 (no official result) revealed multilevel spondylitic changes C3–C4 to C6–C7; moderate
to severe bilateral foraminal narrowing C5–C6; moderate bilateral foraminal narrowing C4–C5; and
moderate right C6–C7 foraminal narrowing.
EMG study in 2014 (no official result) revealed right moderate to severe carpal tunnel syndrome and
no evidence of radiculopathy or brachial plexopathy. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
She is considered permanent and stationary related to her condition. Primarily reports aching
sensation along the right side of the cervical spine radiating outwards the right shoulder girdle. She
also reports more prominent right occipital region headaches, which radiates to the bilateral
temporal region. Numbness in both hands, right greater than left is also reported. A mild aching
sensation in the lower lumbar spine is also reported, but this is not a predominant symptoms. She
rates the current pain as 4 with ranges between 2 to 8. Her symptoms were managed by Mobic,
Elavil, and Percocet. There is overall improvement in pain scale and functional

What Is MDD?
MDD is prevalent in about 7% of people in the United States with many different reasons for
occurring (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Some causes include personality, environment,
genetics, and other disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). About 60–70% of people
with MDD will improve with standard medication and therapy, but 30% will not respond (Serafini
et. al, 2015). These people who do not respond have treatment–resistant depression (TRD). TRD is
characterized by an inability to respond to classic treatment, normally after trying two or more
different medications. While TRD is commonly connected to MDD, it can occur with any type of
depression that does not respond to treatment. People with TRD tend to report high ... Show more
These effects can be seen one to three months after treatment; however, there are limitations on this
knowledge based on when and if studies measure the long–term effects after the main study
(Kedzior et. al 2015). TMS is commonly used in research to study the brain in many different
aspects of physical disorders like strokes and Alzheimer's to psychiatric disorders. Depending on the
frequency delivered, TMS can both inhibit or activate the function, which will be discussed in
greater detail later (Speer et. al, 2000). In research, it has been used to enhance cognitive function to
determine the different effects. It has also been used to induce pseudo–lesions within the brain to see
the impact of lesions in different areas. High frequency is applied non–stop until it induces a
temporary lesion where the function is temporarily halted. The impact can be visualized and tested
to further the understanding of what each location in the brain does. High–frequency stimulation
over the primary motor area was found to cause movement in the contralateral muscles (Rothwell et.
al, 1991), while low–frequency stimulation decreased the movement (Chen et. al, 1997). Stimulation
of the occipital cortex interrupted vision (Amassian et. al, 1989). In the research and clinical use of
TMS for depression, there is a specific procedure set to allow for the stimulation to be

Migraines Research Paper
Migraines are a form of headache which causes throbbing pain, usually on one side of the head.
Usually accompanied by queasiness, vomiting, and sensitivity to bright lights and sound, migraines
are a very common occurrence for most people. They can be brought on by any number of reasons,
but luckily, you can seek home–remedy treatments to help alleviate the pain. Lavender Oil One of
the most effective home–remedies is lavender oil which can be inhaled or applied topically. Place a
drop or two to every cup of boiling water, take it off the heat and inhale for a few moments. If you
would prefer to apply it topically, then it can be massaged directly without diluting it. Peppermint
Oil Another great home–remedy is peppermint is oil because it helps control blood flow in the body.
Since migraines and headaches in general ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The breathing technique in Yoga heals your headache and leaves you relaxed. Intake of Riboflavin If
you include 400 mg of riboflavin (vitamin B2) daily, you will see a great diminish in the recurrence
of your migraines. Omega–3 fatty acids are anti–inflammatory, and can be found in many food
sources. They help alleviate the pain that is associated with migraines, and they can be extremely
helpful in decreasing the duration as well as the frequency. Magnesium deficiency can also cause
migraines so be sure to include around 200 to 600 mg daily in your diet. It's great in preventing as
well as reducing their frequency. Massage Therapy Another great trick to try is massage. A simple
DIY massage at home can have a great soothing effect too. Just make sure you don't forget to
massage the greater occipital nerve located at the base of your skull. Research has shown that this
area has great effect on migraine–relief. You can also try reflexology, regular exercise, adequate
stretching, and drinking plenty of water which all aid in relieving headache pain and preventing

A Mandatory Aspect When Managing Patients
A mandatory aspect when managing patients is to provide a provisional diagnosis illustrating,
diagnostic uncertainty. Analysis of the mechanism and pattern of injury give an understanding of
obvious, underlying and life threatening traumatic injuries, whilst vital signs and patient
presentation allow for a firm diagnosis. Once diagnosed, an understanding of the pathophysiological
processes, of a particular condition is essential for adequate treatment. The pathophysiological
implications provide a detailed understanding of the immediate and possible long term prognosis.
The patient has suffered a traumatic brain injury. Contact from the provoker's fist has resulted in two
physical mechanisms, rapid acceleration and deceleration resulting ... Show more content on
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Being in an intoxicated, physiological state, with an inability to communicate effectively makes
diagnosis complicated. Underlying injuries could exist as his, neurological functioning and pain
threshold has been altered. Nickleston (2012) explains "Backward falls on the buttocks cause trauma
to the spine, pelvis, hips, and head".
A provisional diagnosis for this patient's initial contact with the concrete, is a concussion and a coup
contusion due to the blunt trauma and inertial forces he has accumulated. The patient's physical
mechanism of injury is impact loading, which can cause compressive, shearing and twisting forces
on the brains tissue. These injuries are most commonly associated with acceleration / deceleration
forces and blunt force trauma. His history illustrates a concussion based on the symptoms, a brief
loss of consciousness, confusion, nausea, headaches and feeling sluggish. According to Bullock and
Hales (2013) "A concussion is a transient alteration in cerebral function without structural defect
that manifest as a loss of consciousness followed by rapid recovery" (p.195). The patient has
suffered structural defects suggesting more severe injuries, coup contusions of greater size are
commonly associated with haematomas.
A secondary provisional diagnosis based on the physical assessment alone, indicates a skull
laceration or contusion, potential skull fracture, and intracranial haematoma. Haemorrhaging due to
a tear in the occipital brain

Intro to Psychology: Chapter Notes 1- 5
October 22nd, 2012
Chapter 1– What is psychology? [pp. 1–23]
LO1: Psychology as a Science (p. 4) * Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental
processes. * Seeks to describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processes. *
Theory * propose reason for relationships * derive explanations * make predictions
LO2: What psychologists do (p. 5–6) * Research * pure Research * Applied Research * Practice *
Teaching * Fields of Psychology * Clinical Counseling School Industrial Educational
Developmental personality Health Forensic Social Environmental Experimental sport
LO3: Where does psychology come from? (Germany) (p.7–10) ... Show more content on
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rkinson's disease * Schizophrenia * Norepinephrine * Excitatory Neurotransmitter * Accelerates
heart rate, affects eating, linked to activity levels, learning and remembering * Mood Disorders,
depression, bipolar disorder * Serotonin * Emotional arousal and sleep * eating disorders,
alcoholism, depression, aggression, insomnia * Gamma–aminobutyric acid (GABA) * Inhibitory
may help relax anxiety reactions * depression * Endorphins * Occur naturally within the brain and
bloodstream * inhibit pain * may be connected to indifference to pain * runner's high * Parts of the
nervous system * Central nervous system * Brain and spinal cord * peripheral nervous system *
sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons * Somatic Nervous system * sensory motor neurons
* transmits messages to the brain and purposeful body movements from the brain * Autonomic
nervous system * Regulates glans and muscles of internal organs * contains sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions * Branches of the autonomic nervous system * Sympathetic * Most active
during emotional responses * spend the body's reserves

Symptoms And Treatment Of Injury Essay
This is a 52–year–old female with a 4/1/2002 date of injury. A specific mechanism of injury has not
been described.
DIAGNOSIS: Cervicalgia, Contracture right shoulder, long term (current) use of opiate analgesic.
01/25/16 Progress Report indicated that the patient has continued pain in the cervical spine, which
radiates down to the right arm above the elbow. There is some aching at the cubital tunnel with no
distal numbness in the forearm and hand. She takes OTC ibuprofen to reduce pain. She presented
with a pain of 2/10–level. The ongoing neck pain is located diffusely. It is described as burning.
ROS was positive for insomnia, anxiety and depression. The exam revealed cervical spine
tenderness. There is decreased ROM on flexion, extension, rotation and left lateral bending. Right &
Left Shoulder: there was tenderness to palpation at the subacromial space and pain with restricted
ROM on abduction. Lumbar: there was tenderness to palpation over the facet joint. The ROM was
decreased on flexion, extension and lateral bending. Treatment Plan: continue Ibuprofen;
recommend MRI; and Electro diagnostic studies of the right upper extremity. Follow–up is on
04/18/16.
10/26/15 UDT Report was negative for all drugs, including amphetamines, barbiturates,
benzodiazepine, cocaine metabolite, methadone, and Opiates.
10/26/15 UDT Report described that the patient has neck pain located centrally. It is described as
aching and is constant. The symptom is ongoing. The pain is rated

The Body System : The Endocrine System
The action of typing this assignment involves almost all the body systems: the endocrine system, the
cardiovascular system, the nervous system (brain, nerves, and spinal cord), the integumentary
system, the respiratory system, lymphatic system, digestive system, urinary system, immune system,
and the muscular system. The nervous system and the muscular system work together to perform the
action, while all the other systems provide the necessary support such as the energy required, the
oxygen required, and the skeletal support required.
The nervous system is the master communications and controlling system of the body. It is
organized into two main divisions: the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) and the Central Nervous
System (CNS). CNS ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The sodium–potassium pump plays an important role in depolarization and repolarization of the
action potentials of the membrane. When the membrane is at resting potential, the sodium and
potassium channels are closed. The stimulus starts the depolarization of the membrane to a
threshold, after which sodium channels are opened. A large influx of sodium ions into the cell
generates a positive membrane potential and causes rapid depolarization as a result of which an
action potential is generated. As the membrane potential reaches +30 V, the sodium channels get
inactivated, and the potassium channels are opened. The potassium ions move out of the cells
beginning the repolarization of the membrane and restore it to its resting potential (Martini et al. pp.
408–409). These action potentials developed by the stimulus are carried by the axons of the sensory
neurons to the CNS. The information carried by the action potentials is processed at every relay
synapse, and is sent to the multiple nuclei and centers in spinal cord and brain (Martini et al. p. 510).
In the brain, the general somatic sensory information is relayed to the Primary Somatosensory
Cortex neurons. The Premotor Cortex (Somatic Sensory Association Area) interprets the received
sensory information, and the instructions to type are relayed to the Primary Motor Cortex. The
Primary

Alzheimer 's A Progressive And Fatal Disease Of The Brain
According to Alzheimer.net, forty–four million people, worldwide, are diagnosed with Alzheimer's
disease. In the United States, one out of nine people over the age of 65 are diagnosed with this
disease, and it ranks as the sixth leading cause of death in the United States. Two out of three people
diagnosed with Alzheimer's are women. Five point three million dollars are depleted every year
from citizens diagnosed with Alzheimer's. Alzheimer's is "a progressive and fatal disease of the
brain" (Lu & Bludua, 2011). This brain disease leads to deterioration of the brain, which leads to
dementia. Dementia is the "loss of memory and mental abilities severe enough to affect the daily
life" (Lu & Bludua, 2011). It begins at the memory control center of the brain, and then progresses
to the portions of the brain that control reasoning, thinking, speaking, and seeing; therefore, it
damages all parts of the brain.
According to Lu and Bludau, Alzheimer's influences many aspects such as the organ system, tissue,
cells, and organelles. The organ system affected is the brain, which performs numerous crucial tasks.
This disease impinges on the control center for all bodily functions. The vital body function that the
disease affects in the brain consist of: thinking, seeing, hearing, breathing, and body movements. It
hinders storing and making of memories and hinders the aptitude to feel emotions. There are three
parts of the brain: the cerebrum, the brain stem, and the cerebellum. The

The Cell Body
1 – The Prototypical Neuron The neuron, also known as the nerve cell, is distinguished by several
components: the soma, the axon, and the dendrites. The soma, or more commonly known as the cell
body, is the semi–spherical central part of the neuron. In a typical neuron, it is about 20 um in
diameter – and contains the same organelles that are found in all animal cells; a nucleolus, rough
endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria. With all
of its inner components encased within the neuronal membrane. The neuronal membrane is an
average of 5 nm thick, and greatly studded with various proteins; the function of a neuron is greatly
regulated by the structure and components (proteins) of its ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The axon begins by extending away from the soma, with the base region being known as the axon
hillock. The axon may then extend to various lengths (depending on the specific tissue/function that
cell pertains to) ranging from less than a millimeter to over a meter; as well as splitting into
numerous axon collaterals (axons that branch away from the original axon). As for the thickness of
the axon, it ranges from less than a millimeter to 25 mm in diameter (in humans) – with the speed of
electrical impulses (nerve impulse) directly proportional to the thickness of the axon. At the end of
the axon, is the axon terminal or terminal bouton: which can be described as a swollen disk or
button, where the axon comes into contact with another neuron, or another cell (e.g. muscle cell) by
which information may be passed onto. This interface point is known as a synapse – with the end of
the axon known as the presynaptic terminal; in this structure there are multiple synaptic vesicles
(that average 50 nm in diameter) with various chemical signals (neurotransmitters) used for synaptic
transmission (the process of information transfer). The membrane surrounding the synapse is
heavily dense with proteins and ion channels, in order to receive and traffic the

Bio 151 List of Structures
Biology 115 Semester List of Structures Chapter One Anatomy is the study of body structure and
the relationship between structures Physiology is the study of how the structures of the body
function Levels of Structural Organization Chemical Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism
Homeostasis Positive feedback loop Negative feedback loop Relative Positions Superior Inferior
Anterior Posterior Medial Lateral Bilateral Ipsilateral Contralateral Proximal Distal Superficial
Deep Body Sections Sagittal Transverse (horizontal) Frontal (coronal) Body Regions See Figure
1.17 Chapter Two Chemistry Matter Element Major elements Carbon Oxygen Hydrogen Nitrogen
Atom Subatomic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
s Flat bones Irregular bone Sesamoid bones Anatomy of a Long Bone Epiphyses Metaphyses
Epiphyseal growth plate Epiphyseal growth line Diaphysis Periosteum Medullary cavity Endosteum
Articular cartilage Microscopic Anatomy Compact bone Osteons Spongy bone Trabeculae Bone
Formation Intramembranous ossification Endochondral ossification Cells in Bone Osteogenic cells
Osteoblasts Osteocytes Osteoclasts Hormonal Control of Bone Calcitonin Parathyroid hormone
Osteology of the Axial Skeleton Frontal Parietal Temporal Zygomatic arch Mastoid process
Occipital Foramen magnum Occipital condyles Sphenoid Sella turcica Greater wing Lesser wing
Ethmoid Cribriform plate Crista galli Nasal Maxilla Alveolar process Palatine process Zygomatic
Zygomatic arch Lacrimal Palatine Inferior nasal conchae Vomer Mandible Condyle Coronoid
process Alveolar process Nasal septum Sutures Coronal Sagittal Lambdoid Squamous Pterion Hyoid
Verteba Body Vertebral foramen Pedicles Lamina Transverse process Spinous process Superior
articular process Inferior articular process Cervical vertebrae Atlas Anterior arch Posterior arch Axis
Odontoid process Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae Sacrum Anterior sacral foramen Posterior
sacral foramen Median sacral crest Lateral sacral crest Coccyx Sternum Manubrium Body Xiphoid

Neuroscience Of The Nervous System
Vigen Karchyan
Neuroscience Neuroscience, commonly referred to as Neural Science, is the study of the way the
nervous system develops, how it is structured and the functions of it. Scientists put emphasis on the
brain and the impact it has on behavior and cognitive functions. These scientists approach a closer
look on the reactions the nervous system has when humans have neurological, psychiatric and
neurodevelopmental disorders. The entire concept of neuroscience is addressed as a subdivision of
biology. It is applied to chemistry, cognitive science, engineering, mathematics, linguistics and
more. Scientists say that neuroscience is identical as neurobiology but there is a difference between
the two conceptions. Neurobiology focuses mainly on the biology of the nervous system and
neuroscience emphasizes on any portion of the nervous system. Neuroscientists have various fields
of study that include cellular, functional, computational and medical aspects of the nervous system.
The history of neuroscience dates back and the Ancient Egyptians believed that intelligence rooted
from the heart. Throughout the process of mummification, they detached the brain but left the heart
inside of the body. Herodotus, a Greek historian that lived up until 425BC, claimed "the most
perfect practice is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook
cannot reach is mixed with drugs." There were scripts focused on the brain that were first found in
1700BC in

The Central Nervous System
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Every behavior begins with biology. Our behaviors, as well as our thoughts and feelings, are
produced by the actions of our brains, nerves, muscles, and glands. In this chapter we will begin our
journey into the world of psychology by considering the biological makeup of the human being,
including the most remarkable of human organs–the brain. We'll consider the structure of the brain
and also the methods that psychologists use to study the brain and to understand how it works.
We will see that the body is controlled by an information highway known as the nervous system. A
collection of hundreds of billions of specialized cells that transmit information between different
parts of the body, a collection of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To improve the speed of their communication, and to keep their electrical charges from shorting out
with other neurons, axons are often surrounded by a myelin sheath. The myelin sheathmyelin
sheathA layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of a neuron that acts as an insulator and allows
faster transmission of the electrical signal. is a layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of a neuron
that both acts as an insulator and allows faster transmission of the electrical signal. Axons branch
out toward their ends, and at the tip of each branch is a terminal button.
Neurons Communicate Using Electricity and Chemicals
The nervous system operates using an electrochemical process (see Video Clip: The Electrochemical
Action of the Neuron). An electrical charge moves through the neuron itself and chemicals are used
to transmit information between neurons. Within the neuron, when a signal is received by the
dendrites, is it transmitted to the soma in the form of an electrical signal, and, if the signal is strong
enough, it may then be passed on to the axon and then to the terminal buttons. If the signal reaches
the terminal buttons, they are signaled to emit chemicals known as neurotransmitters, which
communicate with other neurons across the spaces between the cells, known as synapses.
Video Clip: The Electrochemical Action of the Neuron
This video clip

Drug Addiction Essay
Many people find themselves intentionally repeating an action weekly, daily, and even multiple
times a day. These actions often make individuals feel good and allow them to take a break from
reality. Repetitious actions with ¨feel good¨ effects may be referred to as addictions. Whether it be
shopping, smoking, drinking coffee, or gaming, addictions often affect the day to day lives of
individuals, especially if one does not get their daily fix of the addiction. When a person does meet
their addictive needs however, a powerful sense of wellness and relief consumes them thus causing
them to want to continue their actions. Addiction is defined as a chronic disorder with biological,
psychological, social and environmental factors influencing its development and maintenance
(Addictions). While any addiction is very complex, one of the most powerful addictions is drug
addiction because of the extreme toll it takes on your body both psychologically and
physiologically. Drug addiction is a very prevalent issue in our world today. An estimated 208
million people internationally consume illegal drugs (Truth). While people choose to use drugs for a
variety of reasons, the mental processes of addicts are the same. The psychology behind drug
addiction has always been very intriguing to me which has caused me to ask the question ¨What
happens in the brain when a person is exposed to drugs?¨ and ¨What may cause addiction?¨
Addiction is a neurological disorder that affects the reward

Myopia ( Nearsightedness ) Is A Common Vision Condition
Myopia (nearsightedness) is a common vision condition in which you can see objects near to you
clearly, but obects farther away are blurry. Nearsightedness may develop gradually or rapidly, often
worsening during childhood and adolscence. Nearsightedness tends to run in famillies. A basic eye
exam can confirm if your nearsighted. you can easily correct the condition with eye glasses or
contact lenses. Another treatment option for Myopia is surgery. The underlying cause is believed to
be a combination of genetiv and environmental factors. Risk factors include doing work that
involves focusing on close objects, greater time spent indoors, and a family history or the condition.
The underlying Mechanism involves the length of the eyeball being too long or less commonly the
lens being too strong. It is a type of Refractive Error.
Hyperopia, also known as Farsightedness, is a common type of refractive error where distant objcts
may be seen more clearly then objects that are near. However, people experience hyperopia
differently, some people may not notice any problems with their vision, especially when they are
young. For people with significant hyperopia, vision can be blurry for objects at any distance, near
or far. Hyperopia develops inthe eyes that focus images behindthe Retina instead of the retina,
which can result in blurred vision. This occurs when preventing incomiing light from focusing
directly on the retina it may also be caused by abnormal shape of the Cornea or

Maxillary Sinus Case Study
Pathologic processes seen; Depressed Nasal Bone fracture seen. Mucous or infection within the
maxillary sinus. Anatomical Structures that were seen; Orbital floor fracture, Frontal Bone, Frontal
Sinuses, Frontal lobe, Sphenoid bone, Ethmoid Sinuses, Sella Turcica, Clivus, Anterior arch of C–1,
Alantooccipital joint. Cervical Spine #1, 2, and 3, Tongue, Soft Tissues, Vomer, Mental Mandible,
Hard Palate, Maxillary, Odontoid Process Epiglottis, Alveolar process of Mandible, Esophagus,
maybe an earring. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Pediatric Bilateral Mandibular Condyle Fracture Pathologic process. The first conclusion I came to
was that it was an image of a pediatric skull. The second to come to process was an abnormality that
I saw within the mandible condyles shown. Also the spine of a small child. These fractures usually
are a cause of trauma and mainly affect the Condylar Neck. They are classified by their location.
Around the condyle are capsules of ligaments that hold the condyle to the Temporomandibular Joint.
Mandibular Condyle Pediatric fractures have special protocols for management. . This is done with
either an open technique, where an incision is made, the fracture is found and is physically
manipulated into place, or closed technique where no incision is made. Anatomical structures that
were seen; Mandible Condyle, Mandible Ramus, Sphenoid Bone, Body, Lesser Wing, Greater Wing,
Pterygoid Plate, Supra Orbital Fissure, Foramen Ovale, and Spinosum, Occipital Bone, Foramen
Magnum, Temporal Bone, Optic Canal, Clavicle, Neck of Mandible Coronoid. Symptoms;
Deviation of mandible to the opposite side of fracture, Pre–auricular depression. Shortening of
height of mandibular ramus. Bite is misaligned. Pain. Vascular injury can result with particular
attention to the internal carotid and jugular

Peripheral Herniation: A Case Study
DOI: 2/25/2015. The patient is a 49 –year–old male service technician who sustained a work–related
injury to his neck, bilateral shoulders and back when his truck was hit in the back by a plow pick–up
truck.
MRI of the cervical spine obtained on 03/05/15 revealed a posterior disc herniation at C3–4
impressing on the ventral thecal sac and borderline central spinal stenosis. Peripheral disc
encroachment toward the foramen is unchanged. A subligamentous posterior disc herniation at C4–
5, is impressing on the thecal sac and borderline central spinal stenosis. Peripheral disc
encroachment is seen toward the foramen. At C5–6, a subligamentous posterior disc herniation
impressing on the ventral thecal sac with peripheral encroachment toward the right neural foramen,
borderline central spinal stenosis and right greater than left neural foraminal narrowing findings are
unchanged. At C6–7, a left lateral subligamentous disc herniation is demonstrated encroaching into
the left neural foramen with mild left foraminal narrowing, which is newly present. A focal midline
subligamentous disc herniation at C2–3 again impresses on the thecal sac. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
He also experiences occipital headaches 3 times a week, rated as 6/10. Neck pain is rated as 6–9/10.
He is unable to sleep at night due to pain. Pain is worse in the morning and described as deep, dull,
throbbing and stiffness. Pain is worse with cold temperature and better with rest/therapy. He also
experiences numbness/tingling into his bilateral hands and fingers. Right shoulder pain is rated as 4–
7/10. He is unable to sleep on that

Essay on Comprehensive assignment
1. (5 pts) Describe the metabolic process providing your energy while you were walking (at an easy
pace) before the bee stung you. Include which molecules are being consumed.
The metabolic process providing my energy while I was walking at an easy pace is aerobic
metabolism. During aerobic metabolism, mitochondria absorb from the surrounding cytoplasm these
molecules: ADP, phosphate ions, O2, and organic substances like pyruvate. These molecules go
through the citric acid cycle. The electron transport chain is also involved to create ATP. For each
molecule of pyruvate that goes into the citric acid cycle, the cell gains 17 ATP molecules. Glycogen
reserves can also be used and converted to glucose. Glycolysis breaks down glucose ... Show more
339–341)
4. (6 pts) Move your eyes and look at the bee. (Create a table that describes which nerves control
which muscles to cause the needed eye movements).
Action: Muscle: Origin: Insertion: Nerve:
Eye looks down Inferior Rectus Sphenoid around optic canal Inferior, medial surface of eyeball
Oculomotor Nerve III
Eye looks laterally Lateral Rectus Sphenoid around optic canal Lateral surface of eyeball Abducens
Nerve VI
Eye rolls, looks down and laterally Superior Oblique Sphenoid around optic canal Superior, lateral
surface of eyeball Trochlear Nerve IV
("The Muscular System" P. 335)
5. (8 pts) Trace the image of the bee to perception. (Include all focusing, transduction, transmission
and perception processes and structures).
After a retinal molecule absorbs light, the normally 11–cis form of the bound retinal molecule
straightens to become the 11–trans from. This change activated the opsin molecule. Opsin activates
transducin which is a G protein. This G protein then activates phosphodiesterase. Phosphodiesterase
is an enzyme that breaks down cyclic–GMP. The break–down of cyclic–GMP removes them from
the gated sodium channels and makes the gated sodium channels inactive. Because of this, sodium
ion entry into the cytoplasm decreases.

Thinking Ahead Contingency Planning And Managing The...
Thinking ahead contingency planning and managing the unexpected are core skills for a
perioperative nurse. Alfredsdottir and Bjornsdottir (2008) describe how prevention is a core
component of the perioperative nurses work. Perioperative nurses consider how the background of
their patient may contribute to their susceptibility and instability and how these may be risk factors
during their patients surgery, this means trying to imagine everything that could go wrong and
taking reasonable steps to manage these scenarios.
In this case study Mr Knight, a 55 year old man is presenting to the operating room to undergo an
exploratory laparoscopy for a suspected bowel obstruction, with his history of body mass index
(BMI) of >35, Type 2 diabetes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These conditions can have a negative affect on surgical outcomes (Bellanger & Bray, 2005). Obesity
also has surgical implications largely around wounds and their management. As an obese patient Mr
Knight is at an increased risk of having his laparoscopic operation converted to an open procedure,
largely due to expose and dissection problems (Makino, Shukla, Rubino, & Milsom, 2012).
Knowing Mr Knights previous surgical history is particularly important when preparing for
laparoscopic abdominal surgery, this is because previous abdominal surgery creates adhesions.
Adhesions are a known risk factor for laparoscopic procedures being converted to open, this risk is
increased when the patient is obese (Barleben et al., 2009). There are a number of risk factors that
may contribute to the predictability of a laparoscopic procedure converting to open these include
patient comorbidities, type of surgery, illness pathology, and surgeon skill (Tekkis, Senagore, &
Delaney, 2005).
Patient positioning is an integral part of surgical preparedness; the whole perioperative team has a
responsibility towards the patients regarding surgical positioning. Mr Knights position will depend
on the type of laparoscopic surgery being performed and the surgeons preference for this procedure,
positioning is often a compromise between surgical access, airway management and patient safety.
The very act of surgical positioning can lead to injury and with laparoscopic surgery injuries

Human Anatomy lab answers Essay
Instructor's Manual for the Laboratory Manual to Accompany Hole's Essentials of Human Anatomy
and Physiology Eighth Edition Terry R. Martin Kishwaukee College Instructor's Manual for the
Laboratory Manual to Accompany Hole's essentials of human anatomy and physiology, eighth
edition David shier, jackie butler, and ricki lewis Published by McGraw–Hill Higher Education, an
imprint of The McGraw–Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020.
Copyright © The McGraw–Hill Companies, Inc, 2003, 2000, 1998. All rights reserved. The
contents, or parts thereof, may be reproduced in print form solely ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The instructor's manual also parallels the laboratory manual, exercise by exercise, providing labels
for unlabeled diagrams and answers to questions that appear in the laboratory reports. For some
exercises, special instructional suggestions that propose alternative procedures, laboratory
equipment, or laboratory techniques are provided. Most of the illustrations and labels parallel the
textbook very closely, as requested by many of the users of the laboratory manual. Many of the
leader lines are arranged differently than the textbook, and several illustrations are different than the
textbook. This has been requested also by many of the users of the laboratory manual. I have
attempted to reach a balance that will be beneficial for all students and instructors. An Overview The
Laboratory Manual to Accompany Hole's Human Anatomy and Physiology, eighth edition, was
written to accompany the textbook Hole's Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, eighth
edition, by Shier, Butler, and Lewis. As in the case of the textbook, the laboratory manual is planned
for students pursuing careers in allied health fields who have minimal backgrounds in the physical
and biological sciences. The manual contains forty–eight laboratory exercises that are integrated
closely with the content of the textbook. The exercises are designed to review and illustrate various
anatomical and physiological facts and principles presented in the textbook and

Multiple Explanations Behind Writing Proficiency
most individuals, are especially essential in terms of the making of the phonological, semantic, and
syntactic constituents of speech. In whole, there are solid explanations behind writing proficiency to
be viewed as part and bundle of etymological insights. Having said this, yet, I 'd like to contend that
when we take a gander at how the cerebrum forms the true knowledge of perusing and thinking of,
we can start to perceive how the greater part of the eight intelligences have vital parts to play.
To represent, how about we look at what happens in the cerebrum amid the basic display of talking a
printed word (see Figure 1.1). Initially the human eye must watch the statement along the page. This
sensation is initially enrolled by the essential visual range in the occipital flap (the kind of spatial
insight). After the saying is seen in the essential visual territory, it is then transferred to the rakish
gyrus (a "gyrus" is the peak of a solitary convolution in the neocortex), at the intersection of the
transient, parietal, and occipital flaps of the cerebrum. I like to think about the rakish gyrus as the
district of the cerebrum that most reflects the thought of numerous intelligences ' relationship to
reading proficiency in light of the fact that it is here, at the intersection of three separate projections,
that numerous diverse sorts of data are united or connected with one another in making etymological
data, including visual–spatial setups, musical and oral sounds, and

Biological Basis Of Behavior : The Great Grey Owls ( Strix...
Biological Basis of Behaviour MR2204 J Mulvany Sensory Systems Georgina Meek 7th November
2014 Introduction Great Grey Owls (Strix nebulosa), use a wide variety of different environmental
factors when hunting a lemming (Lemmus sp.) when it is hidden beneath the snow. The different
sensory systems which the owl possesses are particularly adjusted in order for the owl to most
suitably use them to the best of its ability when hunting. The various sensory systems refer to the
way in which the nervous system receives information from the external environment
(exterocepton), internal environment (interoception, and the position and movement of the bod of
the animal (proprioception). Once the body is given this sensory information, it is used to generate
what the animal's next move will be. Animals need these sensory systems in order to have an
understanding of what is going on within their body and what is happening in the surrounding
environment, Stevens (2013). All animals have adapted in different ways, with different body parts
which are attuned to that animal's habitat. These body parts which are sensitive to different stimuli
act as a filter which detect and respond to stimuli, and ignore others. These body receptors interpret
and convert the type of energy, whether it is light, sound, or smell, and turn it into an electrical
signal to be interpreted by the central nervous system. Each animal's physical make up is attuned to
provide the greatest survival

Functions Of The Various Cerebral Cortex Regions Essay
1. Module
a. What are the functions of the various cerebral cortex regions?
b. To what extent can a damaged brain reorganize itself, and what is neurogenesis
c. What do split brains reveal about the functions of our two brain hemispheres?
d. What does research tell us about being left–handed? Is it advantageous to be right–handed?
2. Outline
a. The cerebral cortex
i. Older brain networks endure simple life roles and enable memory, emotions and basic drives. ii.
The cerebral hemisphere come as a duos iii. Cerebral cortex: a thin surface layer of interconnected
neural cells
1. Brains thinking crown
2. Bodies control and information center iv. The complex functions of our cerebral cortex is what
makes us distinctively human.
v. Structure of the cortex: vi. The brains left and right hemisphere are filled mainly with axons
connecting the cortex to the brains other regions vii. The cerebral cortex (being human takes a lot of
nerves)
1. Contains 20–35 billion of the brains nerve cells
2. 300 trillion synaptic connections viii. Cortex is divided into four lobes separated by prominent
fissures or folds
1. Frontal lobes (behind your forehead)
2. Parietal lobes (at the top and to the rear)
3. Occipital lobes (at the back of your head)
4. Temporal lobes (reversing direction, just above ears) ix. Function of the cortex:
x. Specific parts of the cortex control complex functions like movement or speech xi. Motor
function:
1. 1870, Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig discovered: Mild

Bio 201 Lab 9
Lab Report: Exercise 10: Organization of Nervous Tissue
Purpose: What is the purpose of this exercise? Are there any safety concerns associated with this
exercise? If so, list what they are and what precautions should be taken. To understand the structure
and function of multipolar neuron,unipolar and bipolar neurons. Also to identify the structures of a
nerve. There are no safety concerns for this lab.
Step 1: Relates to Lab Exercise 10/Activity 1, 3, and 4.
Assignment 1:
Write a brief description of the three slides (Neuron, Spinal Cord Smear and C.S of Myelinated
Nerve Fibers) as though you were explaining it to someone who cannot see the slide.
Neuron– There is a reddish rounded shape with lighter thin looking branches these are ... Show more
The axons are slender processes of uniform diameter arising from the hillock. There is usually only
one unbranched axon per neuron.
Step 2: Define terms related to nervous tissue
Click on the Loyola University/ Part 6: Nervous Tissue. For each of the following terms, find at
least one example slide containing the term. Identify the slide by number and define the term in your
own words.
1. Axon is a singular fiber that carries information away from the soma to the synaptic sites of other
neurons.
2.Dendrite are the receptive region of the neuron. They conduct electrical impulses toward the cell
body.
3. Axon Hillock is a cone shaped area on the side of the soma and is where the axon arise.
4. Soma is the control center of the neuron.
5.Nissl bodies are in the soma of the nucleus and are made up ofrough ER.
6. Axodendritic Synapse axons that connect the axon to the dendrite.

7. Myelin Sheath whitish fatty segmented sheath around most long axons. It protects the axon,
electrically insulates fibers from one another , and increases the speed of nerve impulse transmition.
8. Muscle spindle are sensory receptors in the muscle. They can detect changes in muscle length and
then communicate it to the central nervous system.
9. Pacinian Corpuscles connective tissue wrapped around a nerve ending located in the deep layers
of skin.
10.Astrocyte most abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial cell. They support and brace
neurons, anchor neuron to

Alzheimer's Disease Abstract
Alzheimer's Disease Zaven A. Ohanian San Joaquin Valley College Abstract This research report
will provide a general overview of Alzheimer's disease. This overview will include background and
history of the disease dating back to its discovery by Alois Alzheimer in Germany. It will provide
in–depth information on the anatomy and pathophysiology of the disease, specifically on the roles of
beta–amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles and on how they progress; what happens as they
progress through the brain. Other topics that will be briefly covered include etiology, epidemiology,
treatment, and prognosis. Alzheimer's Disease Background and History Alzheimer's disease is an
acquired form of dementia that impairs the cognitive and behavioral functions of the patient.
Impairment of these functions severely impacts the individual's capacity to function in social and
occupational settings. There is no cure for Alzheimer's disease and its progression is long and
steady. Alzheimer's disease was first observed by a German psychiatrist named Alois Alzheimer in
1901. Having been intrigued by the behavior of a patient at the Frankfurt Asylum, 51 year old
female Auguste Deter, Alois Alzheimer began monitoring her condition. Dr. Alzheimer observed a
number of symptoms including reduced comprehension and memory, aphasia, disorientation,
unpredictable behavior, paranoia, auditory hallucinations, and pronounced psychosocial impairment
(Maurer, Gerbaldo &Volk, 1997). When

Woman Suffering From Hypertension Has Improvement...
Woman Suffering from Hypertension has Improvement Following Chiropractic Care
Juan Munoz
Student Intern, Palmer College of Chiropractic
Case Core III
August 15, 2014
ABSTRACT
Objective: To show the results of chiropractic care for a 45 year old female suffering from neck pain
and hypertension over 30 chiropractic visits utilizing Torque Release Technique.
Clinical Features: The subject of the study presented with chronic neck pain of over 2 years. The
pain was focused in the upper cervical area. The patient also reported hypertension disease as
reported by her medical physician.
Intervention and Outcomes: Torque Release Technique was the chiropractic technique of choice for
this patient. The care plan for this patient ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Key words: chiropractic, subluxation, hypertension, blood pressure
INTRODUCTION
It has been shown that in the United States approximately 50 million adults have primary high blood
pressure (BP) or essential hypertension.(1,2) One in seven people can expect to have high BP at
some time during their life. A substantial reduction in life span is seen even for borderline
hypertension.(3) In this case study the patient demonstrates essential hypertension. Essential
hypertension accounts for 80–95% of high blood pressure cases and applies to individuals with
elevated blood pressure and no demonstrable cause, whereas secondary hypertension is named for
causes where the causative factors are known.(2,3) Essential hypertension is thought to be a
multifaceted disease with abnormalities of regulatory mechanism normally associated with control
of blood volume, sodium excretion, cardiac output, and systemic vascular resistance.(4)
Hypertension has been shown to be one of the most common reasons for visits to primary care
providers.(1) Hypertension remains one of the most modifiable risk factors for cardiovascular
disease globally. Non–modifiable risk factors for hypertension include greater than 55 years old and
male. Family history of premature cardiovascular disease is also a risk factor for males less than 55
and females less than 65 years old. Risk factors that can be modified include sedentary lifestyle,
poor dietary habits, abdominal obesity, abnormal

The Use Of Electrical Probes On The Brain
The brain is one of the most complex organ in our bodies. To learn about the brain scientists use
electrical stimulation. Electrical stimulation is the use of electrical probes to determine functions of
the brain. Clinical observation of patients have also helped scientists learn more about the brain.
Case studies of different patients such as Phineas Gage have helped to learn about the different
functions of the brain and how they work together to perform complex activities. (Barron's AP
Psychology 6th Edition)
Different maps are taken of the brain in order to determine if there are any problems with the brain.
An electroencephalogram (EEG) is used an amplified read out of the brain waves. A magnetic
resonance imaging scan (MRI) gives a detailed picture of the brain's soft tissues. It also shows the
structure of the brain. A function magnetic resonance imaging scan or function MRI (fMRI) shows
the function of parts of the brain as well as the brain's structure. It also has the ability to show when
a person is lying. Scientists also use a neuroimaging technique called a positron emission
tomography scan (PET scan) to view the brain. (Barron's AP Psychology 6th Edition) The PET scan
shows each brain area's consumption of chemical fuel which is glucose. There is a scale for the PET
scan to determine activity in the brain when performing a certain action. The colors range from
purple to red, purple represents no activity while red represents very high activity. The PET scan can

Occipital Neuralgia Surgery
A review of the records reveals the member to be an adult female with a birth date of 09/16/1971.
The member has a diagnosis of occipital neuralgia. The member has been evaluated by two
specialists, Ziv Peled, MD and David Rosenberg, MD, who have recommended the member
undergo bilateral occipital neuroplasty.
The carrier has denied coverage of occipital neuroplasty as experimental or investigational and not
medically necessary. There is a letter from the carrier to the member dated 02/11/2016 which states
in part:
"The medical necessity has not been established for the following procedures: 64716 X 2 REVISE
CRANIAL NERVE64722 X 2 DECOMPRESS RELIEVE PRESS ON NERVE14040 X 1 ADJAC
TISSUE TRANS F/C/C/M/N/A/G/H/F64744 X 4 INCISE NERVE BACK ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Migraines often continue despite undergoing neuroplasty of the occipital nerves. In addition, there
are procedural–related side effects with this procedure such as numbness and hypersensitivity.
Occipital nerve blocks have the potential to yield positive results for both occipital neuralgia and
migraine headache, thus creating a diagnostic overlap between pure migraine headache and occipital
neuralgia induced headache. Thus, it should also be pointed out that misdiagnosis may result in a
false positive result for occipital

Dementia With Lewy Bodies ( Dlb ) Essay
Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), when cognitive symptoms appear within a year of movement
problems, is a complex and challenging neurodegenerative disorder. (Pervin, Edwards & Lippa,
2016). It is complex because the DLB pathology and its impact on certain brain regions are unclear.
The pathology includes Lewy bodies, senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. It is challenging
because its many core features make it difficult for individuals to perform activities of daily living.
The core clinical features comprise of declining and fluctuating cognition, behavioural and
psychotic behaviours and spontaneous signs of parkinsonism.
DLB main neuropathological structures are Lewy bodies, nevertheless it also has the Alzheimer's
disease (AD) pathology of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (Pervin, Edwards & Lippa,
2016). Astonishing up to 80 percent of individuals can show AD pathology (Colom–Cadena et al.,
2013). Lewy bodies are located in cell cytoplasm, spherical in shape, eosinophilic, neuronal
attachments, with a compressed hyaline centre and clear halo. They are made of unusual shortened
and phosphorylated proteins and alpha–synuclein is the main component (Hancock, 2011). The
alpha synuclein accumulations, termed Lewy bodies (LB) and Lewy neuritis (LN), disturb brain
chemicals resulting in complications with movement, thinking, mood and behaviour. In a fit brain,
alpha–synuclein is essential in brain neurons, especially at presynaptic part, where cell

Evaluation Of The Paediatric Neurosurgical Patient
Key Points
1. Approach to the paediatric neurosurgical patient is different because of age–related changes in
neurophysiology and cranial development.
2. The signs and symptoms of raised intracranial pressure in paediatric neurosurgical cases are age
specific.
3. Blood loss due to surgery or tumor bleed into the cavity constitutes a major fraction of total blood
volume in the paediatric population.
4. Capnography is the most feasible and safer method to monitor venous air embolism in children.
Introduction
The majority of tumors (60–70%) in pediatric age group occur in the posterior fossa. The reason
behind propensity to occur in the posterior fossa has not been elucidated till date. Lesion in the
posterior fossa may be neoplastic, developmental and vascular processes requiring surgical
intervention. By far, the most common posterior fossa tumors of childhood are medulloblastomas,
ependymomas and astrocytomas. Medulloblastomas are the most common malignant brain tumor in
children comprising 20% to 25% of all pediatric brain tumors. The median age at diagnosis is
approximately 6 to 9 years. Most of tumors occur in midline and frequently found associated with
hydrocephalus. Success with surgical intervention has become possible because of improved
understanding of physiology, advances in imaging and microsurgical techniques, excellent
anaesthetic techniques available, advances in perioperative care of the patient. These in turn have
improved the survival and quality of

Research Paper On Metabolic Syndrome
Metabolic syndrome
This is a multiple condition; high blood pressure, high blood sugar, excess body fat around the
waist, and abnormal cholesterol or triglyceride levels that occur together, increasing the risk of heart
disease, stroke and diabetes. Large waist circumference is a visible sign. Metabolic syndrome is
linked to overweight or obesity and inactivity and also to insulin resistence, when cells don't
respond normally to insulin, and glucose can't enter the cells as easily. As a result, glucose levels in
your blood rise despite the body's attempt to control the glucose by producing more insulin.
The risk of metabolic syndrome increases with age and is greater in specific races.
Brain
Brain, the most complex organ, is made

Alzheimer's A Progressive And Fatal Disease Of The Brain
According to Alzheimer.net, forty–four million people, worldwide, are diagnosed with Alzheimer's
disease. In the United States, one out of nine people over the age of 65 are diagnosed with this
disease, and it ranks as the sixth leading cause of death in the United States. Two out of three people
diagnosed with Alzheimer's are women. Five point three million dollars are depleted every year
from citizens diagnosed with Alzheimer's. Alzheimer's is "a progressive and fatal disease of the
brain" (Lu & Bludua, 2011). This brain disease leads to deterioration of the brain, which leads to
dementia. Dementia is the "loss of memory and mental abilities severe enough to affect the daily
life" (Lu & Bludua, 2011). It begins at the memory control ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The cerebrum is situated at the back of the brain. The cerebrum is divided into two cerebral
hemispheres, left and right. It consists of the corpus, callosm, and nerve fibers. The left and right
hemispheres communicate with each other. The brain stem "connects the brain to the spinal cord"
(Lu & Bludua, 2011), which regulates the body. The cerebellum is positioned beneath the cerebrum.
It manages a person's equilibrium and coordination.
According to Lu and Bludua, the outer layer of the cerebral hemisphere is called the cerebral cortex,
which is the outer layer of the brain. Under the cortex is the limbic system, which consists of the
amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, and hypothalamus. In the temporal lobe, the amygdale purpose
is to store and process strong feeling such as fear. Behind the amygdala is the hippocampus, which
channels making memories and learning into short term memory. Then short term memory converts
into long term memory. On the top of the brain stem is the thalamus. The thalamus is the "central
processing center of the limbic system" (Lu & Bludau, 2011) which accumulates, processes, and
distributes limbic and sensory information to the cerebral cortex. Beneath the thalamus is the
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis and the body's equilibrium. To keep the
system at a set point, the equilibrium monitors body temperature, blood pressure, body weight, fluid

Exploring the Skeletal System Essay
Exploring the Skeletal System
The precise number of bones in the adult human skeleton varies from one person to another, but on
average there are 206 bones varying shapes and sizes. The skeleton is divided into two main parts.
The central bones of the skull, ribs, spin (vertebral column) and breast bone (sternum) form the axial
skeleton. The bones of the arms and legs, along with the shoulder blade (scapula), collar bone
(clavicle) and pelvis make up the appendicular skeleton.
The cylindrical, linked vertebrae of the spinal column offer strong, bony protection for the spinal
cord. Aided by muscles and ligaments, the vertebrae support the skull and hols the body upright.
The spin has a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ribcage
A bony cage within the chest shields the heart, lungs and other organs. There are 12 pairs of ribs, all
attached to the spine. The upper seven pairs of "true ribs" link directly to the sternum by costal
cartilage. The next two to three pairs of "false ribs" attach indirectly to the sternum by means of the
cartilage linked to the ribs above; the remaining "floating ribs" have no links to the sternum. (the
lowest ribs are hidden by the liver and stomach).
Pelvic bones
The pelvis varies in shape according to sex. Overall, the structure has a similar appearance in both
sexes but takes a shallower and wider form in females to allow for the specialised function of
childbearing. Arranged in a ring, the fused pelvic bones provide a strong foundation for the upper
body and protection for parts of the reproductive systems.
Bones of the skull
Two separate sets of bones from the intricate structure of the skull. The eight bones enclosing and
protecting the brain are called the cranial vault. Another 14 bones make up the skeleton of the face.
In adults, all of the lower jaw, (mandible) are locked together by joints known as sutures. Theses
seams are visible on the surface of the skull as lines between the bones.
Viewed from the front, the most prominent skull bones are the

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