This document discusses the meanings and uses of modal auxiliaries in English. It explains that modals have root meanings involving ability, permission, and obligation, and epistemic meanings involving possibility and necessity. Each modal has both root and epistemic uses. The document then examines individual modals such as can, may, must, and should, outlining their core meanings and how they are used to indicate ability, permission, possibility, obligation, and other concepts in different tenses and constructions. It provides many examples to illustrate the nuanced meanings and appropriate uses of each modal verb.
Uvod u morfosintaksu, lecture 05, 12 13Alen Šogolj
The document discusses various categories related to verbs in English grammar, including finite and nonfinite verb phrases, tense, aspect, mood, and voice. It provides examples and explanations of each category. Finite verb phrases can occur as the main verb of independent clauses and show tense, person and number agreement. Nonfinite verb phrases do not normally head independent clauses and include infinitives, -ing and -ed participles.
Uvod u morfosintaksu, lecture 10, 12 13Alen Šogolj
This document discusses the progressive aspect in English grammar. It begins by explaining that the progressive focuses on an event or situation as being in progress at a particular time, implying it has limited duration and may not be complete. It then examines how stative verbs are generally not used progressively, but can be to indicate temporary behavior or attitudes. Various uses of the progressive are explored, including the event progressive, habitual progressive, and special uses like referring to anticipated future events. The document also discusses how certain verb types like verbs of bodily sensation can be used progressively or non-progressively. Finally, it analyzes non-progressive verbs in more depth.
This document provides an introduction to semantics and related linguistic concepts. It discusses semantics, semiotics, sentence meaning, speaker meaning, sense, reference, and denotation. It also asks the reader to define the word "meaning" and describe different uses of the word "mean". Examples are provided to illustrate sentence meaning versus speaker meaning. The document concludes by asking the reader to provide semantic and pragmatic meanings for underlined words in short passages.
Uvod u morfosintaksu, lecture 08, 12 13Alen Šogolj
The document discusses various aspects of tense and aspect in English grammar. It describes how time is conceptualized as past, present and future. It defines tense as a grammatical category realized through verb inflection, distinguishing between the present and past tense in English. It also discusses aspect, the progressive and perfect aspects. Finally, it examines different ways of expressing future time in English using modal verbs, the going to construction, simple present and present progressive tenses.
1) The document discusses semantic roles and relations in language through analyzing examples from a short story. It defines semantic roles like agent, patient, and experiencer and discusses how they are identified in sentences.
2) Various semantic relations are defined, including synonymy, hyponymy, antonymy, complementarity, and converseness. Examples of each relation are provided from sentences in the short story.
3) The document concludes by proposing an extended definition of semantic relations that incorporates restrictions on domains and ranges as well as semantic primitives, which indicate properties between relation arguments.
Semantics ( Introduction to Linguistics)NabhilaShinta
This document discusses various concepts in semantics, including the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. It defines terms like lexeme, lexical items, reference, sense relations, polysemy, homonymy, homophony, paraphrase, entailment, contradiction, extension and intension, inference, metaphor, and semantic feature analysis. Examples are provided to illustrate each concept in semantics.
This course introduces students to linguistic semantics through 11 topics: (1) utterances and propositions, (2) reference and sense relations, (3) semantic roles, (4) lexical relations, (5) reference and referring expressions, (6) deixis and anaphora, (7) ambiguity, (8) speech acts, (9) aspect, (10) factivity, and (11) modality. Students will learn about the systematic study of meaning in language and analyze the semantic dimensions and relations between linguistic units. Assessment includes attendance, assignments, midterm and final exams. The goal is for students to understand semantic analysis and gain a deeper appreciation of language.
The document discusses semantic relations in sentences, specifically entailment and presupposition. Entailment is defined as one proposition necessarily following from another based on their truth values. Presupposition is defined as one proposition assuming another is true or known for the first to have a truth value. Both relations are examined through truth tables and examples are provided to illustrate lexical, syntactic, and contextual aspects of each relation.
Uvod u morfosintaksu, lecture 05, 12 13Alen Šogolj
The document discusses various categories related to verbs in English grammar, including finite and nonfinite verb phrases, tense, aspect, mood, and voice. It provides examples and explanations of each category. Finite verb phrases can occur as the main verb of independent clauses and show tense, person and number agreement. Nonfinite verb phrases do not normally head independent clauses and include infinitives, -ing and -ed participles.
Uvod u morfosintaksu, lecture 10, 12 13Alen Šogolj
This document discusses the progressive aspect in English grammar. It begins by explaining that the progressive focuses on an event or situation as being in progress at a particular time, implying it has limited duration and may not be complete. It then examines how stative verbs are generally not used progressively, but can be to indicate temporary behavior or attitudes. Various uses of the progressive are explored, including the event progressive, habitual progressive, and special uses like referring to anticipated future events. The document also discusses how certain verb types like verbs of bodily sensation can be used progressively or non-progressively. Finally, it analyzes non-progressive verbs in more depth.
This document provides an introduction to semantics and related linguistic concepts. It discusses semantics, semiotics, sentence meaning, speaker meaning, sense, reference, and denotation. It also asks the reader to define the word "meaning" and describe different uses of the word "mean". Examples are provided to illustrate sentence meaning versus speaker meaning. The document concludes by asking the reader to provide semantic and pragmatic meanings for underlined words in short passages.
Uvod u morfosintaksu, lecture 08, 12 13Alen Šogolj
The document discusses various aspects of tense and aspect in English grammar. It describes how time is conceptualized as past, present and future. It defines tense as a grammatical category realized through verb inflection, distinguishing between the present and past tense in English. It also discusses aspect, the progressive and perfect aspects. Finally, it examines different ways of expressing future time in English using modal verbs, the going to construction, simple present and present progressive tenses.
1) The document discusses semantic roles and relations in language through analyzing examples from a short story. It defines semantic roles like agent, patient, and experiencer and discusses how they are identified in sentences.
2) Various semantic relations are defined, including synonymy, hyponymy, antonymy, complementarity, and converseness. Examples of each relation are provided from sentences in the short story.
3) The document concludes by proposing an extended definition of semantic relations that incorporates restrictions on domains and ranges as well as semantic primitives, which indicate properties between relation arguments.
Semantics ( Introduction to Linguistics)NabhilaShinta
This document discusses various concepts in semantics, including the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. It defines terms like lexeme, lexical items, reference, sense relations, polysemy, homonymy, homophony, paraphrase, entailment, contradiction, extension and intension, inference, metaphor, and semantic feature analysis. Examples are provided to illustrate each concept in semantics.
This course introduces students to linguistic semantics through 11 topics: (1) utterances and propositions, (2) reference and sense relations, (3) semantic roles, (4) lexical relations, (5) reference and referring expressions, (6) deixis and anaphora, (7) ambiguity, (8) speech acts, (9) aspect, (10) factivity, and (11) modality. Students will learn about the systematic study of meaning in language and analyze the semantic dimensions and relations between linguistic units. Assessment includes attendance, assignments, midterm and final exams. The goal is for students to understand semantic analysis and gain a deeper appreciation of language.
The document discusses semantic relations in sentences, specifically entailment and presupposition. Entailment is defined as one proposition necessarily following from another based on their truth values. Presupposition is defined as one proposition assuming another is true or known for the first to have a truth value. Both relations are examined through truth tables and examples are provided to illustrate lexical, syntactic, and contextual aspects of each relation.
The document discusses negation in language. It defines negation as contradicting or negating the meaning of a sentence. Negation is commonly expressed through words like "not" or contractions with "n't". Negation can also be expressed through prefixes like "un-", "a-", "de-", "dis-", "in-", or "-less". The scope of negation, whether sentential or constituent, can be tested through truth value, tags, and licensing of negative polarity items. Negation is a fundamental part of human language but is not present in animal communication systems.
This document discusses various lexical relations in language including synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, prototypes, homophones, homonyms, metonymy, retronyms, entailment, meronymy, and semantic features. It provides examples for each lexical relation and discusses how they relate words and concepts through meaning. It also discusses how dictionaries describe words and the role of prototypes in word meaning. The document aims to describe the different relationships between words that exist in language from a linguistic perspective.
1) The document discusses different types of meaning relations between words including synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy, and collocation. 2) It defines synonymy as words having different forms but similar meanings, and antonymy as words having opposite meanings. 3) Other relations covered include hierarchies of meaning in hyponymy, part-whole relations in meronymy, and predictable co-occurrence of words in collocation.
The document discusses lexical semantics and how words derive their meaning. It addresses word meaning, lexical relations between words like synonyms and antonyms, and cross-linguistic patterns in word meanings. Specifically, it examines how words are defined and categorized, how their meanings are related or opposed, and commonalities in color terms and core vocabulary across languages.
Semantic is the study of meaning in language. It examines meaning at several linguistic levels, including phonology, morphology, and lexical meaning. At the phonological level, sound symbolism refers to an association between a word's sound and its meaning. Morphology considers how word structure and morphemes convey different types of meaning, such as plurality, possession, and tense. Lexical meaning looks at open class words like nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, as well as closed class words like prepositions, determiners and conjunctions. Semantic explores meaning across these linguistic levels to understand how language communicates meaning.
The document discusses the field of semantics and its branches. It explains that semantics is the study of the meaning of signs and focuses on three key areas: syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Syntax concerns properties of expressions, semantics concerns relations between expressions and what they refer to, and pragmatics concerns how expressions are used in context. The document then provides examples to illustrate semantic concepts like synonymy, entailment, contradiction, and truth conditions. It also discusses how the meaning of sentences is compositionally determined by the meanings of their parts.
This document provides an overview of pragmatics from a lecture. It defines pragmatics as the study of speaker meaning, contextual meaning, and how more is communicated than what is said. It discusses key concepts in pragmatics including invisible meaning, context, deixis, reference, inference, anaphora, presupposition, speech acts, and politeness. Politeness involves face-saving acts that minimize threats to people's self-image and independence or connection to others. The appropriate interpretation of language depends on context and can differ across cultures.
This document contains a series of blog posts by Alison Varela on the topic of grammar. The posts cover relative clauses, relative pronouns, subject and object pronouns in relative clauses, defining vs. non-defining relative clauses, direct and indirect speech, changing tenses when converting direct to indirect speech, and examples of converting different verb tenses. The blog is intended to provide information to readers on various aspects of grammar.
This document discusses various types of semantic relationships between words. It defines synonymy as words with the same meaning, and antonymy as words with opposite meanings. Other relationships covered include hyponymy (specific to general), homonymy (distinct meanings), meronymy (part-whole), metonymy (associated substitution), retronymy (new names for old concepts), polysemy (related meanings), and converseness (reciprocal pairs). Examples are provided for each relationship type.
This document discusses linguistic semantics and the study of meaning in language. It covers several key topics:
- The definition of semantics as the study of meaning and how words can be meaningful. Meaning comes from the use of words and signs in language.
- Theories of meaning including conceptual views that see meaning as concepts in the mind linked to words, and views that see meaning arising from the relationship between symbols, concepts, and referents in the world.
- Lexical relations like synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and meronymy that examine relationships between words.
- The difference between sentence meaning derived compositionally from words, and utterance meaning derived from context of use.
This document discusses paradigmatic and syntagmatic sense relations. It defines paradigmatic relations as semantic relations between units of meaning that can substitute for each other in the same context. Examples given are hyponymy, where specific terms are included under more general terms, and synonymy, where terms have nearly identical meanings. Syntagmatic relations refer to the linear sequence of terms that occur together. The document also discusses different types of paradigmatic relations like meronymy, where a part relates to a whole, and principles that define meronymic relations.
Word meaning, sentence meaning, and syntactic meaningNick Izquierdo
This document discusses the relationship between word meaning, sentence meaning, and syntactic meaning. It challenges the view that word meaning is the sole source of conceptual content in sentences, and that syntactic structures only provide instructions for combining word meanings. The document argues that syntactic constructions have intrinsic meanings distinct from the words that make them up, and that construction meaning can override word meaning in some cases. It provides examples to demonstrate this, and argues that appeal to constructional meaning enhances theories of sentence semantics.
This document discusses the meaning and study of semantics. It provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in semantics, including symbol and referent, denotation and connotation, pragmatics, ambiguity, and semantic change. It also discusses subfields like lexical semantics and sentential semantics. As an example, it analyzes the sentence "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously," which was originally presented as meaningless but is argued to poetically describe new, dull ideas circulating unconsciously.
This document contains a series of blog posts by Alison Varela on the topic of grammar. The posts discuss various grammar topics such as relative clauses, relative pronouns, subject and object pronouns, defining and non-defining relative clauses, direct and indirect speech, changing tenses in indirect speech, and reporting verbs. The posts provide definitions and examples to illustrate key concepts. Links are included at the end of each post for additional online resources on the topics covered.
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is derived from words and sentences, including aspects like reference, sense, lexical relations between words, and conceptual relations. Semantic analysis considers how meaning is constructed through categorization, prototypes, and metaphor. Semantics aims to understand how language represents human conceptualization and cognition.
This document discusses semantics and defines key terms:
1) It defines semantics as the study of linguistic meaning and how words and sentences follow rules.
2) It outlines three subcategories of semantics: sense, reference, and truth.
3) Sense relates to lexical constructions like synonyms, antonyms, and hyponyms as well as speaker and linguistic sense. Reference relates to what speakers and language refer to. Truth relates to logical reasoning through syllogisms.
This document discusses how words and sentences derive meaning. It explains that word meanings are constructed through relationships like synonyms, antonyms, and polysemy. Figurative language like metaphor, metonymy and idioms allow words to take on nonliteral meanings. Sentence meaning comes from structure, while utterance meaning depends on context. Pragmatics studies how context shapes the implied meaning of an utterance. Overall, the document examines how semantics and pragmatics work together to help people construct and understand meanings from language.
The document provides an introduction to lexical relations and semantics. It discusses how semantics examines the meanings of words and their relationships. Some key lexical relations discussed are part-whole relationships, sequential/cyclical sets, and paradigms. Componential analysis is introduced as a method to analyze the semantic components that distinguish related words. Examples of semantic fields for human kinship terms and cleanliness-related words are given to illustrate componential analysis.
This document discusses metaphor and metonymy. [1] Metaphor involves understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another domain through similarity or analogy. Metonymy involves understanding one domain in terms of another associated domain through physical or causal proximity. [2] Examples of common metaphors include ARGUMENT IS WAR and TIME IS MONEY. Examples of common metonymies include PART FOR WHOLE and PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT. [3] Metaphor and metonymy are pervasive in both everyday language and abstract thought, and involve complex cognitive mappings between conceptual domains.
An auxiliary verb is a helping verb that comes before the main verb in a sentence. Some examples of auxiliary verbs are: do, does, did, have, has, had, be, am, is, are, was, were, can, will, shall, could, would, should, may, might, and must. The document provides examples of how these auxiliary verbs are used in sentences, such as "I have eaten my food" or "I am going to the park." It explains that auxiliary verbs are followed by different forms of the main verb, such as the base form, past participle, or present/past participle.
Auxiliary and modal verbs help form tenses, voices, and moods. There are primary auxiliaries like be, have, and do as well as modal auxiliaries like shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, used to, need and dare. Auxiliary verbs are used in short answers, to avoid repetition, with so and neither, in "echo" questions, to show emphasis, and in question tags. Question tags are formed with an auxiliary verb and pronoun and are used to check something believed to be true or to ask for agreement.
The document discusses negation in language. It defines negation as contradicting or negating the meaning of a sentence. Negation is commonly expressed through words like "not" or contractions with "n't". Negation can also be expressed through prefixes like "un-", "a-", "de-", "dis-", "in-", or "-less". The scope of negation, whether sentential or constituent, can be tested through truth value, tags, and licensing of negative polarity items. Negation is a fundamental part of human language but is not present in animal communication systems.
This document discusses various lexical relations in language including synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, prototypes, homophones, homonyms, metonymy, retronyms, entailment, meronymy, and semantic features. It provides examples for each lexical relation and discusses how they relate words and concepts through meaning. It also discusses how dictionaries describe words and the role of prototypes in word meaning. The document aims to describe the different relationships between words that exist in language from a linguistic perspective.
1) The document discusses different types of meaning relations between words including synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy, and collocation. 2) It defines synonymy as words having different forms but similar meanings, and antonymy as words having opposite meanings. 3) Other relations covered include hierarchies of meaning in hyponymy, part-whole relations in meronymy, and predictable co-occurrence of words in collocation.
The document discusses lexical semantics and how words derive their meaning. It addresses word meaning, lexical relations between words like synonyms and antonyms, and cross-linguistic patterns in word meanings. Specifically, it examines how words are defined and categorized, how their meanings are related or opposed, and commonalities in color terms and core vocabulary across languages.
Semantic is the study of meaning in language. It examines meaning at several linguistic levels, including phonology, morphology, and lexical meaning. At the phonological level, sound symbolism refers to an association between a word's sound and its meaning. Morphology considers how word structure and morphemes convey different types of meaning, such as plurality, possession, and tense. Lexical meaning looks at open class words like nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, as well as closed class words like prepositions, determiners and conjunctions. Semantic explores meaning across these linguistic levels to understand how language communicates meaning.
The document discusses the field of semantics and its branches. It explains that semantics is the study of the meaning of signs and focuses on three key areas: syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Syntax concerns properties of expressions, semantics concerns relations between expressions and what they refer to, and pragmatics concerns how expressions are used in context. The document then provides examples to illustrate semantic concepts like synonymy, entailment, contradiction, and truth conditions. It also discusses how the meaning of sentences is compositionally determined by the meanings of their parts.
This document provides an overview of pragmatics from a lecture. It defines pragmatics as the study of speaker meaning, contextual meaning, and how more is communicated than what is said. It discusses key concepts in pragmatics including invisible meaning, context, deixis, reference, inference, anaphora, presupposition, speech acts, and politeness. Politeness involves face-saving acts that minimize threats to people's self-image and independence or connection to others. The appropriate interpretation of language depends on context and can differ across cultures.
This document contains a series of blog posts by Alison Varela on the topic of grammar. The posts cover relative clauses, relative pronouns, subject and object pronouns in relative clauses, defining vs. non-defining relative clauses, direct and indirect speech, changing tenses when converting direct to indirect speech, and examples of converting different verb tenses. The blog is intended to provide information to readers on various aspects of grammar.
This document discusses various types of semantic relationships between words. It defines synonymy as words with the same meaning, and antonymy as words with opposite meanings. Other relationships covered include hyponymy (specific to general), homonymy (distinct meanings), meronymy (part-whole), metonymy (associated substitution), retronymy (new names for old concepts), polysemy (related meanings), and converseness (reciprocal pairs). Examples are provided for each relationship type.
This document discusses linguistic semantics and the study of meaning in language. It covers several key topics:
- The definition of semantics as the study of meaning and how words can be meaningful. Meaning comes from the use of words and signs in language.
- Theories of meaning including conceptual views that see meaning as concepts in the mind linked to words, and views that see meaning arising from the relationship between symbols, concepts, and referents in the world.
- Lexical relations like synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and meronymy that examine relationships between words.
- The difference between sentence meaning derived compositionally from words, and utterance meaning derived from context of use.
This document discusses paradigmatic and syntagmatic sense relations. It defines paradigmatic relations as semantic relations between units of meaning that can substitute for each other in the same context. Examples given are hyponymy, where specific terms are included under more general terms, and synonymy, where terms have nearly identical meanings. Syntagmatic relations refer to the linear sequence of terms that occur together. The document also discusses different types of paradigmatic relations like meronymy, where a part relates to a whole, and principles that define meronymic relations.
Word meaning, sentence meaning, and syntactic meaningNick Izquierdo
This document discusses the relationship between word meaning, sentence meaning, and syntactic meaning. It challenges the view that word meaning is the sole source of conceptual content in sentences, and that syntactic structures only provide instructions for combining word meanings. The document argues that syntactic constructions have intrinsic meanings distinct from the words that make them up, and that construction meaning can override word meaning in some cases. It provides examples to demonstrate this, and argues that appeal to constructional meaning enhances theories of sentence semantics.
This document discusses the meaning and study of semantics. It provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in semantics, including symbol and referent, denotation and connotation, pragmatics, ambiguity, and semantic change. It also discusses subfields like lexical semantics and sentential semantics. As an example, it analyzes the sentence "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously," which was originally presented as meaningless but is argued to poetically describe new, dull ideas circulating unconsciously.
This document contains a series of blog posts by Alison Varela on the topic of grammar. The posts discuss various grammar topics such as relative clauses, relative pronouns, subject and object pronouns, defining and non-defining relative clauses, direct and indirect speech, changing tenses in indirect speech, and reporting verbs. The posts provide definitions and examples to illustrate key concepts. Links are included at the end of each post for additional online resources on the topics covered.
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is derived from words and sentences, including aspects like reference, sense, lexical relations between words, and conceptual relations. Semantic analysis considers how meaning is constructed through categorization, prototypes, and metaphor. Semantics aims to understand how language represents human conceptualization and cognition.
This document discusses semantics and defines key terms:
1) It defines semantics as the study of linguistic meaning and how words and sentences follow rules.
2) It outlines three subcategories of semantics: sense, reference, and truth.
3) Sense relates to lexical constructions like synonyms, antonyms, and hyponyms as well as speaker and linguistic sense. Reference relates to what speakers and language refer to. Truth relates to logical reasoning through syllogisms.
This document discusses how words and sentences derive meaning. It explains that word meanings are constructed through relationships like synonyms, antonyms, and polysemy. Figurative language like metaphor, metonymy and idioms allow words to take on nonliteral meanings. Sentence meaning comes from structure, while utterance meaning depends on context. Pragmatics studies how context shapes the implied meaning of an utterance. Overall, the document examines how semantics and pragmatics work together to help people construct and understand meanings from language.
The document provides an introduction to lexical relations and semantics. It discusses how semantics examines the meanings of words and their relationships. Some key lexical relations discussed are part-whole relationships, sequential/cyclical sets, and paradigms. Componential analysis is introduced as a method to analyze the semantic components that distinguish related words. Examples of semantic fields for human kinship terms and cleanliness-related words are given to illustrate componential analysis.
This document discusses metaphor and metonymy. [1] Metaphor involves understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another domain through similarity or analogy. Metonymy involves understanding one domain in terms of another associated domain through physical or causal proximity. [2] Examples of common metaphors include ARGUMENT IS WAR and TIME IS MONEY. Examples of common metonymies include PART FOR WHOLE and PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT. [3] Metaphor and metonymy are pervasive in both everyday language and abstract thought, and involve complex cognitive mappings between conceptual domains.
An auxiliary verb is a helping verb that comes before the main verb in a sentence. Some examples of auxiliary verbs are: do, does, did, have, has, had, be, am, is, are, was, were, can, will, shall, could, would, should, may, might, and must. The document provides examples of how these auxiliary verbs are used in sentences, such as "I have eaten my food" or "I am going to the park." It explains that auxiliary verbs are followed by different forms of the main verb, such as the base form, past participle, or present/past participle.
Auxiliary and modal verbs help form tenses, voices, and moods. There are primary auxiliaries like be, have, and do as well as modal auxiliaries like shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, used to, need and dare. Auxiliary verbs are used in short answers, to avoid repetition, with so and neither, in "echo" questions, to show emphasis, and in question tags. Question tags are formed with an auxiliary verb and pronoun and are used to check something believed to be true or to ask for agreement.
This document discusses modal verbs, including their definition, structure, and usage. Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that indicate modality or possibility and include can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, ought to, and must. The document explains that modal verbs do not change form for third person singular, do not require auxiliaries to form negatives or questions, and do not have infinitives or -ing forms. Examples are provided for how each modal verb is used to indicate ability, permission, possibility, necessity, suggestion, or other meanings.
Embracing Tier 2 {...and all the mCLASS sweeties with yellow dots}Jennifer Jones
I prepared this presentation for a nearby elementary school who hired me to help them with Tier 2 of the RTI (Response to Intervention) process including reading interventions, high yeild strategies for Tier 1 and Tier 2 and strategies for best practices in literacy instruction, literacy intervention and literacy progress monitoring.
Word Up! Vocabulary Instruction in the 21st Century ClassroomJennifer Jones
This is my presentation to accompany my (one day) Tier 2 and Tier 3 Hello Literacy workshop on vocabulary instruction. Perfect for Common Core, especially if your school is implementing a school-wide vocabulary instruction focus. This workshop includes the work of Marzano, the 6-Step Process, Vocabulary Notebooks, the work of Beck & McKeown, and the creation of Text Talk lessons.
This is my slide deck from my session at the North Carolina Reading Conference last week in Raleigh, NC. I do staff development to schools and districts all over the country about best practices in literacy instruction. This topic is one of my most requested.
TEDx Manchester: AI & The Future of WorkVolker Hirsch
TEDx Manchester talk on artificial intelligence (AI) and how the ascent of AI and robotics impacts our future work environments.
The video of the talk is now also available here: https://youtu.be/dRw4d2Si8LA
Uvod u morfosintaksu, lecture 07, 12 13Alen Šogolj
The document discusses the uses of modal verbs such as should, ought to, must, and shall. It explains that should and ought to are used to express advice or recommendation. Must can express obligation or necessity, either from the speaker's authority or as something inevitable. Shall is used to make predictions after I or we, and was used more commonly in the past to express obligation or insistence with other subjects.
This document discusses modal verbs and their grammatical properties. It covers major syntactic properties of modal verbs like inversion with the subject and negative formation. It then discusses specific modal verbs like can, may, must, need, shall, should, will and would. For each modal verb, it outlines their meanings in terms of ability, permission, obligation, necessity, possibility and willingness. It provides examples to illustrate appropriate usage of each modal verb in various contexts.
The document discusses the subjunctive mood in English grammar. It describes the two forms of the subjunctive as synthetic and analytic. The synthetic subjunctive has present and past tense forms, while the analytic subjunctive uses modal verbs like shall, should, would, may, might, and could followed by an infinitive. It provides examples of how the different forms of the subjunctive are used in various clause types like conditional clauses, subject clauses, and purpose clauses.
The document summarizes the main auxiliary and modal verbs in English:
Auxiliary verbs like be, have, and do are used to form tenses, voices, questions, and negatives of other verbs. Modal verbs like can, may, will express meanings like permission, possibility, certainty, and necessity. Modals are often included in the group of auxiliaries. [END SUMMARY]
LIN020L007A Syntax and MorphologyTahmina HaqueModal VerbsA mo.docxSHIVA101531
LIN020L007A Syntax and Morphology
Tahmina Haque Modal VerbsA modal verb, also known as a modal auxiliary, is a type of auxiliary verb that is used to indicate modality. In 'Understanding English Grammar' Payne defines modality as a complex conceptual domain. Many researchers have written on defining auxiliarihood and modaity ( Palmer 1986; Nagle 1989; Heine 1993). There is no correct way to define modality because of its highly distinctive and variable feature. Palmer (1986: 4) tries to explain the reason:'The real problem with modality is just not that there is great variation in meaning across languages but that there is no clear basic feature.' Modality is not only marked by modal verbs, it is also marked by mood and by particle and clitics. All these together make the syntax and semantics of modality one of the biggest problem for grammatical analysis.In this essay English modal verbs and their general characteristics are brought together followed by their complex effect in the language in terms of meanings and their general use in communication. Modal verbs are members of a large set of auxiliary verbs which have some common characteristics. Below is a table listing the modal verbs and their classification ( Quirk et al. 1985: 137):Class of verbsExamples CENTRAL MODALSMARGINAL MODALSMODAL IDIOMSSEMI-AUXILIARIES can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, woulddare, need, ought to, used tohad better, would rather/ sooner, BE to, HAVE got to, etc
Have to, BE about to, BE able to, BE going to, BE likely to, BE supposed to, BE obliged to, BE supposed to, BE willing to, etcMorphological and syntactic characteristics of modal verbs:The modal verbs have been classified according to their morphological and syntactical characteristics. Below are some characteristics of the central modals verbs :Takes bare infinitiveTakes negation directly Takes inversion without DO 'Code' EmphasisNo -s form for third-person singular No non-finite formNo co-occurrence Abnormal time refercenceThey have no imperativeThere are suppletive negative formI can go.can't, mustn'tcan I? must I?I can swim and so can you..She COULD finish that*cans, *musts*to can, *musting*may will You COULD leave this evening. (not past time)*Must come now!Ayesha must be there → Ayesha needn't be there. The table below shows central modal verbs also take a morphologically past form :Present tensePast tenseCanFarhana can study all night.WillAyesha knows he will help herShallI know I shall help the kidsMayI know the students may need help.CouldFarhana could study all night.WouldAyesha knew he would help her.ShouldI knew I should help the kids.MightI knew the students might need helpThe past form of the verbs might, would, could, should are also used as different modal verbs with different meanings. 'Must' do not have a morphological past form. Syntactical change takes place to express past time:I must finish my syntax and morphology assignment (present)I must have finished sy ...
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2. Meanings of the modals
2 main kinds of meanings for modal auxiliaries:
(I) root (or intrinsic, deontic) meaning – includes
ability, permission, obligation, volition. The root
meaning of modals involves some intrinsic human
control over events;
(II) epistemic (or extrinsic) meaning – includes
possibility, necessity, prediction. The epistemic
meaning of modals involves human judgment of
what is or is not likely to happen.
3. Meanings of the modals
Each of the modals has both root and epistemic uses. In
some instances there is an overlap of the two uses, i.e.
clauses that contain modal verbs are potentially
ambiguous:
(1) I’ll see you tomorrow then.
Will in (1) combines the meanings of volition (root
meaning) and prediction (epistemic meaning).
Normally the context makes the intended meaning clear.
There are also syntactic structures that favour root or
epistemic interpretation:
(2) (a) He must leave. = (On) mora otići. (root meaning)
(b) He must be leaving. = (On) mora da odlazi. (epistemic
meaning)
4. Meanings of the modals
There are 12 modal auxiliaries.
The set of 12 modal verbs consists of 4 paired forms
(present and past forms) and four single forms:
(I) can/could; may/might; shall/should; will/would.
(II) must, ought, need, dare.
used to, ought, dare, need are called marginal modal
auxiliaries. (see Lecture 04)
5. Meanings of the modals
Nonfinite verb phrases do not accept modal aux., but
the meanings of the modals can be added to them
through the use of semi-auxiliaries, such as have to,
be (un)able to, be allowed to, be about to:
(3) I am sorry to have to repeat this warning.
(4) Being unable to free himself, he lay beneath the
debris until rescued.
(5) The suspects admitted being about to commit a
crime.
(6) Many inmates hate not being allowed to leave the
premises.
6. Meanings of the modals
The modal verbs are also limited in their range of
time reference. When used with the present infinitive
of the main verb, they generally have a present or
future time reference.
From the point of view of meaning, past forms of the
modals (could, might, should, would) are often more
tentative or more polite variants of the present forms.
Of the 4 past tense forms, could, might and would are
used to refer to past time when followed by a present
infinitive, and then only with a restricted range of
meanings
7. Meanings of the modals
Of the 4 past tense forms, could, might and would are
used to refer to past time when followed by a present
infinitive, and then only with a restricted range of
meanings:
(7) Magda could speak three languages by the age of
six.
(8) He was very independent, and would never ask for
help.
(9) Try as he might, he couldn’t get the car to start.
8. Meanings of the modals
The use of the four past tense forms is however
automatic in sequence of tenses in reported speech:
(10) (a) “He can/could; may/might; will/would;
shall/should tell me.”
(b) I said he could; might; would; should tell me.
9. Meanings of the modals
The four single forms must, ought to, dare, need may be left
unchanged in reported speech:
(11) (a) “He mustn’t; oughtn’t to; daren’t; needn’t tell anyone.”
(b) I said he mustn’t; oughtn’t to; daren’t; needn’t tell anyone.
In (11b) (reported speech), the modal verbs do not refer to a
time earlier than the time of speaking. In the statement “You
mustn’t tell anyone”, the obligation (not to tell anyone) existed
from the time when it is expressed, i.e. from now onwards.
Similarly, in the report I said he mustn’t tell anyone, the
obligation (not to tell anyone) existed from the time when it
was expressed, i.e. from then onwards, and not at some earlier
time.
10. Meanings of the modals
The distinction between the root and epistemic meaning
of the modal verbs is important in terms of referring to the
past time in the clauses in which these modals occur.
If we wish to refer to ‘real’ past time with the modal verbs
in their root sense, we either use the past tense form of the
modal verbs (if appropriate and if available), or we use a
synonymous verb phrase (had to, didn't need to, was able
to, was permitted to, etc. If the modal verbs in their root
sense are followed by a perfect infinitive, they always
indicate ‘unreal’ past:
(12) He needn’t; should; ought to; would; might; could have
gone yesterday.
11. Meanings of the modals
If we wish to refer to ‘real’ time with the modal verbs
in their epistemic sense, we use the perfect infinitive
of the main verb. The use of the perfect infinitive of
the main verb does not usually affect the truth of the
statement, and in only a limited number of contexts
can it indicate ‘unreal’ past (i.e. contrary to past fact).
It is possible to use the present tense forms can, will,
may with the perfect infinitive to refer to past time:
(13) He must; can’t/couldn’t; will/would; may/might;
could; should/ought to have been here yesterday.
12. Meanings of the modals
(14) He must have washed the windows himself.
(14) indicates inference or logical conclusion (Mora
da je sâm oprao prozore), i.e. the epistemic
interpretation of the clause is most probable in this
context.
However, counterexamples can be found, in which
the perfect infinitive of the main verb indicates the
real past:
(15) Entrance qualifications. Candidates must have
obtained the MA or an equivalent qualification.
13. Ability or potential (can, could, be
able to)
can is used to indicate (a) the possession of ability in general
(example 16), and (b) being in a position, in particular
circumstances, to perform the activity denoted by the main verb
(example 17):
(16) He can speak German fluently. (can forms part of a
statement having general current validity)
(17) I can (or could) give him an answer now/later/tomorrow.
(can/could refer to an ability existing in certain circumstances
at the present or future time indicated)
! Important – to recognize the distinction between ability in
general and ability in specific circumstances.
! Important – both sentences (16 and 17) refer to a potential
performance of the action mentioned, not to an actual
performance.
14. Ability or potential (can, could, be
able to)
(16a) He could speak German fluently when he was younger.
(16a) represents a situation in the chronological past
parallel to that in sentence (16). It refers to the possession
of the ability to speak German, not to an actual
performance of speaking.
(17a) I could have given him an answer yesterday.
(17a) is the exact parallel in past time of sentence (17), and
means “I was in a position to give him an answer” (ability
in specific circumstances at a specific time). Again, it does
not refer to an actual performance; indeed it implies that I
did not give him an answer.
15. Ability or potential (can, could, be
able to)
If we wish to refer to an actual performance, we use a
form of be able to:
(18) I was able to give him an answer yesterday.
Verbs like see, hear, understand, etc. come into a
special category. The ability to see and the
performance of seeing are inseparable. And in this
case the use of could is possible when referring to an
actual performance in past time:
(19) (a) I can see quite clearly what you are doing.
(b) I could hear quite clearly what you were saying.
16. Ability or potential (can, could, be
able to)
The negative form couldn’t necessarily implies non-
performance of an action, and may always be used to
refer to past time:
(20) (a) He can’t speak German fluently.
(b) He couldn’t speak German fluently when I knew
him.
(21) (a) I can’t give him an answer right now.
(b) I couldn’t give him an answer yesterday.
17. Ability or potential (can, could, be
able to)
Can may be used with a future time reference (I can see
you tomorrow), but in this case the ability is more or less
taken for granted now and is not really in question. In
cases where ability will exist only eventually, or where it is
dependent on some other event in the future, we use
will/shall be able to:
(22) By the time he finishes his course, he’ll be able to speak
English well.
We also use be able to when we wish to indicate that an
action was in fact performed in the past:
(23) After looking at his notes again, he was able to
complete the exercise.
18. Ability or potential (can, could, be
able to)
Since can and could lack non-finite forms, we use be
able to where an infinitive is required or when we
want to express the perfect aspect:
(24) Ask that policeman over there. He should be able
to help you.
(25) This is all the information I’ve been able to get so
far.
19. Ability or potential (can, could, be
able to)
When could + present infinitive is used as the tentative
form of can, it has a present or future time reference:
(26) I could do it for you now if you like.
(27) I can’t do it immediately, but I could do it tomorrow
morning.
The reported version of sentence (27) is:
(27a) I told him I couldn’t do it immediately, but that I
could do it the following morning.
In conditional sentences, could often represents the unreal
present:
(28) If I knew how it worked, I could tell him what to do. (=
but I don’t know, so I can’t tell him)
20. Ability or potential (can, could, be
able to)
In a conditional sentence, could + perfect infinitive
expresses unreal past:
(29) If I had known how it worked, I could have told
him what to do. (= but I didn’t know, so I couldn’t tell
him)
21. General characteristics: can, could
Can and could are also used to refer to a general
characteristic or quality that may show itself from time to
time:
(30) A house in London can cost a lot of money.
(31) He could be very unpleasant when he was angry.
Neither of these sentences refers to an actual occurrence
of the phenomena referred to, and be able to is not used as
a substitute for can or could in such sentences.
(32) Learning a foreign language can sometimes be difficult.
= Učenje nekog stranog jezika zna ponekad biti naporno.
22. Possibility and permission: can,
could, may, might
(33) A fuller description can/may be found in the
reference books listed at the beginning of this book.
In (33), can and may are fully interchangeable. May is
a little more formal.
23. Possibility and permission: can,
could, may, might
(34) Agreement between management and unions may
be reached tomorrow.
If we wish to state a possibility rather than a fact, only
may is appropriate in (34), which means “It is possible
that agreement will be reached”.
The distinction between (33) and (34) may be
paraphrased as:
(33a) It is possible for this to be done at any time (=
statement of present fact)
(34a) It is possible that this will be done (= statement
of future possibility)
24. Possibility and permission: can,
could, may, might
Might represents the tentative form of may as used in
sentence (34):
(35) I may/might/could be wrong, of course. (present)
(36) The two parties may/might/could reach
agreement tomorrow. (future)
Could (often stressed) is quite commonly used as an
alternative to tentative might, as in (35) and (36).
25. Possibility and permission: can,
could, may, might
However, could is not used in this way in affirmative
negative sentences:
(37) They may/might not reach agreement tomorrow.
(38) They could not reach agreement tomorrow.
These sentences have quite different meanings. The
reason for this lies in the way the negative particle not
operates. In affirmative sentences with may or might (in
the sense of possibility), not goes with the main verb:
(39) They may/might not reach agreement tomorrow. = It is
possible that they will NOT reach agreement tomorrow.
26. Possibility and permission: can,
could, may, might
With could, not goes with the modal (unless we use a
very special stress and intonation pattern):
(40) They could not reach agreement tomorrow. = It is
NOT possible that they will reach agreement.
27. Possibility and permission: can,
could, may, might
To refer to past time, we use may, might and could
with a perfect infinitive:
(41) No statement was issued after yesterday’s talks,
but it is thought that the two parties may have reached
agreement. (= It is possible that they reached
agreement)
Might and could suggest that the possibility is a little
more remote:
(42) The two parties might/could have reached
agreement.
28. Possibility and permission: can,
could, may, might
Giving permission, we use can or may. May is
considered more formal:
(43) You can/may speak to the patient for just a few
minutes now/later/tomorrow.
Asking for permission, we use can or may. Asking
tentatively (more politely), we use could or might:
(44) Can/may; could/might I speak to you for a
moment?
29. Possibility and permission: can,
could, may, might
In the reported version of sentence (43), we use could or might:
(44) The nurse said we could/might speak to the patient for just a
few minutes.
We do not use could/might + perfect infinitive to refer to
permission given in past time. We are obliged to use a
paraphrase:
(45) We had (or were given) permission to speak to the patient.
Could/might + perfect infinitive suggest that permission existed
but wasn’t acted on, perhaps because of ignorance on the part
of the subject:
(46) You could/might have come yesterday e.g. if you had wanted
to.
30. Concessive meaning of may
(47) Your job may be very demanding, but at least it
isn’t boring. = Although your job is very demanding,
at least it isn’t boring.
May + perfect infinitive is used to refer to past time:
(48) The work may have been difficult, but at least it
was interesting.
31. Tentative way of making a request,
suggestion or recommendation:
might
(49) You might send me a postcard while you’re on
holiday.
32. Sarcasm or annoyance on the part
of the speaker: might
(50) You might look where you’re going!
(51) You might have told me you weren’t coming!