The document discusses the major classes of verbs in English: full verbs, primary verbs, and modal auxiliary verbs. Full verbs can act only as main verbs, modal auxiliaries can act only as auxiliary verbs, and primary verbs like "be" and "have" can act as either main verbs or auxiliary verbs. The functions of different verb forms like the base form, -s form, -ing participle, and -ed participle are also outlined. Operators like auxiliary verbs can carry tense, negation, and questioning.

2. Major verb classes
The term VERB is used in two senses:
(a) the verb is one of the elements in clause structure,
like the subject and the object;
(b) a verb is a member of a word class, like a noun or
an adjective.
The two sense are related in the following way: a
VERB PHRASE consists of one or more verbs (sense
b), eg linked, can believe, might be leaving in the
sentences below; the verb phrase operates as the verb
(sense a) in the clause:

3. Major verb classes
(1) They linked hands.
(2) He is making a noise.
(3) I can believe you.
(4) She might be leaving soon.
As a word class (part of speech), verbs can be divided
onto three major categories, according to their
function within the verb phrase:
(I) the open class of FULL VERBS (or LEXICAL verbs)
(II) the closed class of PRIMARY VERBS
(III) the closed class of MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS

4. Major verb classes
FULL VERBS believe, follow, like, see…
PRIMARY VERBS be, have, do
MODAL AUXILIARIES can, may, shall, will, must,
could, might, should, would
If there is only 1 verb in the verb phrase, it is the MAIN
VERB.
If there is more than 1 verb, the final one is the main verb,
and the one or more verbs that come before it are
AUXILIARIES:
(5) She might be leaving soon.
Leaving is the main verb in (5), and might and be are aux.

5. Major verb classes
Of the three classes of verbs, the full verbs can act only as main
verbs, the modal aux. can act only as auxiliary verbs, and the
primary verbs can act either as main verbs or as aux. verbs
Some verbs have a status intermediate between that of main
verbs and that of aux. verbs:
(a) the modal idioms are a combination of aux. and infinitive or
adverb. None of them have nonfinite forms and they are
therefore always the first verb in the verb phrase: had better,
would rather, have got to, be to.
(b) the semi-auxiliaries are a set of verb idioms which are
introduced by one of the primary verbs have and be. They have
nonfinite forms and can occur in combination with preceding
auxiliaries. So, two or more semi-aux. can occur in sequence: be
able to, be bound to, be going to, be supposed to, be about to, be
due to, be likely to, have to.

6. Major verb classes
There are also multi-word verbs, which consist of a
verb and one or more other words: turn on, look at,
put up with, take place, take advantage of, etc.

7. Full verbs
Regular full verbs , eg call, have 4 morphological forms:
(I) base form;
(II) –s form;
(III) –ing participle
(IV) –ed form.
Irregular full verbs vary in this respect, for example the
verb speak has 5 forms, whereas cut has only three.
Since most verbs have the –ed inflection for both the
simple past and the past participle, we extend the ‘-ed
form’; to cover these two sets of functions for all verbs.

8. Full verbs – the function of verb
forms
The verb forms have different functions in finite and
nonfinite verb phrases. The –s form and the past form
are always FINITE, whereas the –ing participle and
the –ed participle are always NONFINITE.
The BASE form (the form which has no inflection) is
sometimes FINITE, and sometimes NONFINITE.

9. Full verbs – the function of verb
forms
In a finite verb phrase (the kind of verb phrase which
normally occurs in simple sentences), only the first
verb word (in bold) is finite:
(6) She calls him every day.
(7) She has called twice today.
The subsequent verbs, if any, are nonfinite.
In a nonfinite verb phrase all verbs are nonfinite:
(8) Calling early, she found him at home.
(9) Called early, he ate a quick breakfast.
(10)Having been called early, he felt sleepy all day.

10. Full verbs – the function of verb
forms
The verb forms with their syntactic functions:
(I) the base form (call) is a finite verb in:
(a) the present tense in all persons and numbers
except 3rd person singular: I/you/we/they call regularly.
(b) the imperative: Call at once!
(c) the present subjunctive: They demanded that she
call and see them.
It is a nonfinite verb in:
(a) the bare infinitive: He may call tonight.
(b) the to-infinitive: We want her to call.

11. Full verbs – the function of verb
forms
(II) The –s form (calls) is a finite verb in the 3rd person singular
present tense: She calls him every day.
(III) The –ing participle (calling) is a nonfinite verb in:
(a) the progressive aspect following be: He’s calling her now.
(b) -ing participle clauses: Calling early, I found her at home.
(IV) The past form (called) is a finite verb in the past tense:
Someone called her yesterday.
(V) the –ed participle (called) is a nonfinite verb in:
(a) the perfect aspect following have: He has called twice today.
(b) the passive voice following be: Her brother is called Jim.
(c) –ed participle clauses: Called early, he ate a quick breakfast.

12. Primary verbs and modal
auxiliaries – verbs as operators
Aux. have one important syntactic function in
common: they become the operator when they occur
as the first verb of a finite VP.
The main verb be and the main verb have are also
operators when they are the only verb in the verb
phrase.
On the other hand, only the aux. do is an operator,
not the main verb do.

13. Primary verbs and modal
auxiliaries – verbs as operators
Operators share the following main characteristics:
(a) to negate a finite clause, we put not immediately after
the operator: She may not do it.
(b) to form an interrogative clause, we put the operator in
front of the subject (subject-operator inversion): Will he
speak first?
(c) the operator can carry nuclear stress to mark a finite
clause as positive rather than negative: Won’t you try
again? –Yes, I WILL try again.
(d) The operator functions in a range of elliptical clauses
where the rest of the predicate is omitted: Won’t you try
again? –Yes, I will.

14. Primary verbs and modal
auxiliaries – verbs as operators
If there is no operator in a corresponding positive
declarative sentence, the dummy (or ‘empty’)
operator do is introduced: She did not see the play.

15. Characteristics of modal aux.
(a) They are followed by the bare infinitive: You will
ask the question.
(b) They cannot occur in nonfinite functions, i.e. as
infinitives or participles: may - *to may, *maying,
*mayed.
(c) They have no –s form for the third person singular
of the present tense: She must write.
(d) Their past forms are used to refer to present and
future time: I think we may/might be outside.
Will/Would you phone him tomorrow?

16. The primary verbs be, have, do
Be:
(a) be is the main verb in: Ann is a happy girl.
Is that building a hotel?
(b) be has two aux. functions: as an aspect aux. for
the progressive, and as a passive aux.: Ann is learning
Spanish.
Ann was rewarded a prize.
Be has 8 different forms

17. The primary verbs be, have, do
Have:
(a) as an aux.: for perfect aspect: I have finished.
(b) as a main verb: I have no money.
Do:
(a) as an aux.: do has no nonfinite forms, but only present and
past forms
(b) as a main verb, do can function as a pro-predicate or pro-
predication referring to some unspecified action(s), alone or in
combination with so, it, this, that, etc.: She didn’t earn as much
as she might have done.
I’m throwing these books away. – Why are you doing that?
(c) the main verb do has many uses as a general-purpose
transitive verb: Let’s do the dishes.

18. Modal aux. and marginal modal
aux.
Marginal modal aux.: used to, ought to, dare, need.
Used to always occurs on the past tense: She used to
attend regularly.
It is used both as an aux. and as a main verb with do-
support: He usedn’t (or: used not) to smoke./He didn’t
use(d) to smoke.
The normal interrogative construction is with do-support:
Did he use to drink?
Ought to – to optional following ought in ellipsis: You
oughtn’t to smoke so much.
Ought I to stop smoking? – Yes, I think you ought (to).

19. Modal aux. and marginal modal
aux.
Dare and need can be used either as modal aux. (with
bare infinitive and without the inflected forms) or as
main verbs (with to-infinitive and with inflected –s,
-ing, and past forms).
The modal construction is reserved to nonassertive
contexts, i,e, mainly negative and interrogative
sentences.
The main verb construction can always be used, and
is in fact more common.