The passage summarizes key developments during the Machine Age from 1877-1920. It discusses the shift from agricultural to industrial work and the rise of cities as factories replaced farms. New immigrants provided a source of industrial labor. Transportation innovations like streetcars, subways, and railroads expanded cities. Factories used machines and scientific management to increase productivity but stripped workers of autonomy and dignity. Unions faced challenges from new technologies. Immigrants faced poor living and working conditions in urban tenements and factories. The rise of large corporations transformed the economy and legal system to favor businesses over individuals.
In the 1840s, improved transportation such as steamboats, canals, and the beginning of railroads connected different regions of the US and facilitated the growth of a national market economy. Inventions in agriculture like the cotton gin and mechanical reaper increased productivity on large commercial farms in the South and West. The North specialized in manufacturing to supply the growing agricultural sectors, leading to urbanization and the rise of early factories like the Lowell Mills. However, the US economy remained regionally specialized, with the North industrializing, the South growing cotton, and the West producing wheat and other crops.
Industrial and modern societies are characterized by a dramatic increase in production surplus due to advanced technologies and an abundance of capital. Unlike agrarian societies, industrial societies rely less on labor and more on machines to facilitate production. The industrial revolution began in Britain between 1750-1850 and centered on cotton production but later expanded to other industries. Factories and cities began to dot the landscape. While industrialization increased production, it also led to exploitation of workers, especially women and children, harmful environmental impacts from overconsumption of resources, and loss of jobs due to new technologies.
The document discusses the Industrial Revolution, which took place from the 18th to 19th centuries and marked a shift from manual labor and production in homes to machine-based, factory production. Key developments included inventions like the spinning jenny and water frame that mechanized the textile industry, James Watt's improvements to the steam engine, using coal instead of wood to produce iron, and building canals and early railways to improve transportation of goods. These changes resulted in much higher volumes of manufactured goods but also difficult working conditions and consequences for employment and society.
During the late 19th century, the United States underwent rapid industrialization driven by three key factors: abundant natural resources like oil and iron, governmental support of industry, and urbanization. New inventions in electricity, the typewriter, telephone, and steel production transformed the economy. The railroad industry expanded dramatically across the country, standardizing time zones and connecting markets. This period also saw the rise of large corporations, labor unrest over poor working conditions, and the emergence of unions seeking better treatment of workers.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread across Europe, transforming economies from agriculture-based to industrialized. New technologies like the steam engine powered factories where workers labored under difficult conditions. This led to the rise of organized labor movements seeking better treatment. Art styles also changed to reflect industrial and working class themes, like Realism highlighting everyday lives. Overall, the period marked massive social, economic and technological changes in Europe.
18.1 b chapter 18 powerpoint the industrial revolution (revised 10 13-13)crw2573
The document provides an overview of the Industrial Revolution in the United States through several sections. It describes how authors like Jack London and Mark Twain wrote stories depicting everyday American life. It also explains how the discovery of oil and new steel production methods by Andrew Carnegie drove industrialization. The growth of large factories benefited from economies of scale but also led to monopolies and consolidation. The Industrial Revolution spurred massive immigration to cities and the rise of labor unions seeking better treatment of workers.
The Industrial Revolution had both positive and negative effects on society. It led to advances in technology but also caused widespread poverty and poor living/working conditions. As machines replaced skilled workers, unemployment increased and many turned to violence. While it increased production, it also exploited child labor and polluted the environment. The enclosure acts displaced farmers and filled cities with impoverished populations to work in factories. Overall, the Industrial Revolution changed societies and economies but in many ways was detrimental to quality of life for many.
The Industrial Revolution had both positive and negative effects on society. It led to advances in technology but also caused widespread poverty and poor living/working conditions. Many farmers lost their lands and were forced into overcrowded cities to work long hours in unsafe factories for low wages. While it increased production, it also led to unemployment as machines replaced skilled workers. It boosted some economies but harmed others through unfair trade policies. Overall, the document examines both the benefits of industrialization as well as its human costs and detrimental social impacts.
In the 1840s, improved transportation such as steamboats, canals, and the beginning of railroads connected different regions of the US and facilitated the growth of a national market economy. Inventions in agriculture like the cotton gin and mechanical reaper increased productivity on large commercial farms in the South and West. The North specialized in manufacturing to supply the growing agricultural sectors, leading to urbanization and the rise of early factories like the Lowell Mills. However, the US economy remained regionally specialized, with the North industrializing, the South growing cotton, and the West producing wheat and other crops.
Industrial and modern societies are characterized by a dramatic increase in production surplus due to advanced technologies and an abundance of capital. Unlike agrarian societies, industrial societies rely less on labor and more on machines to facilitate production. The industrial revolution began in Britain between 1750-1850 and centered on cotton production but later expanded to other industries. Factories and cities began to dot the landscape. While industrialization increased production, it also led to exploitation of workers, especially women and children, harmful environmental impacts from overconsumption of resources, and loss of jobs due to new technologies.
The document discusses the Industrial Revolution, which took place from the 18th to 19th centuries and marked a shift from manual labor and production in homes to machine-based, factory production. Key developments included inventions like the spinning jenny and water frame that mechanized the textile industry, James Watt's improvements to the steam engine, using coal instead of wood to produce iron, and building canals and early railways to improve transportation of goods. These changes resulted in much higher volumes of manufactured goods but also difficult working conditions and consequences for employment and society.
During the late 19th century, the United States underwent rapid industrialization driven by three key factors: abundant natural resources like oil and iron, governmental support of industry, and urbanization. New inventions in electricity, the typewriter, telephone, and steel production transformed the economy. The railroad industry expanded dramatically across the country, standardizing time zones and connecting markets. This period also saw the rise of large corporations, labor unrest over poor working conditions, and the emergence of unions seeking better treatment of workers.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread across Europe, transforming economies from agriculture-based to industrialized. New technologies like the steam engine powered factories where workers labored under difficult conditions. This led to the rise of organized labor movements seeking better treatment. Art styles also changed to reflect industrial and working class themes, like Realism highlighting everyday lives. Overall, the period marked massive social, economic and technological changes in Europe.
18.1 b chapter 18 powerpoint the industrial revolution (revised 10 13-13)crw2573
The document provides an overview of the Industrial Revolution in the United States through several sections. It describes how authors like Jack London and Mark Twain wrote stories depicting everyday American life. It also explains how the discovery of oil and new steel production methods by Andrew Carnegie drove industrialization. The growth of large factories benefited from economies of scale but also led to monopolies and consolidation. The Industrial Revolution spurred massive immigration to cities and the rise of labor unions seeking better treatment of workers.
The Industrial Revolution had both positive and negative effects on society. It led to advances in technology but also caused widespread poverty and poor living/working conditions. As machines replaced skilled workers, unemployment increased and many turned to violence. While it increased production, it also exploited child labor and polluted the environment. The enclosure acts displaced farmers and filled cities with impoverished populations to work in factories. Overall, the Industrial Revolution changed societies and economies but in many ways was detrimental to quality of life for many.
The Industrial Revolution had both positive and negative effects on society. It led to advances in technology but also caused widespread poverty and poor living/working conditions. Many farmers lost their lands and were forced into overcrowded cities to work long hours in unsafe factories for low wages. While it increased production, it also led to unemployment as machines replaced skilled workers. It boosted some economies but harmed others through unfair trade policies. Overall, the document examines both the benefits of industrialization as well as its human costs and detrimental social impacts.
The document provides an overview of the American Industrial Revolution from 1820-1870. It describes key causes like improved transportation and economic independence. Influential inventors like Samuel Slater, John Deere, and Thomas Edison are mentioned who helped drive innovations in textiles, agriculture, and new technologies. Life during this period was difficult for many workers who faced long hours, dangerous conditions, poverty and disease, while the wealthy class prospered. The Industrial Revolution transformed the US into a globally competitive manufacturing power and capitalist economy.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the late 1700s and spread around the world. Mechanized production in textiles revolutionized those industries, replacing handmade goods. This led to new methods of production, demand for raw materials, and changes in the labor force as many moved to cities to work in factories. The expansion of mechanized production peaked in the early 1900s before the Great Depression. The demands of industrialization had impacts on families, society, and the environment.
The document discusses the key impacts and changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. It transformed techniques, energy sources, and forms of work organization, leading to tremendous growth in production. Society and everyday life were intensely modified as populations became more urbanized and shifted from agricultural to modern living. The Industrial Revolution also caused large increases in city populations and new industrial zones. It overhauled economies and living standards while establishing new ideologies like laissez-faire capitalism. Culturally, it dissolved craftsman guilds and turned workers into laborers in mass production factories.
The Gilded Age in American history saw powerful business tycoons, known as Robber Barons, exploit workers and amass great fortunes while most Americans lived in poverty. The Industrial Revolution transformed the economy from rural and agricultural to urban and industrial, spurring new technologies, mass production techniques, and the rise of big business monopolies in industries like steel, oil, and railroads. While some innovations improved living standards, working conditions were often dangerous and workers faced low pay, long hours, and lack of rights or protections. Growing economic inequality sparked labor unrest and calls for reform.
The document provides an overview of the First Industrial Revolution including key developments and factors that enabled it to begin in Britain. It discusses improvements in transportation like steamships and railroads. It also examines the growth of industries like textiles and how innovations in iron and coal production fueled further industrialization. Social changes are also summarized such as rural to urban migration, changing gender roles, and the development of labor movements in response to poor working conditions.
The Industrial Revolution transformed the economies and societies of Western Europe and North America between the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Key developments included the increased use of steam power and mechanization in textile manufacturing. In England, the Enclosure Movement consolidated land under private ownership, disrupting traditional farming systems but increasing agricultural productivity. However, enclosure also resulted in increased poverty, depopulation of rural areas, and homelessness as many lost access to common lands. The factory system became dominant, concentrating labor and production. While innovation drove economic growth, industrialization also brought harsh working conditions, the use of child labor, and little power for workers.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the late 17th century and transformed agrarian, rural societies into industrial and urban ones. New machinery, factories, and mass production techniques emerged. Transportation networks increased to support industry. This cultural and economic shift improved living standards for some but also led to issues like child labor and poor working conditions for many. The Revolution permanently changed how people lived and worked by establishing a factory system and freeing society from a primarily agricultural state.
Conditions and Reactions of Industrial RevolutionGreg Sill
The document discusses the impact of new machines during the Industrial Revolution. The machines allowed cloth merchants to boost profits by speeding up production. They needed to be run by waterpower near rivers and were large and expensive, moving textile work from homes to factories. Progress in textiles also spurred other technological inventions. The Bessemer process discovered coal could remove iron from ore to make steel. Workers organized unions and used strikes to eventually gain reforms like limiting child labor and setting safer working conditions.
Pdf version of euapps4 us.pdf industrial revolutionCharo Cuart
The Industrial Revolution occurred between 1750-1840 in Britain and was driven by increases in production from the use of machines powered by new energy sources like steam. It marked a major change in history that influenced all aspects of daily life. The key causes were the demographic, agricultural, and economic liberalism revolutions. New technologies like the steam engine and factories transformed industries like textiles while also creating new social classes and poor living/working conditions for many. The revolution later spread to other countries and transformed economies around the world through industrialization.
This includes complete notes needed for the chapter Industrialization included in CBSE Class X Curriculum.
The notes are prepared by topper of CBSE who scored A1 in Social Science and a 10 CGPA.
- The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the 1750s due to several factors: population growth which increased demand for goods and provided more workers, agricultural improvements which increased food production and displaced rural workers, technological progress such as steam power, and favorable political and economic conditions.
- Industrialization transformed Britain into a capitalist industrial society with new social classes including industrial workers who faced difficult working conditions and the rise of social movements seeking better treatment of workers.
The Industrial Revolution was a global event between 1700-1914 that saw significant changes across multiple scales. Population growth was uneven, with growth in Europe and European-descended populations in North America and increased migrations. Cities grew rapidly in size, and the most populous cities began shifting from Asian to European cities. Wealth and economic power also shifted from Asia to Western Europe and North America as their percentage of global GDP increased. The use of fossil fuels to power new steam engines and machinery enabled more efficient production and transportation, changing global economic relationships and interactions.
The document provides an overview of working conditions during the Industrial Revolution in Britain. It describes how inventions like the spinning jenny and water frame modernized the cotton industry and moved production into factories. This took work out of homes and led to long hours, low pay, and unsafe conditions for workers, especially children. It also discusses the growth of cities, poor living standards in urban areas, and impacts on family life and society.
The document provides an overview of working conditions during the Industrial Revolution in Britain. It describes how inventions like the spinning jenny and water frame modernized the cotton industry and moved production into factories. The summary describes harsh factory conditions like long hours, high injury rates from machines, and lack of job security or benefits. It also discusses the rapid urbanization that accompanied the Industrial Revolution and the overcrowded and unsanitary living conditions of the working class in cities.
1) In the early 1800s, many new technologies and industrial processes transformed manufacturing in the North. Factories used machinery and specialized workers to mass produce goods. Transportation also improved with canals, steamboats, railroads, and clipper ships connecting regions.
2) Working conditions in factories were difficult, with long hours, unsafe machinery, and no child labor laws. Workers joined unions and went on strikes to demand better treatment. Women and African Americans also faced discrimination.
3) Northern cities grew rapidly due to industrialization and large waves of European immigration, especially from Ireland and Germany fleeing famine and problems at home. However, some nativists opposed immigration, believing it threatened American jobs and culture.
The industrial revolution began in England in the late 1700s and early 1800s, driven by new inventions, abundant natural resources like coal and iron, and a growing population. The first factories were in the textile industry, using machines powered by water or steam to mass produce cloth. Industrialization spread to other parts of Europe and the United States in the early-to-mid 1800s, fueled by additional inventions, natural resources, and growing urban populations seeking work. While industrialization created wealth and raised living standards over time, the early years brought unhealthy living and working conditions, child labor, and tensions between social classes.
Early 19th century industrialization in America led to significant changes in transportation, technology, and the economy. The construction of canals and railroads transformed transportation and opened vast new markets. Inventions like the cotton gin, the steamboat, and the mechanical reaper drove industrialization. Factories concentrated in New England and utilized immigrant and female labor. This industrial growth concentrated wealth among elites and widened inequality. It also established regional economic specialization and patterns of immigration that shaped the nation's development.
Hogan's History- Early US IndustrializationWilliam Hogan
The industrialization of the United States began in the early 1800s, fueled by free enterprise and new technologies. Factories sprang up and large cities grew as thousands moved from farms to urban areas for work. Textile mills, established by Samuel Slater and Francis Lowell, drove the growth of the cotton industry. Infrastructure projects like the National Road, Erie Canal, and railroads connected regions and markets, facilitating trade and western expansion. The economies of the North and South diverged, with the North industrializing and the South specializing in cotton and slavery. Inventions like the cotton gin, reaper, telegraph, and interchangeable parts advanced industry and agriculture.
The document summarizes the development of capitalism during the Industrial Revolution. It began in England in the 1700s due to natural resources like water power, coal, and iron that fueled the new machines. Adam Smith's ideas in The Wealth of Nations supported a free market economy and laissez-faire capitalism. Private ownership replaced feudal systems and created global trade, new inventions, and changes to transportation and industry that spread industrialization worldwide in the late 1800s.
Stewart Brand gave a TED presentation about de-extinction and bringing extinct species back. He engaged the audience by asking if they would like to see extinct animals return. Scientists are injecting DNA from extinct animals like mammoths into modern relatives. However, issues exist with how to properly socialize the first animals of a resurrected species without their own kind. While some view de-extinction as unnatural, Brand believes it is our duty to undo extinctions we caused. He used examples like the carrier pigeon to make his case for attempting to revive lost species through science.
The document provides an overview of the American Industrial Revolution from 1820-1870. It describes key causes like improved transportation and economic independence. Influential inventors like Samuel Slater, John Deere, and Thomas Edison are mentioned who helped drive innovations in textiles, agriculture, and new technologies. Life during this period was difficult for many workers who faced long hours, dangerous conditions, poverty and disease, while the wealthy class prospered. The Industrial Revolution transformed the US into a globally competitive manufacturing power and capitalist economy.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the late 1700s and spread around the world. Mechanized production in textiles revolutionized those industries, replacing handmade goods. This led to new methods of production, demand for raw materials, and changes in the labor force as many moved to cities to work in factories. The expansion of mechanized production peaked in the early 1900s before the Great Depression. The demands of industrialization had impacts on families, society, and the environment.
The document discusses the key impacts and changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. It transformed techniques, energy sources, and forms of work organization, leading to tremendous growth in production. Society and everyday life were intensely modified as populations became more urbanized and shifted from agricultural to modern living. The Industrial Revolution also caused large increases in city populations and new industrial zones. It overhauled economies and living standards while establishing new ideologies like laissez-faire capitalism. Culturally, it dissolved craftsman guilds and turned workers into laborers in mass production factories.
The Gilded Age in American history saw powerful business tycoons, known as Robber Barons, exploit workers and amass great fortunes while most Americans lived in poverty. The Industrial Revolution transformed the economy from rural and agricultural to urban and industrial, spurring new technologies, mass production techniques, and the rise of big business monopolies in industries like steel, oil, and railroads. While some innovations improved living standards, working conditions were often dangerous and workers faced low pay, long hours, and lack of rights or protections. Growing economic inequality sparked labor unrest and calls for reform.
The document provides an overview of the First Industrial Revolution including key developments and factors that enabled it to begin in Britain. It discusses improvements in transportation like steamships and railroads. It also examines the growth of industries like textiles and how innovations in iron and coal production fueled further industrialization. Social changes are also summarized such as rural to urban migration, changing gender roles, and the development of labor movements in response to poor working conditions.
The Industrial Revolution transformed the economies and societies of Western Europe and North America between the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Key developments included the increased use of steam power and mechanization in textile manufacturing. In England, the Enclosure Movement consolidated land under private ownership, disrupting traditional farming systems but increasing agricultural productivity. However, enclosure also resulted in increased poverty, depopulation of rural areas, and homelessness as many lost access to common lands. The factory system became dominant, concentrating labor and production. While innovation drove economic growth, industrialization also brought harsh working conditions, the use of child labor, and little power for workers.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the late 17th century and transformed agrarian, rural societies into industrial and urban ones. New machinery, factories, and mass production techniques emerged. Transportation networks increased to support industry. This cultural and economic shift improved living standards for some but also led to issues like child labor and poor working conditions for many. The Revolution permanently changed how people lived and worked by establishing a factory system and freeing society from a primarily agricultural state.
Conditions and Reactions of Industrial RevolutionGreg Sill
The document discusses the impact of new machines during the Industrial Revolution. The machines allowed cloth merchants to boost profits by speeding up production. They needed to be run by waterpower near rivers and were large and expensive, moving textile work from homes to factories. Progress in textiles also spurred other technological inventions. The Bessemer process discovered coal could remove iron from ore to make steel. Workers organized unions and used strikes to eventually gain reforms like limiting child labor and setting safer working conditions.
Pdf version of euapps4 us.pdf industrial revolutionCharo Cuart
The Industrial Revolution occurred between 1750-1840 in Britain and was driven by increases in production from the use of machines powered by new energy sources like steam. It marked a major change in history that influenced all aspects of daily life. The key causes were the demographic, agricultural, and economic liberalism revolutions. New technologies like the steam engine and factories transformed industries like textiles while also creating new social classes and poor living/working conditions for many. The revolution later spread to other countries and transformed economies around the world through industrialization.
This includes complete notes needed for the chapter Industrialization included in CBSE Class X Curriculum.
The notes are prepared by topper of CBSE who scored A1 in Social Science and a 10 CGPA.
- The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the 1750s due to several factors: population growth which increased demand for goods and provided more workers, agricultural improvements which increased food production and displaced rural workers, technological progress such as steam power, and favorable political and economic conditions.
- Industrialization transformed Britain into a capitalist industrial society with new social classes including industrial workers who faced difficult working conditions and the rise of social movements seeking better treatment of workers.
The Industrial Revolution was a global event between 1700-1914 that saw significant changes across multiple scales. Population growth was uneven, with growth in Europe and European-descended populations in North America and increased migrations. Cities grew rapidly in size, and the most populous cities began shifting from Asian to European cities. Wealth and economic power also shifted from Asia to Western Europe and North America as their percentage of global GDP increased. The use of fossil fuels to power new steam engines and machinery enabled more efficient production and transportation, changing global economic relationships and interactions.
The document provides an overview of working conditions during the Industrial Revolution in Britain. It describes how inventions like the spinning jenny and water frame modernized the cotton industry and moved production into factories. This took work out of homes and led to long hours, low pay, and unsafe conditions for workers, especially children. It also discusses the growth of cities, poor living standards in urban areas, and impacts on family life and society.
The document provides an overview of working conditions during the Industrial Revolution in Britain. It describes how inventions like the spinning jenny and water frame modernized the cotton industry and moved production into factories. The summary describes harsh factory conditions like long hours, high injury rates from machines, and lack of job security or benefits. It also discusses the rapid urbanization that accompanied the Industrial Revolution and the overcrowded and unsanitary living conditions of the working class in cities.
1) In the early 1800s, many new technologies and industrial processes transformed manufacturing in the North. Factories used machinery and specialized workers to mass produce goods. Transportation also improved with canals, steamboats, railroads, and clipper ships connecting regions.
2) Working conditions in factories were difficult, with long hours, unsafe machinery, and no child labor laws. Workers joined unions and went on strikes to demand better treatment. Women and African Americans also faced discrimination.
3) Northern cities grew rapidly due to industrialization and large waves of European immigration, especially from Ireland and Germany fleeing famine and problems at home. However, some nativists opposed immigration, believing it threatened American jobs and culture.
The industrial revolution began in England in the late 1700s and early 1800s, driven by new inventions, abundant natural resources like coal and iron, and a growing population. The first factories were in the textile industry, using machines powered by water or steam to mass produce cloth. Industrialization spread to other parts of Europe and the United States in the early-to-mid 1800s, fueled by additional inventions, natural resources, and growing urban populations seeking work. While industrialization created wealth and raised living standards over time, the early years brought unhealthy living and working conditions, child labor, and tensions between social classes.
Early 19th century industrialization in America led to significant changes in transportation, technology, and the economy. The construction of canals and railroads transformed transportation and opened vast new markets. Inventions like the cotton gin, the steamboat, and the mechanical reaper drove industrialization. Factories concentrated in New England and utilized immigrant and female labor. This industrial growth concentrated wealth among elites and widened inequality. It also established regional economic specialization and patterns of immigration that shaped the nation's development.
Hogan's History- Early US IndustrializationWilliam Hogan
The industrialization of the United States began in the early 1800s, fueled by free enterprise and new technologies. Factories sprang up and large cities grew as thousands moved from farms to urban areas for work. Textile mills, established by Samuel Slater and Francis Lowell, drove the growth of the cotton industry. Infrastructure projects like the National Road, Erie Canal, and railroads connected regions and markets, facilitating trade and western expansion. The economies of the North and South diverged, with the North industrializing and the South specializing in cotton and slavery. Inventions like the cotton gin, reaper, telegraph, and interchangeable parts advanced industry and agriculture.
The document summarizes the development of capitalism during the Industrial Revolution. It began in England in the 1700s due to natural resources like water power, coal, and iron that fueled the new machines. Adam Smith's ideas in The Wealth of Nations supported a free market economy and laissez-faire capitalism. Private ownership replaced feudal systems and created global trade, new inventions, and changes to transportation and industry that spread industrialization worldwide in the late 1800s.
Stewart Brand gave a TED presentation about de-extinction and bringing extinct species back. He engaged the audience by asking if they would like to see extinct animals return. Scientists are injecting DNA from extinct animals like mammoths into modern relatives. However, issues exist with how to properly socialize the first animals of a resurrected species without their own kind. While some view de-extinction as unnatural, Brand believes it is our duty to undo extinctions we caused. He used examples like the carrier pigeon to make his case for attempting to revive lost species through science.
This document contains a series of short passages from www.saffo.com discussing topics around change, failure, indicators, and the shift from mass media to personal media such as the web. The passages note that change is often non-linear and can cluster at extremes, and advise to look back on the past and for indicators of future change, as well as to cherish failure. They also contrast mass media like television in the living room with personal media on the web that allows participation and creation from anywhere.
1. The document discusses various military applications of robotics, including autonomous weapons systems being developed by countries like South Korea, Israel, the US, and China.
2. It also outlines some of the legal, ethical, and technical challenges of using robots in war, such as determining responsibility for their actions, ensuring compliance with just war theory, and difficulties with target discrimination.
3. Existing international laws and frameworks for governance are examined, as well as alternatives like soft law approaches involving codes of conduct and framework conventions.
The document discusses how change often happens at the extremes and is rarely linear. It emphasizes looking back at past examples of change and indicators, as well as cherishing failures, especially those of others. The text also notes how media is shifting from large centralized models like TV to more personalized and distributed models on the web, with users participating and creating content from anywhere using many small platforms.
A great paper for touching forecasting and futures studies. Saffo says "People at cocktail parties are always asking me for stock tips, and then they want to know how my predictions have turned out. Their requests reveal the common but fundamentally erroneous perception that forecasters make predictions."
The Second Industrial Revolution from the 1870s-1910s was driven by oil, steel, internal combustion engines, electricity, and rapid communication technologies. It saw the rise of corporate research labs, increased patents, and advances in chemistry, biology, steel production, transportation (land, sea, and air), electricity, newspapers, and communication technologies like the telegraph, telephone, film, and radio. Mass production using these new fuels and technologies transformed economies and societies around the world.
The Industrial Revolution occurred between 1750-1840 in Britain and was driven by increases in population, agricultural productivity gains, and economic liberalism. Key developments included the invention of steam power by James Watt in 1776, which allowed factories to operate machinery faster and more efficiently. New textile and metalworking industries emerged, fueled primarily by coal. The Revolution transformed society through new social classes and poor living/working conditions for many, while also increasing overall production and wealth.
Lecture 6 b industrialism & marxism - 10.2014LACCD
The Industrial Revolution transformed European society from agrarian to urban and industrial. New technologies like steam power allowed for factories, mass production, and new transportation networks. This increased productivity but also inequality as the working class faced long hours, child labor, and unsafe conditions. Critics like Marx saw capitalism as exploiting workers. The Industrial Revolution also drove imperialism as countries sought new resources and markets.
This document provides an overview of urban development trends across several cities at different points in history. It discusses pre-industrial, industrial, and post-industrial eras in cities like Sao Paulo, Stuttgart, Cupertino, Coloma, and Moscow. It also covers urban planning philosophies like suburban developments, urban ghettos, public housing, squatters, and high-density central business districts. The document concludes by reflecting on trends in urbanization and the interaction between people and the built environment.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the late 18th century and was driven by technological innovations, new energy sources like steam power, and increases in agricultural productivity. Britain was particularly well-suited for the Industrial Revolution due to its political stability, strong merchant class, accumulation of capital, supply of natural resources like coal and iron, and emphasis on practical science. The Industrial Revolution transformed British society, creating a large middle class and urban working class that faced poor living and working conditions. It subsequently spread across Western Europe and to the United States, profoundly changing social and economic structures globally.
The Industrial Revolution began in 18th century England and was driven by new technologies like the steam engine. James Watt significantly improved the steam engine, making it more powerful and efficient. This allowed factories to mechanize production using steam power instead of human or animal labor. The textile industry was an early adopter of these new machines. The Industrial Revolution transformed the economy and society, leading to urbanization, a rise of capitalism, and a new social class of industrial workers.
The Industrial Revolution began in 18th century England and was driven by new technologies like the steam engine. James Watt significantly improved the steam engine, making it more powerful and efficient. This allowed factories to mechanize production using steam power instead of human or animal labor. The textile industry was an early adopter of these new machines. The Industrial Revolution transformed the economy and society, leading to urbanization, a rise of capitalism, and a new social class system divided between industrial capitalists and workers.
1) Between 1850-1900, new technologies like railroads, steamships, and electricity connected the global economy and drove industrialization.
2) Major industrial powers in Europe and North America grew in economic and political influence during this period.
3) Countries like Germany and Italy unified politically, and new national identities emerged across Europe driven partly by nationalism.
4) International relations revolved around competition between the major powers, including new industrial powers like Germany and Japan, which was undergoing rapid modernization and military buildup after opening to the West.
The Industrial Revolution had both positive and negative effects on society. It led to advances in technology but also caused widespread poverty and poor living/working conditions. As machines replaced skilled workers, unemployment increased and many turned to violence. While it increased production, it also exploited child labor and polluted the environment. The enclosure acts displaced farmers and filled cities with impoverished populations to work in factories. Overall, the Industrial Revolution changed societies and economies but in many ways was detrimental to quality of life for many.
The Industrial Revolution had both positive and negative effects on society. It led to advances in technology but also caused widespread poverty and poor living/working conditions. As machines replaced skilled workers, unemployment increased and many turned to violence. While it increased production, it also exploited child labor and polluted the environment. The enclosure acts displaced farmers and filled cities with impoverished workers. Overall, the Industrial Revolution was a period of significant change that improved technology but detrimentally affected many members of society.
The Industrial Revolution had both positive and negative effects on society. It led to advances in technology but also caused widespread poverty and poor living/working conditions. As machines replaced skilled workers, unemployment increased and many moved to cities where they faced overcrowding and pollution. While it boosted some economies, it harmed others through exploitation of resources and loss of rights for farmers and workers. Overall the Industrial Revolution transformed society through both gains in production and enduring social costs.
The Industrial Revolution had both positive and negative effects on society. It led to advances in technology but also caused widespread poverty and poor living/working conditions. As machines replaced skilled workers, unemployment increased and many turned to violence. While it increased production, it also exploited child labor and polluted the environment. The enclosure acts displaced farmers from their land, increasing poverty in cities. Overall, it was a time of both progress and human suffering.
The Industrial Revolution had both positive and negative effects on society. It led to advances in technology but also caused widespread poverty and poor living/working conditions. As machines replaced skilled workers, unemployment increased and many turned to violence. While it increased production, it also exploited child labor and polluted the environment. The enclosure acts displaced farmers from their land, increasing poverty in cities. Overall, it was a time of both progress and human suffering.
Changing Roles Of Women During World War IAmanda Brady
The book discusses the evolution of production systems from craft production to mass production to lean production. It focuses on how Toyota pioneered the lean production system, which aims to reduce waste and optimize efficiency. The authors compare the advantages of lean production to the drawbacks of previous systems. While no company has fully achieved lean production's ideal goals, it has significantly improved manufacturing operations and working conditions around the world.
How Did The Industrial Revolution Affect AmericaSharon Lee
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the 1700s and spread to Europe and the United States. It marked a shift from manual labor and production to mechanized factory systems, driving social and economic changes. In America, the Industrial Revolution led to the rise of factories in the North, driving migration to cities, changing work from agriculture to industry, and fueling growth in transportation networks. New inventions improved lives but working conditions in factories were often poor.
The Industrial Revolution contributed to the rise of realism in art in three key ways:
1) The harsh living conditions during this period stimulated artists to depict reality in a realistic style rather than romanticized imaginings.
2) Realist artists expressed dissatisfaction with the Industrial Revolution through realistic portrayals of working class life and the differences between social classes.
3) Honore Daumier's paintings of different class carriages showed the stark differences in living conditions between upper and working classes.
The document summarizes key aspects of the Second Industrial Revolution in the United States following the Civil War, including:
- New technologies like electricity, telegraph communication, and railroads transformed daily life and business by improving transportation of goods and people, enabling longer work hours, and allowing communication over long distances.
- African American inventors and innovators like Garrett Morgan, Granville Woods, and Lewis Latimer contributed important inventions that advanced industries like rail transport despite facing racial prejudice.
- Major innovations like Henry Bessemer's low-cost process for mass producing steel, Henry Ford's assembly line techniques, and Frederick Taylor's scientific management theories fueled rapid industrial growth.
The document discusses key aspects of the Industrial Revolution in England, including:
1) It summarizes some of the major changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution, such as the movement of populations from rural to urban areas and changes in family and work structures.
2) It outlines some of the factors that enabled the Industrial Revolution to begin in England, including population growth, natural resources, location, and entrepreneurship.
3) It describes some of the working and living conditions during the Industrial Revolution, such as long work hours, dangerous factories, and overcrowded urban housing.
The Industrial Revolution had wide-ranging effects on society and the world. It transformed manufacturing and production through new technologies like steam power and mechanization. This led to a shift from small, domestic production to large-scale factories. While industry and economies grew, many workers faced difficult conditions with long hours, low pay, and unsafe environments. The Revolution also contributed to rapid urbanization as people moved to cities for work. It laid the foundations for modern consumerism and globalization through increased trade and spread of industrialization. Overall, the Industrial Revolution was a period of significant social and economic change that shaped the modern world.
Why industrial revolution started in britianBibhushan KC
The presentation discusses several key reasons why the Industrial Revolution started in Britain:
1) Britain had natural resources like coal and iron as well as harbors and rivers for transportation. 2) An earlier Agricultural Revolution increased farm productivity and population growth. 3) Britain had colonies that provided raw materials and markets for manufactured goods. 4) British society was egalitarian and open to new ideas and technologies.
The document discusses the rise of new technologies and their impact on the global economy between 1850-1900. Key developments included the expansion of railroads and steamships improving global trade and connectivity. New industrial technologies like steel, chemicals, and electricity transformed economies. Germany emerged as a leader in chemical industries. Japan underwent rapid modernization after 1868, becoming an imperial power that defeated China and Russia by 1900.
2. The villages and farms of antebellum America increasingly gave way to cities and factories From 1870 to 1900 the portion of agricultural workers fell from 53% to 37% of the workforce Americans who left the farms to live in cities were joined by another massive stream: the “New Immigrants” from eastern and southern Europe (primarily Catholics and Jews) By 1900, 40% of residents lived in a place of 2,500 people or more: Americans were massing in compact areas on an unprecedented scale
3. There is no sine qua non link between cities and factories Early mills had been located along sources of water power, chiefly rivers: towns had then gradually grown around the mill After the Civil War the trend became massing population, production, and consumption in cities: each reinforced the other Technological innovations were indispensable to this linkage Earlier American urban areas were termed “walking cities” as their size and scope was limited to the distance inhabitants could travel on foot (often a radius of about two miles)
4. URBAN TRANSPORTATION REVOLUTION First came the horse-drawn omnibus, little more than a stagecoach, introduced in New York in 1827 By the mid 19th century horse drawn trolleys were competing with the omnibus in may eastern cities The 1886 harnessing of electric power allowed great dynamos to propel several cars simultaneously along the same track Leading to urban transport augmentations and breakthroughs such as the “EL” in Chicago (monorail), the cable cars in San Francisco and Chicago (1873) and, by the turn of the century, the subway in New York and other cities Together, these greatly expanded the horizontality of the emerging industrial cities, while providing many jobs to the builders and staffers of the systems Cities could thus expand outward as commuting distances steadily increased
12. The steam engines (circa 1850), powered by America’s abundant coal deposits, now allowed factories to escape river proximity, and, coupled with the electricity to power transportation systems and light homes, streets, and factories, also pulled industries into urban settings Existing cities also enjoyed the inherent advantage of already having centralized access to capital and labor Eastern cities began to specialize in producing consumer staples and heavy industrial items Midwestern centers like Chicago on processing agricultural goods, and western urban areas focused on extracting and refining minerals and lumber
19. NEW INDUSTRIAL FACTORY Increasingly loud, frenetic, crowded, ill-lit and ventilated with machine-tending workers ever more stripped of individuality, creativity, self-esteem, and dignity Increased competition, in part a result of the railroad’s ability to facilitate mass-marketing, drove owners to impose discipline, efficiency, and long hours for low pay on a work force that was tied to immigration Factories and immigrants were often the anchor of the city centers while the new transport networks allowed those succeeding in the emerging business opportunities of the industrial economy (“middle classes”) to live in ever-growing rings outward from the center Businessmen in the cities could easily recruit labor to tend the machines because factory work demanded no particular skills As the owners deployed workers and arranged the work into ever more specific, repetitive tasks Machine-made shoes, tended by up to fifty workmen trained to do only one part of the process, could now be completed at the rate of eighty per hour, as opposed to one hand-made pair per hour Loss of control by the workers of the production process
20. Cont… Power over the machines allowed management to restructure social relations A much greater gap came about between the low paid, unskilled workers on the plant floor and the management team that directed the factory (hourly vs. salaried employees) Reliance on machines required rigid disciplining of the workforce through adherence to fixed schedules of time and duties…disappearing was the quiet and relaxed atmosphere of the pre-machine workshop
21. 1886 Mc CORMICK STRIKE McCormick retaliated against a unionized iron molders strike that had succeeded the previous year by importing $500,000 worth of pneumatic molding machinery Thus stripping the skilled iron molders of any leverage in negotiations: these new machines were tended by easily replaced, much less-skilled men who could now get the job done (all 91 members of the iron molders union were fired) Increasingly, leverage and power in the industrial age were on the side of management
22. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT The basic principles were established by Frederick W. Taylor in the late 19th century Taylor separated the thinking and doing of work, something that could now be done thanks to the increasing use of machines (that stripped workers of power and leverage in the workplace) His clipboard-toting assistants visited a factory and, through rigorous observation of time and motion studies of the workers on the job, recommended the elimination of about half the present work force Management at that factory would also thus know what the workers had always known: how to do the job-salaried overseers could now tell workers all they needed to know to perform their specific task in the larger production process The implications for labor were chilling
24. Cont… Taylor’s men found wasted motion, improper tools, overstaffing, and reported on these happenings to the owners Those workers who survived the draconian cuts in the factory workforce would find themselves doing the work of two or even three former employees Turning men into robots of a sort
25. THE NEW IMMIGRANTS Eastern US cities grew in tandem with the rapid pace of in-migration from southern and eastern Europe after 1880 Almost 80% of the population of Chicago and New York in 1900 were foreign born or their children (first and second generation) Growing cities created a voracious demand for labor: municipal services, streets, sewers, schools, hospitals, and transportation systems that needed to be built from scratch: all of which multiplied the need for unskilled labor, a vacuum filled by the New Immigrants
32. Cont… At least 25% of arriving immigrants returned to their nations of origin and did not remain in the US By 1910 the immigration service identified 60% of the New Immigrants as “laborers” or “servants” For many the hard edge of desperation propelled them outward from Europe (lack of available farmland, hunger, fear of conscription, anti-Semitic pogroms, poverty) By 1910 they were 70% of all immigrant to the US: they saw opportunity as day laborers and unskilled factory workers in the US Whenever possible the native-born shunned such jobs Furthermore, many who out-migrated from Europe went elsewhere: Canada, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Australia
33. ETHNIC CONCENTRATIONS Various immigrant groups also gravitated toward or were pigeonholed into certain jobs Jew often gravitated to the ready-made clothing industry Irish dominated many eastern police forces Eastern Europeans were typecast as physical strong by stupid and plodding Italians were stereotyped as well-suited for street labor and construction gangs Many new arrivals from Europe gravitated to neighborhoods already well populated by kin or residents of home districts from the old country In Kansas City, Missouri two-thirds of the Italians came from Sicily Newcomers often found work at nearby factories or jobsites where family and neighbors were already employed: an informal ethnic beachhead Newcomers usually were given the lowest-paying, most physically demanding jobs
34. Cont… Handicapped by low wages, many were forced into crowded, ill-lit and poorly ventilated tenement slum conditions such as the lower east side of New York Often located near the factory district in a given industrial city, with the accompanying stench and smoke adding to their discomfort Most did not earn enough to afford the one-way nickel fare on the urban transport systems
40. The streets of tenement neighborhoods were often crowded by those seeking to escape the stench, crowding, and claustrophobia of the dank interior rooms What one saw and heard on these streets became a primary form of entertainment for those too poor to afford the theater or concert halls The Bowery Boys
45. INDUSTRIAL ERA POLICE FORCE A trend borrowed by Americans from Paris and London The industrial age created ever larger gaps between the emerging social classes An increasingly materialistic culture, right under the noses of the poor, drove some to theft and property crimes, in turn frightening the growing middle class The thriving middle class were willing to pay taxes to create a buffer between themselves and the newspapers described as the “dangerous classes” (the urban poor and struggling)
46. Cont… Irish-Americans were the logical group to predominate in urban-industrial police forces Many Irish had emigrated to the US a generation or two earlier They spoke English They were white They had a reputation for toughness (the “paddy wagon”) A gigantic step up the class ladder from the days of “Irish need not apply”
50. FAILED FARMERS Many who had embraced the Jeffersonian vision of virtue, independence, and liberty through farm ownership eventually gave in, exhausted from the unrelenting toil and harsh winters, as well as the inherent loneliness and isolation that accompanied living in rural America, as well as the drought and insects Their subsequent in-migration to the new industrial cities was speeded by the deployment of farm machines like the individual atop a McCormick reaper that could do the work of twenty men with harvesting sickles
55. Cont… They enjoyed a significant advantage over the New Immigrants streaming in from eastern and southern Europe: most were native born Protestant Americans who understood the culture and spoke English Many, however, were initially ill-equipped for the wrenching transition from farm life with its rhythm of the seasons, outdoor work, relative autonomy, and control of one’s time into the rigid discipline of factory life and the tyranny of Taylor’s time clock, coupled with urban crowding and diversity
57. 1870-1900: the capital invested in manufacturing increased six-fold Quantum jump in steel production from 1867 to 1900: 19,000 tons to 10 million tons Both are indicators of the US surge to world industrial standing Steel (1857 Bessemer process) replaced iron and wood as the main component in US machinery (harder and with much greater tensile strength) Now rails, nails, beams, plate, wire and tubing were all made of steel: the price dropped to $12 a ton by the late 1890s (from $50 in 1875)
58. By 1900, 1500 factories had payrolls of over 500 workers Eleven of the sixteen largest industries doubled in size, 1870-1900 Steel, in conjunction with steam power and electricity changed the face of the US The Brooklyn Bridge (essay in Portraits) City buildings could now soar vertically thanks to skeletons of steel I-beam, balloon-frame construction The meat-packing industry was revolutionized by the invention of the refrigerated railroad car
61. REFRIGERATED RAILROAD CARS Brought an enormous improvement to the American diet Revolutionized the cattle ranching and meat-packing industries Made the railroad even more important in American life Helped create fortunes for the two giants in the meat-packing field: Philip Armour and Gustavus Swift
65. VERTICAL INTEGRATION Pioneered (but not invented) by Swift and his meat company in the late 19th century Take control of very aspect of the raw material acquisition, manufacturing and distribution process in which your company engages = EFFICIENCY AND CONTROL + ECONOMY OF SCALE Swift bought the cattle ranches and employed the cowboys/owned the railcars that brought the beef to the Swift slaughterhouses, and owned as well the refrigerated railroad cars and, later, trucks that transported the cuts of meats to stores and markets
66. ECONOMY OF SCALE “the more you buy, the less you pay” Which gave the larger businesses and corporations a distinct advantage in under-pricing competitors and driving them out of the marketplace, thus capturing a greater market share for themselves Shipping in bulk also induced railroads to transport your product more cheaply per unit, thus also lowering costs Walmart and Crest toothpaste Purchasing group medical insurance for employees
72. HORIZONTAL INTEGRATION Pioneered by John D. Rockefeller of Standard Oil Seizing control of ever greater market share within your field is the goal of this monopolistic strategy Accomplished by driving competitors out of the marketplace, using vertical integration and lowball pricing, sometimes ruthless tactics, and/or buying them out (economy of scale a large key) Rockefeller owned all the pipelines that carried the unrefined oil: the size of his growing control of oil won rebates from railroads (economy of scale) which gave him an additional pricing advantage over competitors Rockefeller at his peak controlled about 87% of the petroleum market, the closest any horizontal integration has come to a pure monopoly
76. CORPORATIONS They further revolutionized the industrial age in several important ways Essentially the modern corporation was born with the transfer of several heretofore individual rights and immunities to large business entities In the process corporations gained the freedom from external regulation and control that was originally the hallmark of republican liberty in Jefferson’s America Jefferson had argued that individual economic independence and the sanctity of private property, free of intrusion by government or other individuals, were essential to liberty
77. Cont… Ironically, by granting these long-cherished individual rights to companies, a majority of Americans lost basic freedoms so dear to Jefferson’s generation As an increasing number of Americans were now dependent on someone else for their livelihood They also became increasingly subjected to the hierarchical rules and nondemocratic controls of the corporations and large businesses for which they worked as the corporations secured the rights long established to insure the freedom of individuals against concentrated government power
78. LEGAL FOUNDATIONS Gradually shifting legal doctrines, emerging from common law protection of farmers, evolved to encourage capital accumulation, risk taking, and economic growth By the 1820s courts were dismissing lawsuits filed by farmers whose lands had been flooded by the actions of mill owners, with judges presuming society’s “greater good” was served by businesses rather than individuals Gradually eroding the tenets of the Moral Economy that had guided Europe since the Middle Ages (common good over private gain)
79. Cont… With the rise of the Market Economy views of the economic sphere emerged stressing fluctuating prices according to supply and demand, as well as applauding speculative commercial ventures and future’s trading in crops and animals In other words, the new wisdom in the business world stressed that prices and values were inherently subjective Contracts, thanks to the Marshall and Tawney Supreme Courts, were now governed by the will of the parties and were considered binding regardless of any perceived unfairness or inequality in the agreement In 1837 Tawney had freed a newer company from the monopolistic claims of an older corporation in the Charles River Bridge case, encouraging open competition and spurring the creation of new businesses and competition Andrew Jackson had typified the beliefs of many anti-corporate Democrats in decrying such decisions, while their Whig opponents, embracers of the market economy, cheered
80. SUPREME COURT, CONT… Individual state legislatures passed laws in the latter half of the 19th century, that effectively functioned as tariffs, in an effort to favor local and in-state merchants and manufacturers over outside competitors who could now much more easily access national markets via the railroad The Supreme Court, in a series of rulings in the late 19th century, overturned these state statutes, citing the inter-state commerce clause in the Constitution, thus completely a national marketplace free of local restrictions and advantages Thus, the Industrial Revolution was accompanied by an agricultural revolution, a judicial revolution, and a market revolution that created a “common market”
81. Cont… The amount of capital needed and the scope of activities of the emerging corporations were unprecedented by 1900 As was the flow of information needed to run a corporation in a changing marketplace Resulting in bureaucratic and hierarchical corporate structures that resembled a military culture with its chain of command, flowing downward and outward from central offices Railroads pioneered this “militarization” as well as eliminating the old “barriers to bigness” presented by time and distance
82. ADVERTISING REVOLUTION James B. Duke (yes, the university) led the American Tobacco Company as it pioneered mass production via machines that could turn out 100,000 cigarettes per day in 1881 Faced with over-production Duke created mass marketing advertising techniques that at first were ridiculed by his CEO peers in the corporate world The thought of plowing up to 1/3 of company profits into convincing Americans to buy one’s product seemed laughable if not foolhardy, as that money, CEOs argued, should rightly go to stockholders in the form of dividends that would also shore up the company’s Wall Street share price
83. Cont… But Duke’s approach to marketing gradually won over other corporate leaders as they came to realize that mass production could only succeed in tandem with mass marketing With increasing mass production fueled by machines corporate leaders also understood that production costs must be shaved to the bone Like Duke they sought to sell millions of units of their products with bare-bones profit per item (instead of making a million on one sale you instead make a dollar on each of a million sales)
85. POOLS Business leaders within a given industry, despite public pronouncements about competition and the virtues of free enterprise, sought to mitigate the damaging effects of vicious competition and the discipline of the market by creating pools Pools, entered into voluntarily by the top several companies in a given industry, fostered cooperative agreements on pricing, production, regional market allocations, and wages, as well as passing on information about potential union activists They often broke down, however, as individual companies were also under pressure from stockholders to increase profits by growing their market share Also, they could not be enforced because they were not legally enforceable as the Congress passed bills like the Sherman Anti-Trust Act
86. TRUSTS John D. Rockefeller saw the inherent weakness of pools His chief lawyer, Samuel Dodd, dug up an old business tactic in which an individual was allowed to manage the financial affairs of someone unwilling or unable to handle them himself Dodd in 1887 saw the possibilities for horizontal integration via a trust if the stockholders of smaller oil companies could be persuaded or bullied into yielding control of their stock to the Board of Trustees of Standard Oil
87. HOLDING COMPANIES Trusts, however, became a moot point the next year when New Jersey, anxious to attract corporations to their state, passed new laws allowing corporations chartered there to own property in other states as well as stock in out-of-state companies Trusts had not allowed for ownership, only “trusteeship” Thus opening the way for the creation of New Jersey chartered “holding companies,” many of which over time owned no corporate assets except the stock of other companies Thereby allowing one corporation to control the actions of many businesses by acquiring majority interests in them through stock purchases and stashing that stock in holding companies
88. Cont… Holding companies could also be used to vertically integrate, as Gustavus Swift was doing in the meat industry By buying up cattle ranches and pig farms, as well as purchasing the railroad cars on which the meat was transported and, later, owning the trucks in which the processed meat was sent to retail outlets like grocery stores Subsidiary companies controlled by Swift were created to manage each of these interrelated parts of the operation
89. FINANCIERS Acted as “marriage-brokers” or middlemen in the financial arena for the many “mergers and acquisitions” that took place toward the end of the 19th century and beyond Bringing together firms that needed capital with those that had large sums to lend or invest And extracting a small percentage fee for their services (1% of a million dollar transaction is $10,000, barely noticeable, but by the end of the year you have made a fortune)
92. SOCIAL DARWINISM A notion first coined in England by the philosopher Herbert Spencer Its foremost American champion was the Yale professor William Graham Sumner Its proponents linked Darwin’s theory of the survival of the fittest with the prevailing laissez faire principles trumpeted by business and corporate leaders To justify the great and growing gaps between rich (WASPS) and the (immigrant) poor And to legitimize the notion that wealth flows naturally to the superior and the elite Monopolies, therefore, were beneficial in that control lay in the hands of the “fittest”
94. GOSPEL OF WEALTH An argument put forward by the immigrant industrialist Andrew Carnegie: philanthropy He argued for the validity of Social Darwinism but added the idea that the elite who gained wealth had a duty to society to give back By creating cultural, artistic, and literary monuments for public use and edification: parks, libraries, concert halls, universities Was he goaded late in life by his nagging Scottish Presbyterian conscience? Never did he advocate raising the wages of the exploited working class
97. GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE TO BUSINESS Just as business leaders in the industrial age publicly trumpeted rugged individualism while privately creating pools, trusts, and holding companies to minimize competition So they also readily accepted numerous forms of government help in creating and growing their businesses Tariff policies kept out European competitors and allowed American firms to raise prices Railroads had benefitted greatly from generous land subsidies The US Post Office carried corporate correspondence US patent laws safeguarded the profits from the inventions created by corporate scientists
98. LESTER WARD The university champion of the new academic discipline of Sociology that was becoming the rage on college campuses among those seeking reform of the system Ward argued that progress of civilization came from human control of nature, not natural selection He further suggested that humans are the product of their environment, that they are shaped by their surroundings (casting doubt on Social Darwinism For Ward, ethics was more important than exploitive profits and laissez faire He decried the brutal excesses of the Industrial Age as wasteful and obscene
100. HENRY GEORGE A social reformer and economist whose book “Progress and Poverty” sold more copies in the US in the 1880s than any other publication save the Bible George was appalled at the great disparity between rich and poor in the industrial age He advocated a “single tax” on all owned land in the US equal to its rental value: doing this, he argued, would obviate the need for any other tax, leaving America with a “single tax” Workers could thus keep all their hard-earned wages He saw land as a gift from God, not a man-made creation He became so popular in New York city that he defeated Theodore Roosevelt while finishing 2nd in the city’s mayoral election
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102. EDWARD BELLAMY A socialist who believed that the lustful drive for profit and property lay at the root of American society’s increasing ills in the Industrial Age Argued in his utopian novel “Looking Backwards” that the only way out of this morass lay in government ownership of all means of production and vital industries, thus removing the profit motive that turned men into ravaging beasts And evolving America into an egalitarian and just society based on brotherhood and fair play that Bellamy labeled Nationalism Because American citizens chose the government leaders, in reality, the people not the plutocrats would own the companies, businesses, and utilities
104. E.C. KNIGHT CASE Corporate friendly senators had succeeded in watering down the Sherman Anti-Trust bill and knew that its enforcement lay with pro-business federal judges The EC Knight case came about through legal challenges to the “Sugar Trust” which had come to dominate the American sugar-refining industry The Supreme Court embraced a literal meaning of the Constitution’s “interstate commerce” clause, and ruled that Congress could only regulate trade, not manufacturing, which they deemed an entirely different activity not covered by the Framers
105. Cont… Only a handful of prosecutions under the Sherman bill took place in the decade after its passage Ironically, the pro-business courts interpreted the famous “restraint of trade” phrase in the bill to curb the power of labor unions, something its congressional creators had never intended
106. CLERICAL REVOLUTION Business paperwork in the antebellum arena had been done by the ink-stained fingers of male scriveners (Herman Melville) Their ranks had shrunk drastically by the early 20th century, replaced by young, single women with enough trade school education to effectively use the latest business innovations: the typewriter, cash register, and adding machine Corporations increasingly relied on these women because they could pay them less than men, they were viewed as more tractable, and, with the strong societal pressure on women to marry and “find their true calling” as wives and mothers, they were short-term employers who would not unionize Nevertheless, a big step up for young single, modestly educated American women mired in the expectations of the “velvet cage” of domesticity
108. Cont… In 1880 4% of clerical jobs were staffed by females…in 1920 nearly half were A significant step up from factory or servant work for the daughters of the New Immigrants in becoming secretaries and shop girls Discrimination was the norm as women were seldom entrusted with cash and were paid wages lower than men
109. CHILD LABOR In 1890 over 18% of children outside the farm sector were employed, especially in the textile and shoe industries They were paid a fraction of adult wages, saving the company money by reducing production costs Several northern states passed laws regulating child labor abuses, but the courts ruled that large firms, engaged in interstate commerce, were exempt from state regulation Poor parents, desperate for extra family income, complicated the situation by misleading the authorities about the age of their children Compulsory school laws put a dent in child labor
115. INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS The number of injuries, maimings, and deaths rose steadily in America’s Industrial Age, peaking at hundreds of thousands per year around 1920 In 1913 industrial accidents killed 25,000 and left an additional one million hurt In an era with no disability insurance for doctor visits, or to replace lost incomes Prevailing free market views impeded the passage of laws in this area
116. LABOR REFORM EFFORTS Variations on the allegations of Malthusian theory and Ricardo’s “iron law of wages” If wages rise the number of people seeking the jobs will increase, creating a glut of workers and driving wages back down, using basic supply and demand principles Therefore, why bother to give wage increases in the first place? Especially with the massive influx of New Immigrants creating an “excess labor pool”
119. HENRY FORD Linked individualism and materialism through the assembly line and Fordism His creation of the auto assembly line greatly increased production by bringing the evolving “Model T” to the stationary workers The assembly line work was often boring and repetitive: Ford decided to pay these workers the then outrageous wage of five dollars per day His corporate peers sneered at such largesse, but Ford replied that his workers would all run out and buy a Ford automobile Thus making an important contribution to modern American consumerism and demand-side economics: without well-compensated workers manufacturers cannot produce and make profits
120. DU PONTS: CHEMICALS Although Germany as a nation took the lead in the chemical field the foremost American family in this areas was the Du Ponts They feared that the family’s long-term domination of the gunpowder industry in the US could be threatened by anti-trust laws And so branched out into the broader chemical market, producing fertilizers, dyes, photographic film, rubber, lacquer, and plastics All the while pioneering modern management tactics and strategies
121. SUPREME COURT AND LABOR In Holden v. Hardy, 1896, the Court denied the plaintiffs’ claims that their 14th Amendment rights were being violated and upheld a Utah law limiting the workday of miners there to eight hours, on the grounds that the work was inherently dangerous and unhealthy In Locknerv. New York, 1905, the Court by a narrow 5 to 4 vote reached a very different decision in a case involving the ten work day and sixty hour , work week of bakers, on the grounds that such work posed no inherent danger to employees, thus ruling against the bakers’ 14th Amendment claims and in favor of “liberty of contract”
122. Cont… In Muller v. Oregon, 1908 the Supreme Court for the first time accepted sociological evidence before rendering its decision (the famous Brandeis Brief) They found unanimously that female laundresses could not be compelled to work more than ten hours per day Largely for sexist reasons as longer hours might have an adverse affect on maternity A victory for labor but the decision was later interpreted to bar women from certain jobs on account of their “weaker” nature
126. KNIGHTS OF LABOR See the Walter Licht essay in Interpretations The leader of this union, Terrence Powderly, named them “knights” in an attempt to rekindle the status, self-esteem, and relative income of skilled craftsmen in the Middle Ages that was being eroded in the Industrial Age Powderly divided the world into those who earn a living by honest toil and the sweat of their brow, and the leaches who exploited noble working people while acquiring the bulk of available assets and money (“an injury to one is a concern to all”) He therefore allowed any working person into the Knights (including women, blacks, Jews, Catholics, immigrants): an incredibly radical idea for its time They were not able to overcome middle class fears and misperceptions, and disappeared in the wake of the 1886 Haymarket Affair
129. HAYMARKET AFFAIR, 1886 Grew out of European labor-inspired May Day parades and celebrations in Chicago A few extremist anarchists (those who advocate complete individual freedom and believe governments must be eliminated, violently if necessary) exploded bombs at the event Bringing in the police who brutally dispersed the demonstrators, killing several The Knights were blamed despite a lack of any real evidence, and several leaders were convicted at trial Middle class fear and anger with the sea of immigrants helped set the stage for this tragedy, as did a rejection of all things European like May Day, and the growing class tensions emerging in the Industrial Age
133. AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR Use the Walter Licht essay in Interpretations Really more of an “umbrella organization” of several unions of skilled men (we support Capitalism while seeking a larger slice of the pie) Their charismatic leader, Samuel Gompers, stressed “bread and butter” issues: higher wages, safer factories, health insurance, and collective bargaining Gompers also emphasized a non-partisan approach to the two dominant political parties, promising to throw the voting strength of the AF of L to the party that would do the most for labor Gompers also stressed the creation of a strong strike fund to use as a weapon at the bargaining table to win concessions in negotiations with owners and management Finally, Gompers rejected the Knights all-encompassing strategy and only allowed skilled white men to join: they were much less easily replaced in the event of a strike
143. INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD The most radical of the labor unions of the Industrial Age: they supported violence if necessary to topple the System (ruthlessly exploitive Big Business and the courts and politicians who did their bidding) And replace it with worker-dominated network of production and distribution of goods and services in which the wage structure would be eliminated Rejected the “failures” of the AF of L which, by the founding of the “Wobblies” in 1905 had only unionized 5% of workers in America “an injury to one is an injury to all” (a worker solidarity slogan that went beyond the Knights) Gompers saw the AF of L as top down culture in which leaders bargained with management for the workers While “Big Bill” Haywood and other Wobbly spokesmen emphasized a bottom-up structure in which workers as a group would assume control of factories
148. Cont… Clearly their radical strategy and occasionally violent tactics terrified the middle and upper classes The beginning of the end for Wobblies began in World War I when the union refused to sanction either US participation in the conflict or the draft: why should good working men, the Wobblies argued, be compelled to murder brother working men from other countries so that the rich could grow richer by supplying them with the guns to bring about their destruction?)
149. TRIANGLE SHIRTWAIST FIRE, 1913 Use your in-class notes from the film to understand this tragic moment in both labor and gender history