In many ways this battle is the turning point in the European Theater. The story is a real cliffhanger. I also use the visual material in my Annapolis textbook to demonstrate the interpretation of charts and graphs.
Teaching Bible and History half-time, creating during the other half, and during the "third half" studying history and the Bible. Hi! My name is Pete. I am really into my project of creating sound-less PowerPoint presentations of US History, intended for the classroom teacher, the parents of home-schoolers, or the historically obsessed. It takes time to create the lessons, but it’s fun for this old retired teache. I find that narrations are too difficult to fit my lessons. The teacher or viewer should control the speed of the video, stopping/pausing where necessary to amplify, correct, discuss, or criticize. There will be a huge set of lessons on World War II events in depth. There will be a huge set of lessons on the Bible. I trust you will enjoy the lessons as much as I did creating them. Q and A are inserted throughout for fun or annoyance, hopefully for teaching moments and discussions. Should be great for the high school classroom or the home-schoolers. But, I like reading/viewing my own stuff, I think it’s good, I learn….or recall more history with every viewing. Watch for the battles like the first, Island Hopping-the war in the Pacific (WWII).
Napoleon, Part 2, session iii, WellingtonJim Powers
The document discusses Wellington's first offensive against the French in Portugal during the Peninsular War. It describes Wellington's strategy of remaining firmly on the defensive for the first three years of the war, only fighting when the odds were favorable, in order to prevent the French from concentrating enough forces to defeat his army. It then discusses how the tide turned in 1812 when Napoleon invaded Russia and faced war on two fronts, allowing the Allies to go on the offensive. Within 18 months, the war was won. The document provides strategic context for Wellington's early cautious approach and later ability to shift to offense once Napoleon's position was weakened.
Sea power 2-session 7-napoleon and nelsonJim Powers
Horatio Nelson and Napoleon Bonaparte were two ambitious military leaders who came to symbolize their respective nations of Britain and France in the late 18th century. In 1798, Bonaparte led a French expeditionary force in invading Egypt, hoping to establish a base to threaten British control of India. Unbeknownst to Bonaparte, the British admiral Nelson was searching the Mediterranean for the French fleet. Nelson's and Bonaparte's fleets narrowly missed encountering each other off the coast of Egypt. Nelson then departed Alexandria, allowing Bonaparte's forces to land unopposed. A few weeks later, Nelson received word of where the French fleet was anchored and prepared for a decisive battle.
The document summarizes key events and developments in the North African and Mediterranean theaters of World War 2. In North Africa, it outlines the timeline of major battles between Allied and Axis forces from 1940-1943, including Rommel's offensives and the critical Allied victory at El Alamein in 1942. In the Mediterranean, it describes major naval engagements and air operations around Malta and convoy routes. Tank warfare played a pivotal role in North Africa while air and naval power were decisive in the Mediterranean. Control of these regions tied up significant Axis resources and ultimately forced Germany to fight on multiple fronts.
1. You can get the document of this ppt here: http://www.militarybattles.tk/2017/03/battle-of-el-alamien.html
2. You can learn history of Military Battles here: http://www.militarybattles.tk/
3. You can learn other battle history here: http://www.militarybattles.tk/p/all-battles.html
4. You can get the video of this ppt here: https://youtu.be/9CzPgWKoNnA
1) German U-boats were a key part of Germany's naval strategy in World War 2, operating worldwide with the goal of disrupting Allied shipping.
2) The "Wolfpack" tactic, developed by Admiral Donitz, involved coordinating groups of U-boats to attack convoys together for greater effectiveness.
3) Key U-boat operations included "Operation Drumbeat" against U.S. shipping from bases in occupied France in 1942, though Allied codebreaking and convoy escorts led to declining successes by 1943.
This document provides an overview of Napoleon's rise to power and the Napoleonic Empire. It discusses several key topics:
1) Napoleon relied on his military victories and glory to maintain his power as leader of France.
2) It examines Britain's naval power under Pitt the Younger and its role in allowing Britain to defeat France by controlling the seas and attacking French colonies.
3) It highlights several of Horatio Nelson's pivotal naval victories, including the Nile in 1798 and Trafalgar in 1805, that helped isolate Napoleon's forces and strengthen Britain's allies against France on land.
This document provides a summary of key military, political, and social events that occurred each month in 1916 during World War 1. Some of the major events included the start of the Battle of Verdun in February, the beginning of conscription in Britain in February, the Battle of Jutland at sea in May, the launch of the Battle of the Somme in July, Romania joining the Allies in August, and the end of the Battle of Verdun and Battle of the Somme in November. Fighting took place across Europe and in overseas colonies and campaigns.
Teaching Bible and History half-time, creating during the other half, and during the "third half" studying history and the Bible. Hi! My name is Pete. I am really into my project of creating sound-less PowerPoint presentations of US History, intended for the classroom teacher, the parents of home-schoolers, or the historically obsessed. It takes time to create the lessons, but it’s fun for this old retired teache. I find that narrations are too difficult to fit my lessons. The teacher or viewer should control the speed of the video, stopping/pausing where necessary to amplify, correct, discuss, or criticize. There will be a huge set of lessons on World War II events in depth. There will be a huge set of lessons on the Bible. I trust you will enjoy the lessons as much as I did creating them. Q and A are inserted throughout for fun or annoyance, hopefully for teaching moments and discussions. Should be great for the high school classroom or the home-schoolers. But, I like reading/viewing my own stuff, I think it’s good, I learn….or recall more history with every viewing. Watch for the battles like the first, Island Hopping-the war in the Pacific (WWII).
Napoleon, Part 2, session iii, WellingtonJim Powers
The document discusses Wellington's first offensive against the French in Portugal during the Peninsular War. It describes Wellington's strategy of remaining firmly on the defensive for the first three years of the war, only fighting when the odds were favorable, in order to prevent the French from concentrating enough forces to defeat his army. It then discusses how the tide turned in 1812 when Napoleon invaded Russia and faced war on two fronts, allowing the Allies to go on the offensive. Within 18 months, the war was won. The document provides strategic context for Wellington's early cautious approach and later ability to shift to offense once Napoleon's position was weakened.
Sea power 2-session 7-napoleon and nelsonJim Powers
Horatio Nelson and Napoleon Bonaparte were two ambitious military leaders who came to symbolize their respective nations of Britain and France in the late 18th century. In 1798, Bonaparte led a French expeditionary force in invading Egypt, hoping to establish a base to threaten British control of India. Unbeknownst to Bonaparte, the British admiral Nelson was searching the Mediterranean for the French fleet. Nelson's and Bonaparte's fleets narrowly missed encountering each other off the coast of Egypt. Nelson then departed Alexandria, allowing Bonaparte's forces to land unopposed. A few weeks later, Nelson received word of where the French fleet was anchored and prepared for a decisive battle.
The document summarizes key events and developments in the North African and Mediterranean theaters of World War 2. In North Africa, it outlines the timeline of major battles between Allied and Axis forces from 1940-1943, including Rommel's offensives and the critical Allied victory at El Alamein in 1942. In the Mediterranean, it describes major naval engagements and air operations around Malta and convoy routes. Tank warfare played a pivotal role in North Africa while air and naval power were decisive in the Mediterranean. Control of these regions tied up significant Axis resources and ultimately forced Germany to fight on multiple fronts.
1. You can get the document of this ppt here: http://www.militarybattles.tk/2017/03/battle-of-el-alamien.html
2. You can learn history of Military Battles here: http://www.militarybattles.tk/
3. You can learn other battle history here: http://www.militarybattles.tk/p/all-battles.html
4. You can get the video of this ppt here: https://youtu.be/9CzPgWKoNnA
1) German U-boats were a key part of Germany's naval strategy in World War 2, operating worldwide with the goal of disrupting Allied shipping.
2) The "Wolfpack" tactic, developed by Admiral Donitz, involved coordinating groups of U-boats to attack convoys together for greater effectiveness.
3) Key U-boat operations included "Operation Drumbeat" against U.S. shipping from bases in occupied France in 1942, though Allied codebreaking and convoy escorts led to declining successes by 1943.
This document provides an overview of Napoleon's rise to power and the Napoleonic Empire. It discusses several key topics:
1) Napoleon relied on his military victories and glory to maintain his power as leader of France.
2) It examines Britain's naval power under Pitt the Younger and its role in allowing Britain to defeat France by controlling the seas and attacking French colonies.
3) It highlights several of Horatio Nelson's pivotal naval victories, including the Nile in 1798 and Trafalgar in 1805, that helped isolate Napoleon's forces and strengthen Britain's allies against France on land.
This document provides a summary of key military, political, and social events that occurred each month in 1916 during World War 1. Some of the major events included the start of the Battle of Verdun in February, the beginning of conscription in Britain in February, the Battle of Jutland at sea in May, the launch of the Battle of the Somme in July, Romania joining the Allies in August, and the end of the Battle of Verdun and Battle of the Somme in November. Fighting took place across Europe and in overseas colonies and campaigns.
This document discusses several key events and strategies of World War II in Europe. It describes how Britain used radar and other defenses to withstand the German bombing campaign known as the Blitz. It outlines major battles like Operation Barbarossa in which Germany invaded the Soviet Union, as well as the turning point Battle of Stalingrad. The document also summarizes America's entry into the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor and key Allied campaigns in North Africa, Italy, and the pivotal D-Day invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944.
The campaign which puts paid to Napoleon's chances for ultimate victory. The Army of England is stymied by the Royal Navy in1803-1805. So Napoleon develops his Grand Design. With negative results.
This one has a personal connection for me. I wrote my MA thesis on one of the key players. I took our younger son, Bob, to see the site and the Allied cemetery. All the futility and sadness of WW I is brought to sharp focus in this story.
The last presentation for this part of the USN's rise to the leading maritime power. The period 1919-1945 was treated earlier in the posts titled USN in WW II. Next I plan to take the story from 1945.
The document discusses the opposing naval strategies and command structures of Britain and Germany at the outbreak of World War 1. Britain had recently established a War Council to make strategic decisions, led by Prime Minister Asquith and including Churchill and Kitchener. Germany's naval command was fragmented without a clear strategic vision. Both nations entered the war with strong navies but lacked coordination in naval planning and operations. The lack of unified command and strategic thinking would hamper the effectiveness of both navies early in the war.
In January 1918, Woodrow Wilson announced his 14 Points for a potential peace agreement. Throughout the year, the Germans launched several strong offensives in France, making gains but suffering heavy casualties. However, from July onwards Allied counter-attacks began to take the initiative as American troops arrived in larger numbers. Bulgaria agreed to an armistice in September and Turkey sought one in October as the Allied offensives succeeded in breaking through the Hindenburg Line.
In 1916, the last great line battle of the First World War. Now the naval war will concentrate on Britain's vital shipping and the U-boat war against it.
The document provides an overview of the key events of World War 2. It describes how Germany invaded Poland in 1939, marking the beginning of the war in Europe. It also discusses how Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941, bringing the United States into the war. The summary describes the major Allied victories, including D-Day, the liberation of France, and the capture of Berlin, as well as the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan's surrender and the end of the war.
The document summarizes the North African campaign of World War 2 between the Allied and Axis forces from 1940 to 1943. It describes the key battles as the forces pushed back and forth across Libya and Egypt, culminating in the Allied victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein in late 1942. This turned the tide and allowed the Allies to take the offensive, invading Tunisia and forcing the surrender of Axis troops in North Africa in May 1943.
1. World War I began due to rising militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism in Europe that created tensions between countries.
2. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princip triggered World War I when Austria-Hungary issued a harsh ultimatum to Serbia and Germany backed Austria, leading other countries to join the fighting.
3. Technology advanced rapidly during World War I, including the introduction of tanks, airplanes, chemical weapons, and long-range artillery that increased the lethality and scale of combat.
1. Multiple long-term factors contributed to the outbreak of World War 1, including nationalism, imperialism, militarism, and a web of alliances across Europe.
2. When Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in 1914, this triggered a series of escalating events and declarations of war as countries were pulled into conflict through their alliance systems.
3. The war quickly evolved into a bloody stalemate as armies engaged in trench warfare along the Western Front, resulting in massive casualties with little territorial gain over the next four years until the Allied powers were eventually able to break the stalemate and force Germany's surrender in November 1918.
The document summarizes the Allied invasion of Normandy (Operation Overlord) on June 6, 1944, known as D-Day. It describes the extensive planning for the invasion, including deception operations. It then details the various beaches where Allied troops landed and the objectives and difficulties faced at each beach, such as heavy casualties at Omaha Beach due to fortified German defenses. It concludes that the invasion was a decisive victory that turned the tide of World War 2 in the Allies' favor.
D-Day on June 6, 1944 was the largest seaborne invasion in history and a turning point in World War II. Over 150,000 Allied troops landed across five beaches in Normandy, France in an effort to liberate Europe from German occupation. It marked the beginning of months of intense fighting as the Allies pushed into France and eventually Germany itself. While the invasion resulted in over 425,000 casualties on both sides, it succeeded in establishing a strong foothold for the Allies in continental Europe.
The Allied invasion of Normandy, known as Operation Overlord, began on June 6, 1944 (D-Day) with the largest amphibious invasion in history. More than 160,000 troops from the United States, Britain, Canada, and Free France landed along a 50-mile stretch of the Normandy coast of northern France. The invasion was commanded by American General Dwight Eisenhower and British General Bernard Montgomery. It resulted in a resounding Allied victory, securing the beachhead and beginning the liberation of German-occupied northwestern Europe from Nazi control.
On June 6, 1944, over 160,000 Allied troops stormed five beaches along the Normandy coastline in Nazi-occupied northern France, marking the largest seaborne invasion in history. Codenamed Operation Overlord, the D-Day invasion involved airborne drops and naval bombardments to support the infantry soldiers landing on the heavily fortified beaches, where over 9,000 Allied troops were killed or wounded that day. However, the invasion succeeded in gaining a foothold for the Allies in continental Europe and helped turn the tide of World War II against Nazi Germany.
The Normandy landings, also known as D-Day, involved the largest amphibious invasion in history where Allied forces stormed five beaches along the coast of Normandy, France on June 6, 1944 to liberate France from German occupation. Over 150,000 Allied troops were landed by sea and air in a complex operation that involved naval bombardments, airborne assaults, and infantry divisions storming the beaches despite heavy fortifications and casualties on Omaha beach. The landings were a turning point that helped the Allies defeat Germany the following year and end World War 2 in Europe.
The document summarizes key events leading up to and during World War 1. It describes how the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand led to escalating tensions between European alliances and their mobilization for war. The initial German advance was halted at the First Battle of the Marne, resulting in long stalemated trench warfare on the Western Front. The US initially remained neutral but was drawn into the war by Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare against merchant ships.
Christmas message from a World War 2 gunnerIvan Consiglio
Major Maurice Agius, a veteran of World War 2 who served in the Royal Malta Artillery, shares a Christmas message with the Royal Malta Artillery Association. He reflects on the proud history of the Royal Malta Artillery, which defended Malta skillfully during World War 2 and impressed King George VI. The Royal Malta Artillery was later amalgamated into the 3/11 Regiment Royal Malta Artillery Territorial Army unit when Malta gained independence. Major Agius wishes everyone a Merry Christmas and a happy new year.
The document summarizes the Allied reconquest of Attu and Kiska in the Aleutian Islands from the Japanese in 1943. It describes how American forces isolated the islands through air and submarine attacks, then launched amphibious assaults on Attu in May 1943 and planned another on Kiska in August. The battle for Attu was difficult as Japanese troops resisted fiercely in the mountainous terrain and launched suicidal banzai charges, but the U.S. eventually drove the remaining Japanese garrison to commit suicide or be killed at the end of May 1943.
Senglea (Malta) during the World War 2 (1940 - 1944) by Mons. Emmanuel BrincatIvan Consiglio
The document discusses Victory Street. It is a short residential road located in a suburban neighborhood. Several families live on the street in smaller single-family homes. Victory Street has seen little change over the years and remains a quiet cul-de-sac in the area.
This document discusses several key events and strategies of World War II in Europe. It describes how Britain used radar and other defenses to withstand the German bombing campaign known as the Blitz. It outlines major battles like Operation Barbarossa in which Germany invaded the Soviet Union, as well as the turning point Battle of Stalingrad. The document also summarizes America's entry into the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor and key Allied campaigns in North Africa, Italy, and the pivotal D-Day invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944.
The campaign which puts paid to Napoleon's chances for ultimate victory. The Army of England is stymied by the Royal Navy in1803-1805. So Napoleon develops his Grand Design. With negative results.
This one has a personal connection for me. I wrote my MA thesis on one of the key players. I took our younger son, Bob, to see the site and the Allied cemetery. All the futility and sadness of WW I is brought to sharp focus in this story.
The last presentation for this part of the USN's rise to the leading maritime power. The period 1919-1945 was treated earlier in the posts titled USN in WW II. Next I plan to take the story from 1945.
The document discusses the opposing naval strategies and command structures of Britain and Germany at the outbreak of World War 1. Britain had recently established a War Council to make strategic decisions, led by Prime Minister Asquith and including Churchill and Kitchener. Germany's naval command was fragmented without a clear strategic vision. Both nations entered the war with strong navies but lacked coordination in naval planning and operations. The lack of unified command and strategic thinking would hamper the effectiveness of both navies early in the war.
In January 1918, Woodrow Wilson announced his 14 Points for a potential peace agreement. Throughout the year, the Germans launched several strong offensives in France, making gains but suffering heavy casualties. However, from July onwards Allied counter-attacks began to take the initiative as American troops arrived in larger numbers. Bulgaria agreed to an armistice in September and Turkey sought one in October as the Allied offensives succeeded in breaking through the Hindenburg Line.
In 1916, the last great line battle of the First World War. Now the naval war will concentrate on Britain's vital shipping and the U-boat war against it.
The document provides an overview of the key events of World War 2. It describes how Germany invaded Poland in 1939, marking the beginning of the war in Europe. It also discusses how Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941, bringing the United States into the war. The summary describes the major Allied victories, including D-Day, the liberation of France, and the capture of Berlin, as well as the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan's surrender and the end of the war.
The document summarizes the North African campaign of World War 2 between the Allied and Axis forces from 1940 to 1943. It describes the key battles as the forces pushed back and forth across Libya and Egypt, culminating in the Allied victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein in late 1942. This turned the tide and allowed the Allies to take the offensive, invading Tunisia and forcing the surrender of Axis troops in North Africa in May 1943.
1. World War I began due to rising militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism in Europe that created tensions between countries.
2. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princip triggered World War I when Austria-Hungary issued a harsh ultimatum to Serbia and Germany backed Austria, leading other countries to join the fighting.
3. Technology advanced rapidly during World War I, including the introduction of tanks, airplanes, chemical weapons, and long-range artillery that increased the lethality and scale of combat.
1. Multiple long-term factors contributed to the outbreak of World War 1, including nationalism, imperialism, militarism, and a web of alliances across Europe.
2. When Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in 1914, this triggered a series of escalating events and declarations of war as countries were pulled into conflict through their alliance systems.
3. The war quickly evolved into a bloody stalemate as armies engaged in trench warfare along the Western Front, resulting in massive casualties with little territorial gain over the next four years until the Allied powers were eventually able to break the stalemate and force Germany's surrender in November 1918.
The document summarizes the Allied invasion of Normandy (Operation Overlord) on June 6, 1944, known as D-Day. It describes the extensive planning for the invasion, including deception operations. It then details the various beaches where Allied troops landed and the objectives and difficulties faced at each beach, such as heavy casualties at Omaha Beach due to fortified German defenses. It concludes that the invasion was a decisive victory that turned the tide of World War 2 in the Allies' favor.
D-Day on June 6, 1944 was the largest seaborne invasion in history and a turning point in World War II. Over 150,000 Allied troops landed across five beaches in Normandy, France in an effort to liberate Europe from German occupation. It marked the beginning of months of intense fighting as the Allies pushed into France and eventually Germany itself. While the invasion resulted in over 425,000 casualties on both sides, it succeeded in establishing a strong foothold for the Allies in continental Europe.
The Allied invasion of Normandy, known as Operation Overlord, began on June 6, 1944 (D-Day) with the largest amphibious invasion in history. More than 160,000 troops from the United States, Britain, Canada, and Free France landed along a 50-mile stretch of the Normandy coast of northern France. The invasion was commanded by American General Dwight Eisenhower and British General Bernard Montgomery. It resulted in a resounding Allied victory, securing the beachhead and beginning the liberation of German-occupied northwestern Europe from Nazi control.
On June 6, 1944, over 160,000 Allied troops stormed five beaches along the Normandy coastline in Nazi-occupied northern France, marking the largest seaborne invasion in history. Codenamed Operation Overlord, the D-Day invasion involved airborne drops and naval bombardments to support the infantry soldiers landing on the heavily fortified beaches, where over 9,000 Allied troops were killed or wounded that day. However, the invasion succeeded in gaining a foothold for the Allies in continental Europe and helped turn the tide of World War II against Nazi Germany.
The Normandy landings, also known as D-Day, involved the largest amphibious invasion in history where Allied forces stormed five beaches along the coast of Normandy, France on June 6, 1944 to liberate France from German occupation. Over 150,000 Allied troops were landed by sea and air in a complex operation that involved naval bombardments, airborne assaults, and infantry divisions storming the beaches despite heavy fortifications and casualties on Omaha beach. The landings were a turning point that helped the Allies defeat Germany the following year and end World War 2 in Europe.
The document summarizes key events leading up to and during World War 1. It describes how the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand led to escalating tensions between European alliances and their mobilization for war. The initial German advance was halted at the First Battle of the Marne, resulting in long stalemated trench warfare on the Western Front. The US initially remained neutral but was drawn into the war by Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare against merchant ships.
Christmas message from a World War 2 gunnerIvan Consiglio
Major Maurice Agius, a veteran of World War 2 who served in the Royal Malta Artillery, shares a Christmas message with the Royal Malta Artillery Association. He reflects on the proud history of the Royal Malta Artillery, which defended Malta skillfully during World War 2 and impressed King George VI. The Royal Malta Artillery was later amalgamated into the 3/11 Regiment Royal Malta Artillery Territorial Army unit when Malta gained independence. Major Agius wishes everyone a Merry Christmas and a happy new year.
The document summarizes the Allied reconquest of Attu and Kiska in the Aleutian Islands from the Japanese in 1943. It describes how American forces isolated the islands through air and submarine attacks, then launched amphibious assaults on Attu in May 1943 and planned another on Kiska in August. The battle for Attu was difficult as Japanese troops resisted fiercely in the mountainous terrain and launched suicidal banzai charges, but the U.S. eventually drove the remaining Japanese garrison to commit suicide or be killed at the end of May 1943.
Senglea (Malta) during the World War 2 (1940 - 1944) by Mons. Emmanuel BrincatIvan Consiglio
The document discusses Victory Street. It is a short residential road located in a suburban neighborhood. Several families live on the street in smaller single-family homes. Victory Street has seen little change over the years and remains a quiet cul-de-sac in the area.
The document lists various architectural structures and landmarks from Punjab, Pakistan between 1861-1886, including bridges, forts, buildings, and gardens. Specifically, it mentions the Bridge of Boats over the Indus River at Attock in 1863, various buildings and views of Lahore Fort and the city from 1864-1886, Murree Mall Road in 1861, Jamrud Fort in 1870, Lawrence Hall in Lahore in 1866, Murree Brewery in 1864, railway stations in Pindi and Lahore from 1861-1886, and Shalamar Bagh and Badshahi Mosque in Lahore from 1864.
This document contains a collection of rare historical photos showing famous figures from politics, entertainment, technology and more from the 20th century including a young Bill Clinton meeting JFK, Pablo Picasso with Brigitte Bardot, the founders of Harley Davidson motorcycles, Sean Connery as James Bond with an Aston Martin, Che Guevara and Fidel Castro, and Steve Jobs discussing the future of computing with Bill Gates. The photos provide a glimpse into meaningful interactions and moments from some of the most influential people from the last century.
The document contains 20 black and white photographs from Sliema, Malta from the 1950s and 1960s. The photographs depict various streets, buildings, beaches, and landmarks in Sliema such as the Alhambra Theatre, Exiles Beach, Sacro Cuor Church, Victoria Avenue, and Balluta Buildings. They provide a glimpse into what the town of Sliema looked like in the mid-20th century.
Sea power 2 session 10-decline and fall of the French EmpireJim Powers
1) Pitt, the British Prime Minister, died in January 1806 after sacrificing his health to lead Britain against Napoleon. His death left a void, as his opponent Fox recognized.
2) Fox became Foreign Secretary and initiated peace talks with France, but Napoleon's increasing control over Europe and hostility towards Britain ended any chances for peace. Fox died six months later, realizing the depths of Napoleon's opposition.
3) At Tilsit in July 1807, Napoleon and the Russian Czar Alexander agreed to divide influence in Europe between France and Russia, with other countries expected to align with them. This threatened to give Napoleon control of naval forces that could challenge British sea power.
The document discusses naval warfare during World War 1, which took place globally in every ocean. It describes early German raider successes like the SMS Emden in the Indian Ocean. It also discusses major battles like Germany's defeat of British cruisers off Chile and Britain's subsequent victory over Germany at the Falkland Islands. The blockade strategies of both sides are outlined, as well as the large naval encounter at the Battle of Jutland. Germany turned to submarine warfare with U-boats, launching an unrestricted campaign in 1917 against merchant ships from any nation. New convoy tactics and technology like depth charges helped turn the tide for the Allies. Naval losses were enormous, with over 57,000 British and Commonwealth casualties
We Shall Fight on the Beaches June 4, 1940House of C.docxcelenarouzie
We Shall Fight on the Beaches
June 4, 1940
House of Commons
The position of the B. E.F had now become critical As a result of a most skillfully conducted retreat and German errors, the bulk of the British Forces reached the Dunkirk bridgehead. The peril facing the British nation was now suddenly and universally perceived. On May 26, "Operation Dynamo "--the evacuation from Dunkirk began. The seas remained absolutely calm. The Royal Air Force--bitterly maligned at the time by the Army--fought vehemently to deny the enemy the total air supremacy which would have wrecked the operation. At the outset, it was hoped that 45,000 men might be evacuated; in the event, over 338,000 Allied troops reached England, including 26,000 French soldiers. On June 4, Churchill reported to the House of Commons, seeking to check the mood of national euphoria and relief at the unexpected deliverance, and to make a clear appeal to the United States.
From the moment that the French defenses at Sedan and on the Meuse were broken at the end of the second week of May, only a rapid retreat to Amiens and the south could have saved the British and French Armies who had entered Belgium at the appeal of the Belgian King; but this strategic fact was not immediately realized. The French High Command hoped they would be able to close the gap, and the Armies of the north were under their orders. Moreover, a retirement of this kind would have involved almost certainly the destruction of the fine Belgian Army of over 20 divisions and the abandonment of the whole of Belgium. Therefore, when the force and scope of the German penetration were realized and when a new French Generalissimo, General Weygand, assumed command in place of General Gamelin, an effort was made by the French and British Armies in Belgium to keep on holding the right hand of the Belgians and to give their own right hand to a newly created French Army which was to have advanced across the Somme in great strength to grasp it.
However, the German eruption swept like a sharp scythe around the right and rear of the Armies of the north. Eight or nine armored divisions, each of about four hundred armored vehicles of different kinds, but carefully assorted to be complementary and divisible into small self-contained units, cut off all communications between us and the main French Armies. It severed our own communications for food and ammunition, which ran first to Amiens and afterwards through Abbeville, and it shore its way up the coast to Boulogne and Calais, and almost to Dunkirk. Behind this armored and mechanized onslaught came a number of German divisions in lorries, and behind them again there plodded comparatively slowly the dull brute mass of the ordinary German Army and German people, always so ready to be led to the trampling down in other lands of liberties and comforts which they have never known in their own.
I have said this armored scythe-stroke almost reached Dunkirk-almost but not quite. Boulogne a.
This document provides information about key events, battles, leaders, and developments during World War 2. It covers multiple theaters of the war, including Europe, North Africa, the Pacific, and China. Multiple choice questions are asked about specific details relating to countries involved, battles, ships, generals, and operations. Correct answers are provided along with short explanations of context.
1) After Germany's quick victories, it occupied northern France and established the Vichy government in southern France led by Marshal Petain.
2) Vichy France collaborated with Germany but had some autonomy, while occupied France was under direct German military control.
3) Resistance groups like the Maquis fought against the German occupation through sabotage in occupied France.
80 Years Ago - The Real Story Behind the Attack on Pearl HarbourPeter Hammond
1) The attack on Pearl Harbor was not unexpected or unprecedented as some claim. The British Royal Navy had previously attacked naval ships at anchor through surprise air attacks using torpedoes launched from aircraft carriers.
2) US military intelligence had intercepted communications indicating Japan would attack somewhere in the Pacific on December 7th, 1941 but President Roosevelt failed to warn military commanders or take other precautions.
3) Some argue Roosevelt deliberately allowed the attack on Pearl Harbor to occur in order to draw the reluctant US public into World War 2 to aid Britain against Germany. Classified documents from the time continue to be withheld from the public.
The document provides a detailed overview of World War 2 from the Nazi invasion of Poland in 1939 to the defeat of Germany in 1945. It describes key events including the Nazi blitzkrieg tactics, Britain and France declaring war on Germany, Germany's rapid conquest of Western Europe in 1940, the Battle of Britain, Operation Barbarossa invading the Soviet Union, the Battle of Stalingrad turning the tide, D-Day in 1944 opening a second front in Europe, and the final defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945 with Soviet forces capturing Berlin and Germany's unconditional surrender.
The Anglo-French struggle for empire continues. The last of Louis xiv's wars of aggression. Marlborough and Prince Eugene on land and the Royal Navy at sea bring France to the peace table. Revised
The document summarizes key events in the Second World War in Europe from 1939-1945. It describes Germany's invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939 which marked the beginning of WWII. It then details Germany's swift conquest of Poland and the Soviet Union's invasion from the east. The "Phony War" period and Germany's invasions of Denmark, Norway, France, and low countries are summarized. The document also provides an overview of the Battle of Britain, Germany's failed plans to invade Britain, and the shift of the war to North Africa and the Eastern Front with Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941.
Operation Overlord (D-Day) and Canada's RoleMr. Finnie
The document provides a detailed overview of key events leading up to and including D-Day on June 6, 1944. It summarizes the situation in 1944 with the Allies advancing in Africa and Italy while Russians defeated Germans in the East. It then outlines the strategic importance of Normandy for the Allied invasion of Europe, describing planning for the air and sea bombardment and five sector landings. On June 6th, over 150,000 Allied troops launched the largest naval invasion in history on the beaches of Normandy, marking a major turning point in the war.
The death & demise of a regiment by George Pace BalzanIvan Consiglio
The death & demise of a regiment by George Pace Balzan, Captain George Pace Balzan, recalls his memories of his army service in the 3rd LAA Regiment Royal Malta Artillery from 1941 to 1946.
Was Pearl Harbour an Unprecedented Surprise Attack Peter Hammond
The document discusses whether the attack on Pearl Harbor was truly a surprise, arguing it was not unprecedented based on several factors:
1) The British had proved torpedoes could be used to attack ships in harbors in their 1940 attack on the Italian navy in Taranto harbor.
2) The US navy had discussed the threat of torpedo attacks in Pearl Harbor in 1941 but did not install recommended defenses.
3) Several attacks by Britain on allies and neutrals in previous decades, including the battles of Copenhagen and Mers-el-Kébir, showed surprise attacks on naval forces were possible.
The document summarizes key events leading up to and including D-Day on June 6, 1944. It discusses how the Allies gained control of Italy and the plans for Operation Overlord to launch the invasion of German-occupied northwest Europe from the UK. It describes the extensive Atlantic Wall fortifications built by Germany along the French coast and the criteria for selecting the Normandy beaches as the landing site for the largest amphibious invasion in history.
1. World War I began due to rising militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism in Europe that created tensions between countries.
2. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princip triggered World War I when Austria-Hungary issued a harsh ultimatum to Serbia and alliances pulled countries into the war.
3. New technologies in warfare like submarines, tanks, airplanes, and chemical weapons made World War I particularly deadly and changed the nature of combat.
The document provides background information on the main powers in Europe prior to World War 1, including Britain, France, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany. It describes their overseas empires, political situations, alliances and rivalries. It then outlines some of the key events that increased tensions between the powers and ultimately led to the outbreak of World War 1 in 1914.
The document provides background information on the causes and events of World War I. It began with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand which led Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia. Germany then declared war on Russia, France, and invaded Belgium which caused Britain to declare war on Germany. A key event that brought the US into the war was Germany's sinking of the British passenger ship Lusitania, which killed over 1,000 people including 128 Americans. The war was largely fought in trench warfare between the Allied and Central powers until its end in 1919.
Similar to US Navy in WW II; session iv; the struggle for the Med (17)
19 c Europe, Part 1, 1815-1848; General ObservationsJim Powers
The introduction to this twenty-two part series on nineteenth century Europe, 1815-1914. It also describes the college textbook which I have chosen to illustrate and annotate.
19 c Europe, session 1; The Great Powers and the Balance of Power, 1815 1848Jim Powers
Beginning with the Vienna settlement, 1814-15, we follow the efforts of the Concert of Europe to preserve the peace and prevent revolutionary disturbances.
19 c Europe, Part 1, session 2; The Eastern Powers: Absolutism and its Limita...Jim Powers
This document summarizes political developments in Eastern Europe from 1815-1848, focusing on Russia, Prussia, and Austria. It describes how absolutism dominated these states and led to repression of revolutionary and liberal ideas. In Russia, Tsar Alexander I initially promised reforms but failed to deliver, and repression increased under Nicholas I and his minister Arakcheyev. Serfdom remained the dominant economic system, stifling development and leading to peasant revolts. Absolutism sought to maintain control and resist new ideas, as philosophers like de Maistre argued, but change was occurring beneath the surface that would challenge this control.
19 c Europe, part 1, session 3; France: The Restoration and the July MonarchyJim Powers
This document provides an overview of the economic and social organization of France following the Napoleonic era. It discusses how the French Revolution permanently changed France by abolishing the feudal system and creating a more centralized state. Economically, France modernized its agriculture and industries like textiles expanded, while socially the nobility's power declined and the middle class rose politically. The majority of French people remained rural farmers or urban workers who faced difficult living and working conditions.
19 c Europe, session 4; great britain: social unrest and social compromiseJim Powers
This document provides an overview of economic and social conditions in Great Britain following the Napoleonic Wars from 1815 to 1848. It describes the postwar economic depression, the enclosure movement that displaced many rural workers, rising social unrest and violence between 1815-1819 due to high unemployment and poverty. It also discusses the conservative government under Lord Liverpool that took a repressive approach to dealing with unrest rather than reform, and moderate reformers like William Cobbett who advocated for making parliament more representative through legal means.
19 c Europe, Part 2, 1850-1871; General ObservationsJim Powers
Between 1850-1871, industrial production in Europe saw unprecedented growth. The application of machinery to coal mining doubled French coal production and tripled Germany's in ten years. This drove growth in metallurgy, with the introduction of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes doubling European iron and steel production by 1860. Transportation was also revolutionized through new technologies like screw propellers and compound engines, as well as infrastructure projects like the Suez Canal. Overall, this period saw Europe in the midst of the Industrial Revolution and rapid economic expansion.
19 c Europe, session 2.6; The breakdown of the concert and the crimean warJim Powers
The document summarizes the breakdown of the Concert of Europe and the causes of the Crimean War in the 19th century. It discusses how the revolutions of 1848 weakened the Concert by introducing a new generation of statesmen who were less inclined to restraint and compromise in diplomacy. The Crimean War was briefly fought from 1853 to 1856 between Russia on one side, and an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire and Sardinia on the other. The war resulted from Russia's ambitions to gain territories from the declining Ottoman Empire, and was one of the final conflicts of the Concert system of international relations established after the Napoleonic Wars.
19 c Europe, session 2.9; The German Question, 1850-66Jim Powers
Now we look at the question which had faced Germans since the great upheaval of 1848, should Germany be unified with or without the Austrian Empire. It will be decided in the Seven Weeks War.
19 c Europe, session 2.10; The Reorganization of Europe, 1866-1871Jim Powers
We conclude Part Two of this mid-century survey with Great Britain from Palmerston to Gladstone, Russia under Alexander II, and the showdown between France and Germany.
19 c Europe, Part 3; General ObservationsJim Powers
The document discusses several key developments in 19th century Europe from 1871-1914. It notes that liberalism, which was ascendant in the 1870s, was in retreat by the end of the period as new intellectual tendencies emphasized irrational factors in human behavior. Economic trends also weakened liberal parties and philosophy. New problems from population growth, urbanization, and unemployment crises emerged without a shared faith that reason could solve them, increasing the potential for domestic conflict and international insecurity during this era.
19 c europe, session.3.14; third french republic Jim Powers
The French Republic from humiliating defeat, the Paris Commune, and the end of royalism to republican success and three crises, to the coming of the Great War.
19 c Europe, session 3.15; The Second ReichJim Powers
The document discusses the political structure and development of Germany from 1871 to 1914. It describes how Germany under Bismarck and Wilhelm II had a pseudo-constitutional system where parliamentary processes existed but real power was held by unelected authorities. Under Bismarck from 1871-1890, political parties emerged but had limited power. Wilhelm II's rule from 1890-1914 saw economic growth but a turn toward absolutism that failed to adapt to rising democratic ideals in Europe. This pseudo-constitutional system ultimately contributed to Germany's defeat in World War I.
19 c Europe, session 3.16; Austria-Hungary, the Balkans and TurkeyJim Powers
The document discusses political and social developments in Central and Southeast Europe from 1871-1914. It focuses on the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, describing the rise of nationalist parties in both the Austrian and Hungarian parts. It also examines the Balkan states of Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and the declining Ottoman Empire's role in the Balkans. Key figures and events discussed include the Christian Social Party in Austria, Zionism founder Theodor Herzl, and tensions between Austria-Hungary and the Balkan states that contributed to World War I.
The document discusses economic conditions in Imperial Russia between 1871-1914. It notes that while industry grew during this period, led by the textile and metallurgical industries supporting railway expansion, it did not grow enough to relieve pressure from agricultural overpopulation. Agriculture continued to struggle with low yields due to outdated practices, lack of credit, and the continuation of the commune system. Efforts at reform were sporadic and aimed more at relieving misery temporarily rather than enacting fundamental change, for fear of alienating the landed classes. The condition of the peasantry continued to be one of deepening poverty.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director of Education and Skills at the OECD presents at the launch of PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Minds, Creative Schools on 18 June 2024.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
إضغ بين إيديكم من أقوى الملازم التي صممتها
ملزمة تشريح الجهاز الهيكلي (نظري 3)
💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀
تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
1- مُترجمة ترجمة تُناسب جميع المستويات
2- تحتوي على 78 رسم توضيحي لكل كلمة موجودة بالملزمة (لكل كلمة !!!!)
#فهم_ماكو_درخ
3- دقة الكتابة والصور عالية جداً جداً جداً
4- هُنالك بعض المعلومات تم توضيحها بشكل تفصيلي جداً (تُعتبر لدى الطالب أو الطالبة بإنها معلومات مُبهمة ومع ذلك تم توضيح هذهِ المعلومات المُبهمة بشكل تفصيلي جداً
5- الملزمة تشرح نفسها ب نفسها بس تكلك تعال اقراني
6- تحتوي الملزمة في اول سلايد على خارطة تتضمن جميع تفرُعات معلومات الجهاز الهيكلي المذكورة في هذهِ الملزمة
واخيراً هذهِ الملزمة حلالٌ عليكم وإتمنى منكم إن تدعولي بالخير والصحة والعافية فقط
كل التوفيق زملائي وزميلاتي ، زميلكم محمد الذهبي 💊💊
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
This presentation was provided by Racquel Jemison, Ph.D., Christina MacLaughlin, Ph.D., and Paulomi Majumder. Ph.D., all of the American Chemical Society, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
2. The U.S. Navy in World War II
session iv-The Struggle for the Mediterranean
3. major topics in this session
I. An Eye on Italy
II. Taranto to Cape Matapan
III. Germany to the Rescue
IV. Malta
V. The Turn of the Tide
4. Text
I. An Eye on Italy
The Key to This Strategic Theater
Sea Power, p. 520
5. and in 1939, Italy was “Il Duce”
1922-grandiose, vain, avaricious; he had put the
“fascist” into fascism, beginning with his “March on
Rome”
1934-his militarism and desire to recreate the Roman
Empire was made clear by his war on Ethiopia
1936-39—his co-belligerence with Hitler on Franco’s
side in the Spanish Civil War left no doubt about his
diplomatic alignment. The “Pact of Steel” (22 May 39)
just spelled out what was already clear
Benito Mussolini
1883-28 Apr 1945
6.
7. and in 1939, Italy was “Il Duce”
1922-grandiose, vain, avaricious; he had put the
“fascist” into fascism, beginning with his “March on
Rome”
1934-his militarism and desire to recreate the Roman
Empire was made clear by his war on Ethiopia
1936-39—his co-belligerence with Hitler on Franco’s
side in the Spanish Civil War left no doubt about his
diplomatic alignment. The “Pact of Steel” (22 May 39)
just spelled out what was already clear
April, 1939-Italy “conquers” Albania
September, 1939-because he was more convinced of
his unpreparedness for war than was Hitler, he warned
his partner that Italy could not join Germany’s war
but Britain and France had no illusions about his
potential desire to make the Mediterranean a Mare
Nostrum (Lat.-“Our Sea,” the old Roman imperial term)
Benito Mussolini
1883-28 Apr 1945
9. Franco-British Strategic Interests in the Med
CORSICA
ALGERIAFRENCH
MOROCCO
TUNISIA
SYRIA
LEBANON
GIBRALTAR
MALTA
EGYPT
SUEZ
PALESTINE
TRANSJORDAN
Britain’s
Lifeline
to
India
—>
Sea Power, p. 520
10. “…when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, Mussolini proclaimed Italy’s non-
belligerence.
“In the face of this unexpected development, the British, urgently requiring ships in other
theaters, left the Mediterranean largely on a caretaker basis….they depended on the French to
keep order….
“By spring of 1940 Mussolini…was anxious to extend Italian influence and territory….He
sought means of expelling the two great powers he saw as standing in his way—Britain and
France. Meeting with Hitler at the Brenner Pass in March, 1940, he promised to intervene on the
German side at the appropriate time.”
!
Sea Power, pp. 519-521
11. “…the hand that held the dagger has struck it
into the back of its neighbor”-FDR
12. “…the hand that held the dagger has struck it
into the back of its neighbor”-FDR
10 June 1940- “Italy declared war on France and Britain. The
French government was already fleeing to Bordeaux and
Paris was an open city. Feeling that the war would soon be
over, Italian dictator … said to Pietro Badoglio, the Chief of
Staff of the Italian Royal Army (Regio Esercito),• ‘I only need
a few thousand dead so that I can sit at the peace
conference as a man who has fought’
14 June-“The French Navy …was the only service in a
position to act against the Italians. … the French 3rd
Squadron based in Toulon carried out an operation in Italian
waters. Four heavy cruisers and 11 destroyers opened fire
on the oil storage tanks and military installations on the
Ligurian coast and in the port of Genoa. No Italian aircraft
appeared and the coastal artillery scored only one hit.
25 June-“…following the French surrender to Germany,
France and Italy signed an armistice. In the Franco-Italian
Armistice, Italy did occupy Corsica and the Alpes-Maritimes,
in addition to areas along the Franco-Italian border further
north.” -Wikipedia
13. “The Italian navy at the outbreak of war consisted of six battleships (of which only two, the
Cavour and the Julio Cesare, were actually in service) , seven heavy and twelve light cruisers,
and some 50 destroyers. In addition Italy had 108 submarines, nearly double Germany’s total.
Two older battleships, the Duilio and Doria, were being modernized and would join the fleet
shortly. while four fast new battleships, the Littorio, Vittorio Veneto, Roma, and Impero, were in
various stages of construction. The first two of these were nearly ready for service, but the others
would require several years to complete. In the Red Sea at Massawa the Italians had a small force
of seven destroyers and eight submarines which would be able to pose a threat to Britain’s
shipping to and from the Suez Canal. Class for class, the Italian ships were more lightly armored
but faster than their Allied counterparts. These high-speed characteristics and comparatively small
fuel capacity gave them a severely restricted combat radius.
“With France’s surrender, as told in the preceding [session-jbp], Britain’s concern over the
French fleet became acute. The British situation in the Mediterranean in a short month had gone
from overwhelming superiority to nearly hopeless inferiority. Instead of having two powerful
forces watching a non-belligerent, the British now had the care of the entire Inland Sea with a
hostile Italy and the strong possibility that the powerful French ships would be used against them.
The War Cabinet therefore ordered its commanders in the Mediterranean to take action. ”
!
op. cit, pp. 521-522
Italy Enters the War
14. The War Cabinet therefore ordered its commanders in the Mediterranean to take action. ”
“In anticipation of having to assume responsibility for the Western Mediterranean, the
Admiralty had already assembled a force at Gibraltar designated as Force H, including the
battleships Valiant and Resolution, the battlecruiser Hood, the aircraft carrier Ark Royal, two
cruisers, and eleven destroyers. Vice Admiral Sir James F. Somerville, its commander, received
orders…to present to the commander of the French detachment at Mers-el-Kebir, the naval
anchorage of Oran, the following proposals:”
!
op. cit, p. 522
Italy Enters the War
16. His Majesty's Government have instructed me to demand that the French Fleet now at Mers
el Kebir and Oran shall act in accordance with one of the following alternatives;
(a) Sail with us and continue the fight until victory against the Germans.
(b) Sail with reduced crews under our control to a British port. The reduced crews would be
repatriated at the earliest moment.
If either of these courses is adopted by you we will restore your ships to France at the
conclusion of the war or pay full compensation if they are damaged meanwhile.
(c) Alternatively if you feel bound to stipulate that your ships should not be used against the
Germans unless they break the Armistice, then sail them with us with reduced crews to some
French port in the West Indies — Martinique for instance – where they can be demilitarized
to our satisfaction, or perhaps be entrusted to the United States and remain safe until the end
of the war, the crews being repatriated.
If you refuse these fair offers, I must with profound regret, require you to sink your ships
within 6 hours.
Finally, failing the above, I have the orders from His Majesty's Government to use whatever
force may be necessary to prevent your ships from falling into German hands.
!
Ibid.
17. The Tragedy at Mers-el-Kebir
3 July 1940- Somerville arrived with his entire force
he sent the former naval attaché in Paris and a personal
friend of the French commander, Adm. Gensoul, with
these terms
Adm. Darlan’s chief of staff ordered reinforcements from
Toulon and Algiers to Mers-el-Kebir
aware of this and unable to accept any of the French
counter-proposals, Somerville set a final deadline
1756 (5:56 pm) Somerville opened fire, “the first shots
fired by the British against the French since Waterloo”
18. The Tragedy at Mers-el-Kebir
3 July 1940- Somerville arrived with his entire force
he sent the former naval attaché in Paris and a personal
friend of the French commander, Adm. Gensoul, with
these terms
Adm. Darlan’s chief of staff ordered reinforcements from
Toulon and Algiers to Mers-el-Kebir
aware of this and unable to accept any of the French
counter-proposals, Somerville set a final deadline
1756 (5:56 pm) Somerville opened fire, “the first shots
fired by the British against the French since Waterloo”
19. The Tragedy at Mers-el-Kebir
3 July 1940- Somerville arrived with his entire force
he sent the former naval attaché in Paris and a personal
friend of the French commander, Adm. Gensoul, with
these terms
Adm. Darlan’s chief of staff ordered reinforcements from
Toulon and Algiers to Mers-el-Kebir
aware of this and unable to accept any of the French
counter-proposals, Somerville set a final deadline
1756 (5:56 pm) Somerville opened fire, “the first shots
fired by the British against the French since Waterloo”
“During the brief action, which included a carrier air strike,
three French battleships were either sunk or beached, while
the Strasbourg made good her escape and reached Toulon
undamaged”— Ibid.
Estimated track of ‘Strasbourg’
20. “Thus at terrific cost the British had ensured themselves against a significant part of the French
fleet. The risk had been great; the full cost would not be known for years.”
!
Ibid.
Italy Enters the War
Wikipedia
21. Text
II. Taranto to Cape Matapan
The Royal Navy on the Offensive
map by Gordon Smith, 2006, @ www. naval-history.net
22. “On September 7, 1940, Mussolini ordered Marshal Graziani, commander of the Italian army in
Libya, to begin a land offensive against Egypt.•”
!
op. cit, p. 525
The Italian Offensive in Libya
23. “On September 7, 1940, Mussolini ordered Marshal Graziani, commander of the Italian army in
Libya, to begin a land offensive against Egypt.• On September 14 the Italians captured the
important port city of Sidi Barrani •… ”
!
op. cit, p. 525
The Italian Offensive in Libya
24. “On September 7, 1940, Mussolini ordered Marshal Graziani, commander of the Italian army in
Libya, to begin a land offensive against Egypt.• On September 14 the Italians captured the
important port city of Sidi Barrani • but were unable to go farther because the British navy began
to harass their sea-borne supply routes by attacks on Benghazi, Sollum, Bardia, and Sidi Barrani
itself. British submarines had met with little success because Italian ships clung as far as possible
to shallow coastal waters, where it was difficult for British submarines to operate successfully.
Nor was there adequate air strength on Malta. Until December the Italians lost no ships on the
Italy-Libya run either from submarine or air attack while they delivered 692,403 tons to Libya
during the year. Until Malta could be built up, the British were helpless to interdict this traffic. ”
!
op. cit, p. 525
The Italian Offensive in Libya
25. “Against the advice of his naval officers, Mussolini on October 15, 1940, …issued orders for
the invasion of Greece. He kept his intention to attack a secret from Hitler, who he knew would
not approve.
“The Greeks had long feared an Italian invasion…, but were determined to avoid giving a
pretext. Hence they refused to allow the British to send aid ahead of time, to send military
advisors,or even to be informed of the Greek strategy of defense. Thus on October 28,• when
Italian troops crossed the Greek frontier,…”
!
Ibid.
Italy Invades Greece
26. “Against the advice of his naval officers, Mussolini on October 15, 1940, …issued orders for
the invasion of Greece. He kept his intention to attack a secret from Hitler, who he knew would
not approve.
“The Greeks had long feared an Italian invasion…, but were determined to avoid giving a
pretext. Hence they refused to allow the British to send aid ahead of time, to send military
advisors,or even to be informed of the Greek strategy of defense. Thus on October 28,• when
Italian troops crossed the Greek frontier, the British, with slender resources, were faced with a
difficult decision….The entire British position in the Middle East might be lost if the defenses of
Egypt were weakened.
“In view of these considerations, the British War Cabinet agreed to send munitions and money
and an R.A.F. contingent….”
!
Ibid.
Italy Invades Greece
27. “Against the advice of his naval officers, Mussolini on October 15, 1940, …issued orders for
the invasion of Greece. He kept his intention to attack a secret from Hitler, who he knew would
not approve.
“The Greeks had long feared an Italian invasion…, but were determined to avoid giving a
pretext. Hence they refused to allow the British to send aid ahead of time, to send military
advisors,or even to be informed of the Greek strategy of defense. Thus on October 28,• when
Italian troops crossed the Greek frontier, the British, with slender resources, were faced with a
difficult decision….The entire British position in the Middle East might be lost if the defenses of
Egypt were weakened.
“In view of these considerations, the British War Cabinet agreed to send munitions and money
and an R.A.F. contingent….The Greeks as it turned out did not at the time need troop assistance,
for the Italian offensive stalled on November 8,• …”
!
Ibid.
Italy Invades Greece
28. “Against the advice of his naval officers, Mussolini on October 15, 1940, …issued orders for
the invasion of Greece. He kept his intention to attack a secret from Hitler, who he knew would
not approve.
“The Greeks had long feared an Italian invasion…, but were determined to avoid giving a
pretext. Hence they refused to allow the British to send aid ahead of time, to send military
advisors,or even to be informed of the Greek strategy of defense. Thus on October 28,• when
Italian troops crossed the Greek frontier, the British, with slender resources, were faced with a
difficult decision….The entire British position in the Middle East might be lost if the defenses of
Egypt were weakened.
“In view of these considerations, the British War Cabinet agreed to send munitions and money
and an R.A.F. contingent….The Greeks as it turned out did not at the time need troop assistance,
for the Italian offensive stalled on November 8,• and a few days later a Greek counteroffensive
pushed the invaders back to the Albanian border.•…”
!
Ibid.
Italy Invades Greece
29. “Against the advice of his naval officers, Mussolini on October 15, 1940, …issued orders for
the invasion of Greece. He kept his intention to attack a secret from Hitler, who he knew would
not approve.
“The Greeks had long feared an Italian invasion…, but were determined to avoid giving a
pretext. Hence they refused to allow the British to send aid ahead of time, to send military
advisors,or even to be informed of the Greek strategy of defense. Thus on October 28,• when
Italian troops crossed the Greek frontier, the British, with slender resources, were faced with a
difficult decision….The entire British position in the Middle East might be lost if the defenses of
Egypt were weakened.
“In view of these considerations, the British War Cabinet agreed to send munitions and money
and an R.A.F. contingent….The Greeks as it turned out did not at the time need troop assistance,
for the Italian offensive stalled on November 8,• and a few days later a Greek counteroffensive
pushed the invaders back to the Albanian border.• Thus in both his North African venture and in
his Greek invasion, Mussolini, because of inadequate planning and inadequate support,
failed….Instead of winning glory, Mussolini became a laughingstock.”
!
Ibid.
Italy Invades Greece
30. “Against the advice of his naval officers, Mussolini on October 15, 1940, …issued orders for
the invasion of Greece. He kept his intention to attack a secret from Hitler, who he knew would
not approve.
“The Greeks had long feared an Italian invasion…, but were determined to avoid giving a
pretext. Hence they refused to allow the British to send aid ahead of time, to send military
advisors,or even to be informed of the Greek strategy of defense. Thus on October 28,• when
Italian troops crossed the Greek frontier, the British, with slender resources, were faced with a
difficult decision….The entire British position in the Middle East might be lost if the defenses of
Egypt were weakened.
“In view of these considerations, the British War Cabinet agreed to send munitions and money
and an R.A.F. contingent….The Greeks as it turned out did not at the time need troop assistance,
for the Italian offensive stalled on November 8,• and a few days later a Greek counteroffensive
pushed the invaders back to the Albanian border.• Thus in both his North African venture and in
his Greek invasion, Mussolini, because of inadequate planning and inadequate support,
failed….Instead of winning glory, Mussolini became a laughingstock.”
!
Ibid.
Italy Invades Greece
"Hence we will not say that Greeks fight like heroes, but that heroes fight like Greeks.”—Churchill
32. “In view of the reluctance of the Italian navy to accept decisive action at sea, Cunningham
sought to attack their ships at their Taranto • base….”
!
op. cit., pp.525-526.
The Carrier Raid on Taranto
33. “In view of the reluctance of the Italian navy to accept decisive action at sea, Cunningham
sought to attack their ships at their Taranto • base….when the raid finally took place late at night
on November 11, all six of the Italian battleships were in port.
“At the last moment the Eagle developed defects and had to be left behind. Five of her
Swordfish planes •…”
!
op. cit., pp.525-526.
The Carrier Raid on Taranto
34. “In view of the reluctance of the Italian navy to accept decisive action at sea, Cunningham
sought to attack their ships at their Taranto • base….when the raid finally took place late at night
on November 11, all six of the Italian battleships were in port.
“At the last moment the Eagle developed defects and had to be left behind. Five of her
Swordfish planes • were transferred to the Illustrious, which arrived at the launching point with
21 aircraft….As the first wave • of 12 planes neared its target,…”
!
op. cit., pp.525-526.
The Carrier Raid on Taranto
35. “In view of the reluctance of the Italian navy to accept decisive action at sea, Cunningham
sought to attack their ships at their Taranto • base….when the raid finally took place late at night
on November 11, all six of the Italian battleships were in port.
“At the last moment the Eagle developed defects and had to be left behind. Five of her
Swordfish planes • were transferred to the Illustrious, which arrived at the launching point with
21 aircraft….As the first wave • of 12 planes neared its target, four bombers split off to make a
diversion in the inner harbor, •.…”
!
op. cit., pp.525-526.
The Carrier Raid on Taranto
36. “In view of the reluctance of the Italian navy to accept decisive action at sea, Cunningham
sought to attack their ships at their Taranto • base….when the raid finally took place late at night
on November 11, all six of the Italian battleships were in port.
“At the last moment the Eagle developed defects and had to be left behind. Five of her
Swordfish planes • were transferred to the Illustrious, which arrived at the launching point with
21 aircraft….As the first wave • of 12 planes neared its target, four bombers split off to make a
diversion in the inner harbor, • and two other planes broke away to drop flares to the east in order
to silhouette the battleships for the six torpedo planes. The first attack worked perfectly, the flares
showing the targets perfectly to the torpedo-plane pilots, who scored hits on the Cavour and
Littorio at the cost of one plane. A second wave of eight planes an hour later used identical tactics.
This wave scored a hit on the Duilio and two more on the Littorio. This wave also lost one plane.
“The attack reduced the Italian fleet to three available battleships….The surviving major ships
abandoned Taranto as a fleet base, moving to Naples • immediately after the attack.”
!
op. cit., pp.525-526.
The Carrier Raid on Taranto
37. “In view of the reluctance of the Italian navy to accept decisive action at sea, Cunningham
sought to attack their ships at their Taranto • base….when the raid finally took place late at night
on November 11, all six of the Italian battleships were in port.
“At the last moment the Eagle developed defects and had to be left behind. Five of her
Swordfish planes • were transferred to the Illustrious, which arrived at the launching point with
21 aircraft….As the first wave • of 12 planes neared its target, four bombers split off to make a
diversion in the inner harbor, • and two other planes broke away to drop flares to the east in order
to silhouette the battleships for the six torpedo planes. The first attack worked perfectly, the flares
showing the targets perfectly to the torpedo-plane pilots, who scored hits on the Cavour and
Littorio at the cost of one plane. A second wave of eight planes an hour later used identical tactics.
This wave scored a hit on the Duilio and two more on the Littorio. This wave also lost one plane.
“The attack reduced the Italian fleet to three available battleships….The surviving major ships
abandoned Taranto as a fleet base, moving to Naples • immediately after the attack.”
!
op. cit., pp.525-526.
The Carrier Raid on Taranto
38. Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Browne Cunningham, !
1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope KT GCB OM DSO** !
(1883 – 1963)!
Cunningham was widely known by his nickname, "ABC"
"Taranto, and the night of November 11–12 1940,
should be remembered for ever as having shown
once and for all that in the Fleet Air Arm the Navy
has its most devastating weapon."
39. “It is likely the Imperial Japanese Navy's staff carefully studied the Taranto raid during planning for
the attack on Pearl Harbor because of the issues with a shallow harbor. Japanese Lt. Cdr.
Takeshi Naito, the assistant naval attaché to Berlin, flew to Taranto to investigate the attack
firsthand, and Naito subsequently had a lengthy conversation with Commander Mitsuo Fuchida •
about his observations;…”!
!
Wikipedia
40. “It is likely the Imperial Japanese Navy's staff carefully studied the Taranto raid during planning for
the attack on Pearl Harbor because of the issues with a shallow harbor. Japanese Lt. Cdr.
Takeshi Naito, the assistant naval attaché to Berlin, flew to Taranto to investigate the attack
firsthand, and Naito subsequently had a lengthy conversation with Commander Mitsuo Fuchida •
about his observations; Fuchida led the Japanese attack on 7 December 1941. However, the
Japanese had been working on shallow-water solutions since early 1939, with various shallow
ports as the notional targets, including Manila, Singapore, Vladivostok, and Pearl Harbor.”!
!
Wikipedia
41. Photograph taken from a Japanese plane during the torpedo attack
on ships moored on both sides of Ford Island
42. “was…fought from 27–29 March 1941. The cape is on the southwest coast of Greece's
Peloponnesian peninsula. Acting on intercepted signals broken by the Government Code
and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park, a force of British Royal Navy ships
accompanied by several Royal Australian Navy vessels, under the command of British
Admiral Andrew Cunningham, intercepted and sank or severely damaged several ships
of the Italian Regia Marina under Admiral Angelo Iachino. It was the last fleet action
fought by the Royal Navy in the 20th century !
!
Wikipedia
The Battle of Cape Matapan
45. “Pressed by the Germans, the Italian navy planned to employ their last operational battleship,
the Vittorio Veneto, with eight cruisers and a number of destroyers to strike at British convoys
[bringing aid-jbp] to Greece. Commanded by Adm. Angelo Iachino, the force sailed under the
misapprehension that the British could oppose them with only one battleship, for Fliegerkorps X
claimed to have put the Warspite and Barham out of action.
“During the morning of March 27 air search and cover by the German and Italian land-based
air forces proved ineffective, and about noon the Italian naval force by a British flying boat about
80 miles east of Sicily.… ”
!
op. cit, p. 528
The Battle of Cape Matapan
46. “Pressed by the Germans, the Italian navy planned to employ their last operational battleship,
the Vittorio Veneto, with eight cruisers and a number of destroyers to strike at British convoys
[bringing aid-jbp] to Greece. Commanded by Adm. Angelo Iachino, the force sailed under the
misapprehension that the British could oppose them with only one battleship, for Fliegerkorps X
claimed to have put the Warspite and Barham out of action.
“During the morning of March 27 air search and cover by the German and Italian land-based
air forces proved ineffective, and about noon the Italian naval force by a British flying boat about
80 miles east of Sicily.… ”
!
op. cit, p. 528
The Battle of Cape Matapan
Short S.25 Sunderland
47. The Battle of Cape Matapan
The Government Code and Cypher School, Bletchley Park•
48. “In late March 1941, as British ships of the Mediterranean Fleet covered troop
movements to Greece, Mavis Batey a cryptographer at Bletchley Park made a
breakthrough, successfully reading the Italian naval enigma for the first time. The first
message, the cryptic "Today’s the day minus three," was followed three days later by a
second message reporting the sailing of an Italian battle fleet comprising one battleship,
six heavy and two light cruisers, plus destroyers to attack the convoys. As always with
Enigma, the intelligence breakthrough was concealed from the Italians by ensuring there
was a plausible reason for the Allies to have detected and intercepted their fleet. In this
case, it was a carefully directed reconnaissance plane…. !
!
“For many decades after the end of the Second World War, the involvement of the
GC&CS, as well as the code breaking methods used, were kept a closely guarded
secret. A number of controversial theories were published before more complete
accounts emerged after records were declassified in 1978.”!
!
Wikipedia
The Battle of Cape Matapan
The Government Code and Cypher School, Bletchley Park
49. “Clearing convoys from the way, [Adm. Cunningham]
ordered V. Adm. H.D. Pridham-Wippel to leave Greece
with his cruiser-destroyer force and rendezvous with
him south of Crete on the morning of March 28.
Cunningham himself sortied from Alexandria in the
Warspite with the Valiant, the Barham, the recently
arrived carrier Formidable, and nine destroyers after
dark on the 27th.
“At dawn on the 28th search planes from the
Formidable sighted the Italian cruiser group and almost
simultaneously a scout plane from the Vittorio Veneto
spotted Pridham-Wippel’s light forces. A few moments
later, Pridham-Wippel sighted another Italian light
force. As at the Battle of Jutland neither commander
knew of the presence of heavy forces nearby. Also, as
Beatty had done at Jutland, Pridham-Wippel turned to
lead the group he had just sighted toward Cunningham’s
battleships, a running fight continuing for nearly an hour, with no hits on either side. •…”
!
op,. cit. pp. 528-529
50. “Clearing convoys from the way, [Adm. Cunningham]
ordered V. Adm. H.D. Pridham-Wippel to leave Greece
with his cruiser-destroyer force and rendezvous with
him south of Crete on the morning of March 28.
Cunningham himself sortied from Alexandria in the
Warspite with the Valiant, the Barham, the recently
arrived carrier Formidable, and nine destroyers after
dark on the 27th.
“At dawn on the 28th search planes from the
Formidable sighted the Italian cruiser group and almost
simultaneously a scout plane from the Vittorio Veneto
spotted Pridham-Wippel’s light forces. A few moments
later, Pridham-Wippel sighted another Italian light
force. As at the Battle of Jutland neither commander
knew of the presence of heavy forces nearby. Also, as
Beatty had done at Jutland, Pridham-Wippel turned to
lead the group he had just sighted toward Cunningham’s
battleships, a running fight continuing for nearly an hour, with no hits on either side. • At 0855 Iachino
directed his light forces to break off the action, as they were nearing the range of British shore-based air.
Pridham-Wippel followed their retirement to keep in touch. To prevent his light forces from running into a
trap, Cunningham ordered the Formidable to make a torpedo attack on the unengaged group of Italian
cruisers. The planes however had so far to go that before they arrived on the scene the next dramatic
development occurred.”
!
op,. cit. pp. 528-529
51. “At 1100 a lookout on the Orion, Pridham-Wippel’s flagship, spotted the Vittorio
Veneto, • which immediately opened accurate fire with her 15-inch guns.” Ibid.
52. “Caught between the Vittorio Veneto and the cruisers, Pridham-Wippel turned south behind a smoke
screen. At this point the Formidable’s torpedo planes arrived and attacked the Italian battleship. Although
they scored no hits, they caused Iachino to break off the chase and set a course for home at 25 knots, with
the British in pursuit.
“For the next few hours the Formidable made repeated strikes in an effort to slow the Italian force so
that the British battleships could come up….another strike…stopped the cruiser Pola, the Italian main
body continuing its run for home.…
op. cit., p. 529
The Battle of Cape Matapan
53. “Caught between the Vittorio Veneto and the cruisers, Pridham-Wippel turned south behind a smoke
screen. At this point the Formidable’s torpedo planes arrived and attacked the Italian battleship. Although
they scored no hits, they caused Iachino to break off the chase and set a course for home at 25 knots, with
the British in pursuit.
“For the next few hours the Formidable made repeated strikes in an effort to slow the Italian force so
that the British battleships could come up….another strike…stopped the cruiser Pola, the Italian main
body continuing its run for home.
• “After these events the battle lost form. Misjudging the course and speed of the enemy, Pridham-
Wippel failed to make contact after passing the crippled Pola. The battleships coming up later first
mistook as British an Italian cruiser force returning to the aid of her helpless sister. Quickly rectifying that
error, the battle fleet engaged the Italian group, sinking three cruisers, including the Pola, and two
destroyers. •…
op. cit., p. 529
The Battle of Cape Matapan
54. “Caught between the Vittorio Veneto and the cruisers, Pridham-Wippel turned south behind a smoke
screen. At this point the Formidable’s torpedo planes arrived and attacked the Italian battleship. Although
they scored no hits, they caused Iachino to break off the chase and set a course for home at 25 knots, with
the British in pursuit.
“For the next few hours the Formidable made repeated strikes in an effort to slow the Italian force so
that the British battleships could come up….another strike…stopped the cruiser Pola, the Italian main
body continuing its run for home.
• “After these events the battle lost form. Misjudging the course and speed of the enemy, Pridham-
Wippel failed to make contact after passing the crippled Pola. The battleships coming up later first
mistook as British an Italian cruiser force returning to the aid of her helpless sister. Quickly rectifying that
error, the battle fleet engaged the Italian group, sinking three cruisers, including the Pola, and two
destroyers. • The remainder of the Italian force made its way safely to port.
“The British had achieved a considerable tactical victory….Belated air attacks by the Luftwaffe failed
to do any additional damage to the British force.
“The disproportionate victory provided a much needed lift to the morale of the Alexandria fleet and the
British public at a time [28-29 Mar 41-jbp]when the Mediterranean situation seemed dark. It had the
important strategic consequence that the Italian fleet did not venture from the safety of its ports to interfere
with British naval operations in the waters around Greece and Crete.
op. cit., p. 529
The Battle of Cape Matapan
56. The Fallen Idol
1922-Hitler used Mussolini’s March on Rome as
the template for his Bierkeller Putsch (1923)
1924-33—the Duce had been a successful tyrant
while Hitler only tried to seize power
57. The Fallen Idol
1922-Hitler used Mussolini’s March on Rome as
the template for his Bierkeller Putsch (1923)
1924-33—the Duce had been a successful tyrant
while Hitler only tried to seize power
1934-39—they stood together as the
democracies dithered
58. The Fallen Idol
1922-Hitler used Mussolini’s March on Rome as
the template for his Bierkeller Putsch (1923)
1924-33—the Duce had been a successful tyrant
while Hitler only tried to seize power
1934-39—they stood together as the
democracies dithered
59. “As a result of the Greek success in repelling the Italian invaders and of their own success in the
Taranto operation, the British found their Mediterranean situation much improved. On December 9,
General Wavell opened an offensive out of Egypt.…By February 9 the entire bulge of Cyrenaica was in
British hands and Wavell’s force stood before El Agheila at the threshold of Tripolitania….”
op. cit., p. 526
Germany to the Rescue
60. “As a result of the Greek success in repelling the Italian invaders and of their own success in the
Taranto operation, the British found their Mediterranean situation much improved. On December 9,
General Wavell opened an offensive out of Egypt.…By February 9 the entire bulge of Cyrenaica was in
British hands and Wavell’s force stood before El Agheila at the threshold of Tripolitania….•
“In the face of repeated Italian setbacks, in Greece, in North Africa, and at sea, the OKW2 held a series
of meetings to consider what could be done to retrieve the situation. As early as November 12, 1940,
Hitler had decided that it would be necessary to extricate Italy from the consequences of her “regretable
blunder” in Greece. But at the same time, Germany was busy with other commitments, including
exploratory staff discussions for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of Russia.…”
op. cit., p. 526
Germany to the Rescue
_________
2 The German High Command (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht)
61. 1. “they planned to give direct troop support to Italy in Greece and Albania, coming down through
Romania and Bulgaria in order to insure that the output of the Romanian oil fields would come to
Germany.
2. “The second part of the plan, Operation FELIX, envisioned having Spain enter the war against
Britain. If Spain [refused], diplomatic arrangements would be made to allowGerman troops free
passage of Spanish soil in order to capture Gibraltar. A part of this plan was the capture of the
Canary and Cape Verde Islands to control the entrance to the Mediterranean….
3. “Germany planned to send a Luftwaffe corps to Italy to cooperate with the Italian air force.
4. “Finally, they would send mechanized infantry to Africa, to be designated the Afrika Korps,
under command of General Erwin Rommel.”
“Once the officers of the OKW turned their attention to the Mediterranean, they
proposed to do what was necessary to make the Inland Sea an Axis lake
op. cit., p. 526
62. “During December and January the German X Flieger Korps (Tenth Air Fleet) of some 300 planes,
specially trained in attack on ships, moved from Norway to airfields in Calabria and Sicily. Its tasks were:
!
!
!
!
!
!
“After a Part of the German air reinforcements had arrived, a British convoy of four cargo ships
escorted by two battleships, one aircraft carrier, four cruisers, and destroyers of Force H passed Gibraltar
January 6 en route to Malta and Greece. About the same time the battleships Warspite and Valiant, the
carrier Illustrious, and seven destroyers of the Mediterranean Fleet sailed from Alexandria to meet the
convoy….In support of the operation Malta-based aircraft attacked the Italian fleet at Naples on the 8th,
damaging the battleship Giulio Cesare and forcing her and the Vittorio Veneto to move to the small base at
Spezia well away from the strategic area. This attack left the Vittorio Veneto the only serviceable Italian
battleship. On the evening of the 9th after daylight attacks by Italian aircraft from Sardinia, the Gibraltar
force turned back undamaged, leaving the convoy with three cruisers and several destroyers to proceed to
Malta.”
!
op. cit., p. 526
Germany to the Rescue
to protect Axis shipping with North Africa,
prevent the passage of British convoys through the central Mediterranean, and
neutralize Malta by air attack.
63. “Around noon on January 10 the Alexandria force, which had joined the convoy from Gib during the
night, was attacked west of Malta by about 50 Stuka…s from Sicily.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
op. cit., p. 526
Germany to the Rescue
64. “Around noon on January 10 the Alexandria force, which had joined the convoy from Gib during the
night, was attacked west of Malta by about 50 Stuka…s from Sicily.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
op. cit., p. 526
Germany to the Rescue
65. “Around noon on January 10 the Alexandria force, which had joined the convoy from Gib during the
night, was attacked west of Malta by about 50 Stuka…s from Sicily.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
op. cit., p. 526
Germany to the Rescue
66. “Around noon on January 10 the Alexandria force, which had joined the convoy from Gib during the
night, was attacked west of Malta by about 50 Stuka…s from Sicily. Unlike the Italian pilots, who attacked
from high level, the Germans pressed home their attacks with great skill through very heavy antiaircraft
fire. Concentration on the Illustrious, they hit the carrier several times. Steering with her engines, the
Illustrious headed for Malta, and despite an afternoon attack which started large fires, managed to make
port that evening.Next day, en route to Alexandria, the cruisers Gloucester and Southampton were damaged
by air attack, the latter so badly that she had to be sunk by her own force….
“While maintaining air attacks on Malta at the rate of three or four a day, the Luftwaffe did not neglect
the eastern end of the Mediterranean. At the end of January German aircraft from the Duodecanese Islands •
!
!
!
!
!
op. cit., p. 527
Germany to the Rescue
Sea Power, p. 538
Sea Power, p. 520
67. “Around noon on January 10 the Alexandria force, which had joined the convoy from Gib during the
night, was attacked west of Malta by about 50 Stuka…s from Sicily. Unlike the Italian pilots, who attacked
from high level, the Germans pressed home their attacks with great skill through very heavy antiaircraft
fire. Concentration on the Illustrious, they hit the carrier several times. Steering with her engines, the
Illustrious headed for Malta, and despite an afternoon attack which started large fires, managed to make
port that evening.Next day, en route to Alexandria, the cruisers Gloucester and Southampton were damaged
by air attack, the latter so badly that she had to be sunk by her own force….
“While maintaining air attacks on Malta at the rate of three or four a day, the Luftwaffe did not neglect
the eastern end of the Mediterranean. At the end of January German aircraft from the Duodecanese Islands •
began dropping magnetic mines in the Suez Canal in such numbers that it had to be closed intermittently
throughout the month of February. Thus in the brief space of one month the intervention of the German air
force had dramatically reversed the situation in the Mediterranean.
“To send ships through the Med was to subject them to extreme peril. The only feasible route to maintain
supply for Britain’s Middle Eastern army was the long one around the Cape of Good Hope, through the Red
Sea and the Suez Canal….
!
!
!
!
!
op. cit., p. 527
Germany to the Rescue
Sea Power, p. 538
Sea Power, p. 520
68. “Around noon on January 10 the Alexandria force, which had joined the convoy from Gib during the
night, was attacked west of Malta by about 50 Stuka…s from Sicily. Unlike the Italian pilots, who attacked
from high level, the Germans pressed home their attacks with great skill through very heavy antiaircraft
fire. Concentration on the Illustrious, they hit the carrier several times. Steering with her engines, the
Illustrious headed for Malta, and despite an afternoon attack which started large fires, managed to make
port that evening.Next day, en route to Alexandria, the cruisers Gloucester and Southampton were damaged
by air attack, the latter so badly that she had to be sunk by her own force….
“While maintaining air attacks on Malta at the rate of three or four a day, the Luftwaffe did not neglect
the eastern end of the Mediterranean. At the end of January German aircraft from the Duodecanese Islands •
began dropping magnetic mines in the Suez Canal in such numbers that it had to be closed intermittently
throughout the month of February. Thus in the brief space of one month the intervention of the German air
force had dramatically reversed the situation in the Mediterranean.
“To send ships through the Med was to subject them to extreme peril. The only feasible route to maintain
supply for Britain’s Middle Eastern army was the long one around the Cape of Good Hope, through the Red
Sea and the Suez Canal. Regular Cape convoys designated WS [for Winston Specials] brought men, stores,
tanks and ammunition to the Middle East Command….
“In the next few months the British Mediterranean Fleet endured its most severe trial.
!
!
!
!
!
op. cit., p. 527
Germany to the Rescue
Sea Power, p. 538
Sea Power, p. 520
69. “In the next few months the British Mediterranean Fleet endured its most severe trial. When the
Germans invaded Greece, the Greek government accepted the active participation of British troops and air
forces in the mainland fighting. Although reinforcement of Greece meant that General Wavell’s drive had to
be stopped short of the Tripolitan border, the War Cabinet felt that the political reasons for aiding Greece
outweighed all other considerations. The Mediterranean Fleet, shouldering the responsibilities for transport
and protection of three divisions and an armored brigade with their supplies, had to commit so much of its
strength to the Aegean that it could spare little attention for Italian convoys to Libya. The result was nearly
fatal to the British position in North Africa, for during the month of March, Italian ships carried General
Rommel’s Afrika Korps across the Mediterranean.
!
op. cit., pp. 527-528
Germany to the Rescue
70. “In the next few months the British Mediterranean Fleet endured its most severe trial. When the
Germans invaded Greece, the Greek government accepted the active participation of British troops and air
forces in the mainland fighting. Although reinforcement of Greece meant that General Wavell’s drive had to
be stopped short of the Tripolitan border, the War Cabinet felt that the political reasons for aiding Greece
outweighed all other considerations. The Mediterranean Fleet, shouldering the responsibilities for transport
and protection of three divisions and an armored brigade with their supplies, had to commit so much of its
strength to the Aegean that it could spare little attention for Italian convoys to Libya. The result was nearly
fatal to the British position in North Africa, for during the month of March, Italian ships carried General
Rommel’s Afrika Korps across the Mediterranean.
“The first British convoy sailed for Piraeus March 5, others following every three days. Italian explosive
motor boats sank a British cruiser in Suda Bay on the night of March 26, and a few days later an Italian
submarine sank another. During a period of about six weeks however the fleet carried 58,000 troops with
their equipment and supplies to Greece without loss.
!
op. cit., pp. 527-528
Germany to the Rescue
71. “In the next few months the British Mediterranean Fleet endured its most severe trial. When the
Germans invaded Greece, the Greek government accepted the active participation of British troops and air
forces in the mainland fighting. Although reinforcement of Greece meant that General Wavell’s drive had to
be stopped short of the Tripolitan border, the War Cabinet felt that the political reasons for aiding Greece
outweighed all other considerations. The Mediterranean Fleet, shouldering the responsibilities for transport
and protection of three divisions and an armored brigade with their supplies, had to commit so much of its
strength to the Aegean that it could spare little attention for Italian convoys to Libya. The result was nearly
fatal to the British position in North Africa, for during the month of March, Italian ships carried General
Rommel’s Afrika Korps across the Mediterranean.
“The first British convoy sailed for Piraeus March 5, others following every three days. Italian explosive
motor boats sank a British cruiser in Suda Bay on the night of March 26, and a few days later an Italian
submarine sank another. During a period of about six weeks however the fleet carried 58,000 troops with
their equipment and supplies to Greece without loss.
!
op. cit., pp. 527-528
Germany to the Rescue
Australian troops in
Alexandria embarking
for Greece, March, 1941
72. “British troops did not remain long in Greece. From Bulgaria the German army had invaded southern
Yugoslavia and Greece on April 6. To the 800 supporting aircraft of Fliegerkorps IV, the R.A.F. could
oppose only 80 operational planes plus two long-ranged bomber squadrons flying night missions from
Egypt. Outflanked and outnumbered, the Greek and Yugoslav armies retreated. Yugoslavia capitulated on
April 17. The Greeks had already decided their cause was lost.…On April 24 the Greeks surrendered. On
that same night the British evacuation began.
!
op. cit., pp. 529-530
The Loss of Greece and Crete
73. “For this task, even more difficult than
Dunkirk, the Med Fleet had available seven
cruisers. 20 destroyers, 21 transports, and a
number of small craft. The port of Piraeus
having been destroyed by the explosion • of an
ammunition ship early in April…”
!
op. cit., p. 530
74.
75. “For this task, even more difficult than
Dunkirk, the Med Fleet had available seven
cruisers. 20 destroyers, 21 transports, and a
number of small craft. The port of Piraeus
having been destroyed by the explosion • of an
ammunition ship early in April, the evacuation
had to be managed from three beaches in the
Athens area and three in the Peloponnesus….
Ship losses were heavy. Yet at the end over
50,000 troops were saved.
“Although the British had been forced out of
Greece, they determined to save Crete….to hold
it at all costs.”
!
op. cit., p. 530
76. “At dawn on May 20 the expected German assault came. The primary attack was made by 16,000
airborne troops of the XI Flieger Korps transported in 530 planes and 100 gliders, while following up were
7,000 reserve troops to be transported by sea..
!
op. cit., p. 530
The Loss of Greece and Crete
77.
78.
79.
80. “In all the Royal Navy saved about 17,000 troops from Crete, at a cost to itself of three cruisers and six
destroyers sunk; one aircraft carrier, three battleships, six cruisers, and seven destroyers damaged, and just
over 2,000 casualties [casualties=KIA + WIA, jbp]. Although the British [army] had suffered about 13,000
casualties, their stubborn defense had cost the Germans 400 planes and 15,000 to 20,000 troops, including
5,000 men of their only airborne division. The British defense of Crete actually saved Malta, for after their
Cretan experience the Germans had no airborne force available for further operations.”
!
op. cit., p. 531
The Loss of Greece and Crete
81. In this dark hour Britain opposed Hitler alone save for her Commonwealth forces and the
pitiful scraps of “Free France,” “Free Poland,” &c. She had given her best to stop the Nazi war
machine and her best had not been good enough.
Now Germany’s warlord unleashed his ever victorious Wehrmacht on his real enemy,
Russia. On 22 June Blitzkrieg came like a thunderclap to a stunned Soviet Union. • Stalin was
paralyzed for days as “Cauldron Battles” followed one another, producing rapid advances. But
as fall brought “General Mud” to slow the advance on Moscow, Stalin regained his courage.
While those around him were despairing, he stood firm. The “Fascist destroyers” would be
stopped.
The Loss of Greece and Crete
What Might Have Been…
jbp
82. In this dark hour Britain opposed Hitler alone save for her Commonwealth forces and the
pitiful scraps of “Free France,” “Free Poland,” &c. She had given her best to stop the Nazi war
machine and her best had not been good enough.
Now Germany’s warlord unleashed his ever victorious Wehrmacht on his real enemy,
Russia. On 22 June Blitzkrieg came like a thunderclap to a stunned Soviet Union. • Stalin was
paralyzed for days as “Cauldron Battles” followed one another, producing rapid advances. But
as fall brought “General Mud” to slow the advance on Moscow, Stalin regained his courage.
While those around him were despairing, he stood firm. The “Fascist destroyers” would be
stopped.
The Loss of Greece and Crete
jbp
83. In this dark hour Britain opposed Hitler alone save for her Commonwealth forces and the
pitiful scraps of “Free France,” “Free Poland,” &c. She had given her best to stop the Nazi war
machine and her best had not been good enough.
Now Germany’s warlord unleashed his ever victorious Wehrmacht on his real enemy,
Russia. On 22 June Blitzkrieg came like a thunderclap to a stunned Soviet Union. • Stalin was
paralyzed for days as “Cauldron Battles” followed one another, producing rapid advances. But
as fall brought “General Mud” to slow the advance on Moscow, Stalin regained his courage.
While those around him were despairing, he stood firm. The “Fascist destroyers” would be
stopped.
And so they were. On 8 December 1941, within sight of the Kremlin bell towers, “General
Winter” and the courage of the Red Army ground the invaders to a halt. Just as FDR was
delivering the war message to America. • Now Hitler could never win.
Hitler’s “Operation Barbarossa,” the largest military operation in history, had begun 38
days later than planned. Almost entirely because of the Balkans diversion. Would that earlier
start (15 May) have produced Soviet collapse? Did Mussolini’s vain adventurism—and Hitler’s
choice to rescue him—produce this turning of the tide? Did the folly of the Japanese doom
the Axis?
The Loss of Greece and Crete
jbp
84. Text
IV. Malta
The Key to the Battle of Supply-An Italian Savoia-
Marchetti during an attack on a Malta convoy
87. “During the summer [of ’41-jbp], both sides in North Africa undertook to build up strength. The
Germans, consolidating their gains in Greece, Crete, and Cyrenaica, used the maximum of Axis shipping
capacity to send troops and supplies to North Africa. To oppose this flow of goods to Rommel, the British
had to depend on Malta. Situated almost at the mid-point of the Med, Malta not only served as a way station
for ships passing between Gibraltar and Alexandria; it also sat squarely athwart the normal sea routes
between Italy and Libya….
!
op. cit., pp. 533-534
The Battle of Supplies
89. Italy and Libya. Fighter planes and bombers based on Malta forced Axis shipping to make wide detours
beyond the range of air strikes, effectively cutting down the efficiency of transport to North Africa. As a
fleet base, Malta could threaten Italian and German convoys, forcing the Italian fleet to provide heavy
escorts and to accept action under unfavorable conditions of air cover. When Malta was strong, nearly two
fifths of Axis shipping for North Africa went to the bottom; when the island was weak, over ninety-five per
cent. The chart on page 535 shows this story graphically.”
!
op. cit., pp. 533-534
The Battle of Supplies
91. step 1-what values are represented on the x (horizontal) and y (vertical) axes?
92. step 1-what values are represented on the x (horizontal) and y (vertical) axes?
the x axis represents calendar time. each unit is a month. J, J, A &c. =
June, July, August &c.
93. step 1-what values are represented on the x (horizontal) and y (vertical) axes?
in this (unusual) case there are two scales on the y axis, shown on both sides
94. step 1-what values are represented on the x (horizontal) and y (vertical) axes?
in this (unusual) case there are two scales on the y axis, shown on both sides
the y axis represents SHIPPING IN THOUSANDS OF TONS and STRENGTH OF MALTA. the
scales are duplicated and more easily read if rotated.
97. the legend explains that the shipping is represented by the line graphs,
the strength by the bar graphs; e.g., ___ ___ = TOTAL OF GOODS SHIPPED (G.R.T.)
98. the legend explains that the shipping is represented by the line graphs, the
strength by the bar graphs; = ITALIAN SHIPPING (GROSS REGISTERED TONS) ETC.
100. step 2-read the Legend
the legend explains that the shipping is represented by the line graphs,
the strength by the bar graphs
101. step 2-read the Legend
the legend explains that the shipping is represented by the line graphs,
the strength by the bar graphs
102. step 2-read the Legend
the legend explains that the shipping is represented by the line graphs,
the strength by the bar graphs
103. step 2-read the Legend
the legend explains that the shipping is represented by the line graphs,
the strength by the bar graphs &c.
104. step 3-again view the graph sideways and read the events which explain the
“ups & downs.”
105. step 3-again view the graph sideways and read the events which explain the
“ups & downs.”
106. step 3-again view the graph sideways and read the events which explain the
“ups & downs.”
107. cent. The chart on page 535 shows this story graphically.
“To keep Malta supplied, the British decided to send strongly escorted convoys approximately once a
month….Despite all the British could do, convoys often were unable to win through under the blistering
attacks from the skies.
“As a result of the losses incurred in the Greek campaign, no surface ships could be spared for Malta
during the late spring and summer, but in other respects the Malta situation greatly improved, largely
because of the transfer in June of Fliegerkorps X from Sicily to Greece to replace half of Fliegerkorps IV,
which was being transferred to Russia….In the first six months…the Axis loss rate [had been only] 3.4%.
In the second half of the year…22.7%….
“On November 18, 1941, the British Eighth Army began another offensive, advancing rapidly to
Benghazi. •”
!
op. cit., p. 534
The Battle of Supplies
108. cent. The chart on page 535 shows this story graphically.
“To keep Malta supplied, the British decided to send strongly escorted convoys approximately once a
month….Despite all the British could do, convoys often were unable to win through under the blistering
attacks from the skies.
“As a result of the losses incurred in the Greek campaign, no surface ships could be spared for Malta
during the late spring and summer, but in other respects the Malta situation greatly improved, largely
because of the transfer in June of Fliegerkorps X from Sicily to Greece to replace half of Fliegerkorps IV,
which was being transferred to Russia….In the first six months…the Axis loss rate [had been only] 3.4%.
In the second half of the year…22.7%….
“On November 18, 1941, the British Eighth Army began another offensive, advancing rapidly to
Benghazi. •”
!
op. cit., p. 534
The Battle of Supplies
109. cent. The chart on page 535 shows this story graphically.
“To keep Malta supplied, the British decided to send strongly escorted convoys approximately once a
month….Despite all the British could do, convoys often were unable to win through under the blistering
attacks from the skies.
“As a result of the losses incurred in the Greek campaign, no surface ships could be spared for Malta
during the late spring and summer, but in other respects the Malta situation greatly improved, largely
because of the transfer in June of Fliegerkorps X from Sicily to Greece to replace half of Fliegerkorps IV,
which was being transferred to Russia….In the first six months…the Axis loss rate [had been only] 3.4%.
In the second half of the year…22.7%….
“On November 18, 1941, the British Eighth Army began another offensive, advancing rapidly to
Benghazi. •”
!
op. cit., p. 534
The Battle of Supplies
110. cent. The chart on page 535 shows this story graphically.
“To keep Malta supplied, the British decided to send strongly escorted convoys approximately once a
month….Despite all the British could do, convoys often were unable to win through under the blistering
attacks from the skies.
“As a result of the losses incurred in the Greek campaign, no surface ships could be spared for Malta
during the late spring and summer, but in other respects the Malta situation greatly improved, largely
because of the transfer in June of Fliegerkorps X from Sicily to Greece to replace half of Fliegerkorps IV,
which was being transferred to Russia….In the first six months…the Axis loss rate [had been only] 3.4%.
In the second half of the year…22.7%….
“On November 18, 1941, the British Eighth Army began another offensive, advancing rapidly to
Benghazi. • Because of heavy losses in Axis shipping and lack of reinforcements, Rommel was forced to
retreat after a masterly stand. He pulled all the way back to Agedabia before increased strength enabled
him to resume the offensive.”
!
op. cit., p. 534
The Battle of Supplies
111. cent. The chart on page 535 shows this story graphically.
“To keep Malta supplied, the British decided to send strongly escorted convoys approximately once a
month….Despite all the British could do, convoys often were unable to win through under the blistering
attacks from the skies.
“As a result of the losses incurred in the Greek campaign, no surface ships could be spared for Malta
during the late spring and summer, but in other respects the Malta situation greatly improved, largely
because of the transfer in June of Fliegerkorps X from Sicily to Greece to replace half of Fliegerkorps IV,
which was being transferred to Russia….In the first six months…the Axis loss rate [had been only] 3.4%.
In the second half of the year…22.7%….
“On November 18, 1941, the British Eighth Army began another offensive, advancing rapidly to
Benghazi. • Because of heavy losses in Axis shipping and lack of reinforcements, Rommel was forced to
retreat after a masterly stand. He pulled all the way back to Agedabia before increased strength enabled
him to resume the offensive.”
!
op. cit., p. 534
The Battle of Supplies
112. him to resume the offensive.”
“…the loss of Cyrenaica caused the German High Command to take a renewed look at the
Mediterranean problem….Hitler ordered that U-boats be sent to the Med, against the advice of Raeder and
Dönitz, who wished to maintain the Atlantic attack at full strength. The first two waves of boats made the
passage of the Straits of Gibraltar in September and November, 1941, and soon thereafter made their
presence felt dramatically. On November 11, U-81 sank the Ark Royal, •…”
!
op. cit., pp. 534-536
The Battle of Supplies
113. him to resume the offensive.”
“…the loss of Cyrenaica caused the German High Command to take a renewed look at the
Mediterranean problem….Hitler ordered that U-boats be sent to the Med, against the advice of Raeder and
Dönitz, who wished to maintain the Atlantic attack at full strength. The first two waves of boats made the
passage of the Straits of Gibraltar in September and November, 1941, and soon thereafter made their
presence felt dramatically. On November 11, U-81 sank the Ark Royal, •
!
op. cit., pp. 534-536
The Battle of Supplies
114. him to resume the offensive.”
“…the loss of Cyrenaica caused the German High Command to take a renewed look at the
Mediterranean problem….Hitler ordered that U-boats be sent to the Med, against the advice of Raeder and
Dönitz, who wished to maintain the Atlantic attack at full strength. The first two waves of boats made the
passage of the Straits of Gibraltar in September and November, 1941, and soon thereafter made their
presence felt dramatically. On November 11, U-81 sank the Ark Royal, • and twelve days later U-331 sent
the Barham to the bottom….•
.
!
op. cit., pp. 534-536
The Battle of Supplies
115. him to resume the offensive.”
“…the loss of Cyrenaica caused the German High Command to take a renewed look at the
Mediterranean problem….Hitler ordered that U-boats be sent to the Med, against the advice of Raeder and
Dönitz, who wished to maintain the Atlantic attack at full strength. The first two waves of boats made the
passage of the Straits of Gibraltar in September and November, 1941, and soon thereafter made their
presence felt dramatically. On November 11, U-81 sank the Ark Royal, • and twelve days later U-331 sent
the Barham to the bottom….•
.
!
op. cit., pp. 534-536
The Battle of Supplies
116. him to resume the offensive.”
“…the loss of Cyrenaica caused the German High Command to take a renewed look at the
Mediterranean problem….Hitler ordered that U-boats be sent to the Med, against the advice of Raeder and
Dönitz, who wished to maintain the Atlantic attack at full strength. The first two waves of boats made the
passage of the Straits of Gibraltar in September and November, 1941, and soon thereafter made their
presence felt dramatically. On November 11, U-81 sank the Ark Royal, • and twelve days later U-331 sent
the Barham to the bottom….•
.
!
op. cit., pp. 534-536
The Battle of Supplies
117. him to resume the offensive.”
“…the loss of Cyrenaica caused the German High Command to take a renewed look at the
Mediterranean problem….Hitler ordered that U-boats be sent to the Med, against the advice of Raeder and
Dönitz, who wished to maintain the Atlantic attack at full strength. The first two waves of boats made the
passage of the Straits of Gibraltar in September and November, 1941, and soon thereafter made their
presence felt dramatically. On November 11, U-81 sank the Ark Royal, • and twelve days later U-331 sent
the Barham to the bottom….•
.
!
op. cit., pp. 534-536
The Battle of Supplies
118. him to resume the offensive.”
“…the loss of Cyrenaica caused the German High Command to take a renewed look at the
Mediterranean problem….Hitler ordered that U-boats be sent to the Med, against the advice of Raeder and
Dönitz, who wished to maintain the Atlantic attack at full strength. The first two waves of boats made the
passage of the Straits of Gibraltar in September and November, 1941, and soon thereafter made their
presence felt dramatically. On November 11, U-81 sank the Ark Royal, • and twelve days later U-331 sent
the Barham to the bottom….•
“Other German efforts….In December Hitler sent Field Marshall Albert Kesselring • to Italy as CinC
South with orders to gain and hold sea and air supremacy in the Sicilian Channel. At the same time Hitler
sent Fliegerkorps II to Sicily.
!
op. cit., pp. 534-536
The Battle of Supplies
119. sent Fliegerkorps II to Sicily.
“…the Italians agreed to provide heavy ship support for vital convoys and to attempt further attacks on
British harbors. On December 19, 1941, the Italian submarine Scire •…”
!
op. cit., p. 536
The Battle of Supplies
120. sent Fliegerkorps II to Sicily.
“…the Italians agreed to provide heavy ship support for vital convoys and to attempt further attacks on
British harbors. On December 19, 1941, the Italian submarine Scire • launched three two-man torpedoes
(midget submarines with detachable warheads)• in Alexandria which severely damaged the British
battleships Queen Elizabeth and Valiant.…
!
op. cit., p. 536
The Battle of Supplies
121. sent Fliegerkorps II to Sicily.
“…the Italians agreed to provide heavy ship support for vital convoys and to attempt further attacks on
British harbors. On December 19, 1941, the Italian submarine Scire • launched three two-man torpedoes
(midget submarines with detachable warheads)• in Alexandria which severely damaged the British
battleships Queen Elizabeth and Valiant. About the same time U-81,• the killer of the Ark Royal…”
!
op. cit., p. 536
The Battle of Supplies
122. sent Fliegerkorps II to Sicily.
“…the Italians agreed to provide heavy ship support for vital convoys and to attempt further attacks on
British harbors. On December 19, 1941, the Italian submarine Scire • launched three two-man torpedoes
(midget submarines with detachable warheads)• in Alexandria which severely damaged the British
battleships Queen Elizabeth and Valiant. About the same time U-81,• the killer of the Ark Royal, damaged
the Malaya, leaving the Med Fleet without a single serviceable heavy ship.…
!
op. cit., p. 536
The Battle of Supplies
123. sent Fliegerkorps II to Sicily.
“…the Italians agreed to provide heavy ship support for vital convoys and to attempt further attacks on
British harbors. On December 19, 1941, the Italian submarine Scire • launched three two-man torpedoes
(midget submarines with detachable warheads)• in Alexandria which severely damaged the British
battleships Queen Elizabeth and Valiant. About the same time U-81,• the killer of the Ark Royal, damaged
the Malaya, leaving the Med Fleet without a single serviceable heavy ship. Nor could replacements be
provided, for Japan had entered the war, and her planes had sent the Prince of Wales and the Repulse to the
bottom only a few days before.
!
op. cit., p. 536
The Battle of Supplies
124. bottom only a few days before.
“….Because of these increased Axis measures and severe British losses, the Axis shipping picture
improved enormously, enabling Rommel to resume the offensive…and recapture Cyrenaica in the first two
months of 1942….”
!
op. cit., p. 536
The Battle of Supplies
125. bottom only a few days before.
“….Because of these increased Axis measures and severe British losses, the Axis shipping picture
improved enormously, enabling Rommel to resume the offensive…and recapture Cyrenaica in the first two
months of 1942. Simultaneously the Axis intensified the air assault on Malta….”
!
op. cit., p. 536
The Battle of Supplies
126. bottom only a few days before.
“….Because of these increased Axis measures and severe British losses, the Axis shipping picture
improved enormously, enabling Rommel to resume the offensive…and recapture Cyrenaica in the first two
months of 1942. Simultaneously the Axis intensified the air assault on Malta….•
“….In the first four months of 1942 as German air reinforcements poured into Sicily, the monthly total
of raids ranged between two and three hundred. At the end of March the British carrier Eagle, which had
been flying in twelve Spitfires at a time, was laid up for repairs. Early in April, at the personal request of
Churchill, President Roosevelt made the United States carrier Wasp • available to fly in its much larger
capacity of about 60 Spitfires…”
!
op. cit., p. 536
The Battle of Supplies
USS Wasp, CV-7
1939-15 Sept 1942
127. bottom only a few days before.
but these were all destroyed within a few days. That month the tonnage of bombs dropped on Malta
reached a high of 6,700, and the British were forced to withdraw the surface ships that were still
operational. Submarines ran in fuel and ammunition, but in early May the last Malta-based submarines
retired to Alexandria. A second Wasp trip • delivered 60 more Spitfires on May 9, just in time for a series of
costly air battles on that day and the next. At the end of these battles, Marshal Kesselring considered that
his task of neutralizing Malta had been accomplished.”
!
op. cit., p. 536
The Battle of Supplies
128. “In March 1942 the supply situation at Malta became so desperate that all British North
African forces concerted their efforts to get a convoy through.
“The Eighth Army made diversionary attacks upon Axis airfields near Tobruk.
“The R.A.F. attacked airfields in Cyrenaika and Crete, carried out air reconnaissance and strikes from Libya
and Malta, and provided air cover for the convoy to the limit of its endurance.
“R.A.F. planes and a naval air squadron bombed the Libyan port of Derna on the nights of March 20 and 21.
“The weakened Med Fleet could provide cover only of three cruisers and ten destroyers with an antiaircraft
cruiser and six destroyers for escort of the four-ship convoy.
“Six other destroyers made an antisubmarine sweep along the North African coast, in the course of which
one destroyer was sunk; the remaining five, together with a cruiser and destroyer form Malta, reinforced the
covering group.”
Ibid.
129. “During the morning of March 22 the convoy suffered intermittent air attacks without damage. In the
afternoon an Italian force under Adm. Iachino consisting of the battleship Littorio, …”
!
op. cit., pp. 536-537
The Battle of Supplies
130. “During the morning of March 22 the convoy suffered intermittent air attacks without damage. In the
afternoon an Italian force under Adm. Iachino consisting of the battleship Littorio, three cruisers, and four
destroyers intercepted the British force north of Sirte. By adroit maneuvering, the use of smoke screens, and
threatening destroyer attacks, the British admiral was able to keep between his convoy and the Italian force
and hold off the superior enemy until sundown, when again Iachino retired to avoid a night action. Two of
the four supply ships arrived safely at Malta. Yet there was more honor than profit in the victory, for
subsequent heavy air attacks upon the harbor sank the other two ships at their moorings after only 5,000 of
their 26,000 tons of cargo had been landed.
“In June, with Malta reduced to near starvation, the Admiralty made another desperate effort to send in
two convoys, one each from Alexandria and Gibraltar. The first of eleven ships was escorted by seven
cruisers and 26 destroyers with several smaller warships and the ancient [1911-jbp], unarmed battleship
Centurion pretending to be a capital ship.…”
!
op. cit., pp. 536-537
The Battle of Supplies
131. “During the morning of March 22 the convoy suffered intermittent air attacks without damage. In the
afternoon an Italian force under Adm. Iachino consisting of the battleship Littorio, • three cruisers, and four
destroyers intercepted the British force north of Sirte. By adroit maneuvering, the use of smoke screens, and
threatening destroyer attacks, the British admiral was able to keep between his convoy and the Italian force
and hold off the superior enemy until sundown, when again Iachino retired to avoid a night action. Two of
the four supply ships arrived safely at Malta. Yet there was more honor than profit in the victory, for
subsequent heavy air attacks upon the harbor sank the other two ships at their moorings after only 5,000 of
their 26,000 tons of cargo had been landed.
“In June, with Malta reduced to near starvation, the Admiralty made another desperate effort to send in
two convoys, one each from Alexandria and Gibraltar. The first of eleven ships was escorted by seven
cruisers and 26 destroyers with several smaller warships and the ancient [1911-jbp], unarmed battleship
Centurion pretending to be a capital ship. Nine submarines took station to the north of the convoy track to
intercept the Italian fleet if it should leave port. Maximum air support covered the convoy as it advanced.”
!
op. cit., pp. 536-537
The Battle of Supplies
HMS CENTURION moored and "refitted" to act as the double for HMS ANSON.!
Her aft funnel and gun turrets are dummies.-Wikipedia
132. intercept the Italian fleet if it should leave port. Maximum air support covered the convoy as it advanced.”
“In spite of aircraft and submarines, the Italian fleet came on, losing one cruiser to a submarine, and
suffering damage to the Littorio from an aircraft torpedo. Although the Italian fleet never made contact,
Adm. Sir Philip Vian •…
!
op. cit., p. 537
The Battle of Supplies
133. intercept the Italian fleet if it should leave port. Maximum air support covered the convoy as it advanced.”
“In spite of aircraft and submarines, the Italian fleet came on, losing one cruiser to a submarine, and
suffering damage to the Littorio from an aircraft torpedo. Although the Italian fleet never made contact,
Adm. Sir Philip Vian • had to order the convoy to return to Alexandria since his ships had exhausted their
ammunition fighting off air attacks.”
“The eastbound convoy had better luck. Once it reached the Sardinian Narrows it came under heavy air
attack, and then in the Sicilian Narrows it encountered a force of Italian destroyers. But after heavy
fighting, two of the six merchant ships won through, bringing temporary respite to Malta.
!
op. cit., p. 537
The Battle of Supplies
2 Sept 45-aboard the
USS Missouri
134. intercept the Italian fleet if it should leave port. Maximum air support covered the convoy as it advanced.”
“In spite of aircraft and submarines, the Italian fleet came on, losing one cruiser to a submarine, and
suffering damage to the Littorio from an aircraft torpedo. Although the Italian fleet never made contact,
Adm. Sir Philip Vian • had to order the convoy to return to Alexandria since his ships had exhausted their
ammunition fighting off air attacks.”
“The eastbound convoy had better luck. Once it reached the Sardinian Narrows it came under heavy air
attack, and then in the Sicilian Narrows it encountered a force of Italian destroyers. But after heavy
fighting, two of the six merchant ships won through, bringing temporary respite to Malta.
!
op. cit., p. 537
The Battle of Supplies
135. “In the spring of 1942 German and Italian leaders agreed that for their North African ventures to succeed
in winning through to Suez and making possible the acquisition of Iranian oil fields, they must first
neutralize or capture Malta. Forces based there still exacted a toll of Axis shipping. Accordingly Hitler and
Mussolini, meeting at Berchtesgaden late in April,…”
!
Ibid.
Operation Hercules—The Axis Plan to Seize Malta
136. “In the spring of 1942 German and Italian leaders agreed that for their North African ventures to succeed
in winning through to Suez and making possible the acquisition of Iranian oil fields, they must first
neutralize or capture Malta. Forces based there still exacted a toll of Axis shipping. Accordingly Hitler and
Mussolini, meeting at Berchtesgaden late in April,• agreed to launch an assault on Malta in July, after
Rommel’s forthcoming offensive. Rommel was to stop at the Egyptian border so that the Luftwaffe planes
could be employed for the Malta operation. The plan provided for newly trained German airborne
troops…”
!
Ibid.
Operation Hercules—The Axis Plan to Seize Malta
137. “In the spring of 1942 German and Italian leaders agreed that for their North African ventures to succeed
in winning through to Suez and making possible the acquisition of Iranian oil fields, they must first
neutralize or capture Malta. Forces based there still exacted a toll of Axis shipping. Accordingly Hitler and
Mussolini, meeting at Berchtesgaden late in April,• agreed to launch an assault on Malta in July, after
Rommel’s forthcoming offensive. Rommel was to stop at the Egyptian border so that the Luftwaffe planes
could be employed for the Malta operation. The plan provided for newly trained German airborne
troops…”
!
Ibid.
Operation Hercules—The Axis Plan to Seize Malta
Me 321- Gigant
In spring 1942, …Me 321s were withdrawn from service in Russia in !
anticipation of the planned Operation Herkules, the invasion of Malta, !
in which a fleet of the gliders hauled by He 111Zs were to be used. !
The plan was abandoned due to a lack of towing aircraft. Wikipedia
138. “In the spring of 1942 German and Italian leaders agreed that for their North African ventures to succeed
in winning through to Suez and making possible the acquisition of Iranian oil fields, they must first
neutralize or capture Malta. Forces based there still exacted a toll of Axis shipping. Accordingly Hitler and
Mussolini, meeting at Berchtesgaden late in April,• agreed to launch an assault on Malta in July, after
Rommel’s forthcoming offensive. Rommel was to stop at the Egyptian border so that the Luftwaffe planes
could be employed for the Malta operation. The plan provided for newly trained German airborne troops •
to be supported by Italian naval forces and seaborne troops.…”
!
Ibid.
Operation Hercules—The Axis Plan to Seize Malta
Duce’s Regio Marine got the plans for the Marinefährpram from
their ally. Sixty-five were built in Italian shipyards by July, 1942
139. “In the spring of 1942 German and Italian leaders agreed that for their North African ventures to succeed
in winning through to Suez and making possible the acquisition of Iranian oil fields, they must first
neutralize or capture Malta. Forces based there still exacted a toll of Axis shipping. Accordingly Hitler and
Mussolini, meeting at Berchtesgaden late in April,• agreed to launch an assault on Malta in July, after
Rommel’s forthcoming offensive. Rommel was to stop at the Egyptian border so that the Luftwaffe planes
could be employed for the Malta operation. The plan provided for newly trained German airborne troops •
to be supported by Italian naval forces and seaborne troops. • Hitler, never wholly supporting this operation,
constantly sought an excuse to avoid it. He hoped that Rommel would be able to capture Tobruk, which the
Axis might then use as a supply port for ships routed via Crete, beyond attack radius of aircraft based on
Malta….”
!
Ibid.
Operation Hercules—The Axis Plan to Seize Malta
140. “In the spring of 1942 German and Italian leaders agreed that for their North African ventures to succeed
in winning through to Suez and making possible the acquisition of Iranian oil fields, they must first
neutralize or capture Malta. Forces based there still exacted a toll of Axis shipping. Accordingly Hitler and
Mussolini, meeting at Berchtesgaden late in April,• agreed to launch an assault on Malta in July, after
Rommel’s forthcoming offensive. Rommel was to stop at the Egyptian border so that the Luftwaffe planes
could be employed for the Malta operation. The plan provided for newly trained German airborne troops •
to be supported by Italian naval forces and seaborne troops. • Hitler, never wholly supporting this operation,
constantly sought an excuse to avoid it. He hoped that Rommel would be able to capture Tobruk, which the
Axis might then use as a supply port for ships routed via Crete, beyond attack radius of aircraft based on
Malta. •
“On May 26, Rommel resumed his offensive. His forces reached Tobruk on June 19 and broke through
the defense perimeter the next day. On June 21 Tobruk fell.”
!
Ibid.
Operation Hercules—The Axis Plan to Seize Malta
141. the defense perimeter the next day. On June 21 Tobruk fell. For this accomplishment Hitler promoted
Rommel to Field Marshal.…”
!
Ibid.
Operation Hercules—The Axis Plan to Seize Malta
142. the defense perimeter the next day. On June 21 Tobruk fell. For this accomplishment Hitler promoted
Rommel to Field Marshal. Rommel remarked, “I would rather he had given me one more division.” The
Germans…captured vast quantities of stores. In view of this unexpected windfall and with the port of
Tobruk now available, Rommel requested permission to take advantage of his momentum and drive into
Egypt. Hitler, seeing a chance to avoid the assault on Malta, [postponed Operation Hercules until
September].
“Rommel drove hard, seizing Mersa Matruh • and its important air base.…”
!
Ibid.
Operation Hercules—The Axis Plan to Seize Malta
143. the defense perimeter the next day. On June 21 Tobruk fell. For this accomplishment Hitler promoted
Rommel to Field Marshal. • Rommel remarked, “I would rather he had given me one more division.” The
Germans…captured vast quantities of stores. In view of this unexpected windfall and with the port of
Tobruk now available, Rommel requested permission to take advantage of his momentum and drive into
Egypt. Hitler, seeing a chance to avoid the assault on Malta, [postponed Operation Hercules until
September].
“Rommel drove hard, seizing Mersa Matruh and its important air base. Then an incredible thing
happened. Hitler diverted reinforcements scheduled for Africa to the Russian front. Of the 60,000 tons of
supply Rommel had requested for June, only 3,000 were sent. He was able to keep going only by seizing
British materials. At one point 85% of his transport consisted of captured British vehicles. Thus Rommel
had to call a halt at El Alamein, only 60 miles from Alexandria.”
!
Ibid.
Operation Hercules—The Axis Plan to Seize Malta
145. “Once again the supply race was on. While the Axis had to undertake only a three-day voyage to send
material to North Africa, the British had to depend on the three-month voyage around the Cape of Good
Hope. Rommel chiefly required food, fuel,and light vehicles, while the British desperately needed tanks.
When Tobruk fell, the United States sent 300 brand-new Sherman tanks…”
!
op. cit, pp. 537,539.
The Turn of the Tide
146. “Once again the supply race was on. While the Axis had to undertake only a three-day voyage to send
material to North Africa, the British had to depend on the three-month voyage around the Cape of Good
Hope. Rommel chiefly required food, fuel,and light vehicles, while the British desperately needed tanks.
When Tobruk fell, the United States sent 300 brand-new Sherman tanks…”
!
op. cit, pp. 537,539.
The Turn of the Tide
147. “Once again the supply race was on. While the Axis had to undertake only a three-day voyage to send
material to North Africa, the British had to depend on the three-month voyage around the Cape of Good
Hope. Rommel chiefly required food, fuel,and light vehicles, while the British desperately needed tanks.
When Tobruk fell, the United States sent 300 brand-new Sherman tanks and 100 self-propelled 105 mm.
guns..”
!
op. cit, pp. 537,539.
The Turn of the Tide
148. “Once again the supply race was on. While the Axis had to undertake only a three-day voyage to send
material to North Africa, the British had to depend on the three-month voyage around the Cape of Good
Hope. Rommel chiefly required food, fuel,and light vehicles, while the British desperately needed tanks.
When Tobruk fell, the United States sent 300 brand-new Sherman tanks and 100 self-propelled 105 mm.
guns.•
“Ever since Japan had entered the war and begun operations in the Indian Ocean, the British had been
haunted by fears of an Axis base being established at Diego Suarez on Madagascar. From this base German
or Japanese naval or air forces could not only threaten India but could operate against the vital WS convoys
to Egypt. Madagascar belonged to France, but the British had little faith in Vichy France…after Vichy’s
virtual cession of French Indo-China to Japan…..”
!
op. cit, pp. 537,539.
The Turn of the Tide
149. “Once again the supply race was on. While the Axis had to undertake only a three-day voyage to send
material to North Africa, the British had to depend on the three-month voyage around the Cape of Good
Hope. Rommel chiefly required food, fuel,and light vehicles, while the British desperately needed tanks.
When Tobruk fell, the United States sent 300 brand-new Sherman tanks and 100 self-propelled 105 mm.
guns.•
“Ever since Japan had entered the war and begun operations in the Indian Ocean, the British had been
haunted by fears of an Axis base being established at Diego Suarez on Madagascar. From this base German
or Japanese naval or air forces could not only threaten India but could operate against the vital WS convoys
to Egypt. Madagascar belonged to France, but the British had little faith in Vichy France…after Vichy’s
virtual cession of French Indo-China to Japan…..”
!
op. cit, pp. 537,539.
The Turn of the Tide
Sea Power, p. 538
Madagascar
150. “Once again the supply race was on. While the Axis had to undertake only a three-day voyage to send
material to North Africa, the British had to depend on the three-month voyage around the Cape of Good
Hope. Rommel chiefly required food, fuel,and light vehicles, while the British desperately needed tanks.
When Tobruk fell, the United States sent 300 brand-new Sherman tanks and 100 self-propelled 105 mm.
guns.•
“Ever since Japan had entered the war and begun operations in the Indian Ocean, the British had been
haunted by fears of an Axis base being established at Diego Suarez on Madagascar. From this base German
or Japanese naval or air forces could not only threaten India but could operate against the vital WS convoys
to Egypt. Madagascar belonged to France, but the British had little faith in Vichy France…after Vichy’s
virtual cession of French Indo-China to Japan….•
“Heavy ships for Operation IRONCLAD, the capture of Madagascar, came from Force H, and included
two aircraft carriers…as well as the battleship Ramilles, two cruisers, eleven destroyers, with smaller craft
and 15 transports and assault craft. Force H was replaced at Gib by ships from the Home Fleet, which was
in turn reinforced by American heavy ships temporarily transferred to Scapa Flow….”
!
op. cit, pp. 537,539.
The Turn of the Tide
Sea Power, p. 538
Force H
151. “Once again the supply race was on. While the Axis had to undertake only a three-day voyage to send
material to North Africa, the British had to depend on the three-month voyage around the Cape of Good
Hope. Rommel chiefly required food, fuel,and light vehicles, while the British desperately needed tanks.
When Tobruk fell, the United States sent 300 brand-new Sherman tanks and 100 self-propelled 105 mm.
guns.•
“Ever since Japan had entered the war and begun operations in the Indian Ocean, the British had been
haunted by fears of an Axis base being established at Diego Suarez on Madagascar. From this base German
or Japanese naval or air forces could not only threaten India but could operate against the vital WS convoys
to Egypt. Madagascar belonged to France, but the British had little faith in Vichy France…after Vichy’s
virtual cession of French Indo-China to Japan….•
“Heavy ships for Operation IRONCLAD, the capture of Madagascar, came from Force H, and included
two aircraft carriers…as well as the battleship Ramilles, two cruisers, eleven destroyers, with smaller craft
and 15 transports and assault craft. Force H was replaced at Gib by ships from the Home Fleet, which was
in turn reinforced by American heavy ships temporarily transferred to Scapa Flow.
“The assault on Diego Suarez took place at 0430 5 May 1942. After an uncertain start, a flanking attack
by 50 marines turned the edge of the defenses, and within a few hours Diego Suarez was in British hands. A
few weeks later the British also took Majunga and Tananarive. Once the Vichy officials had been
supplanted the people of the island generally supported the Allied cause.
“With the danger to the Cape route cleared up, reinforcement of the British Middle Eastern position
proceeded rapidly.”
!
op. cit, pp. 537,539.
The Turn of the Tide
Sea Power, p. 538
Diego SuarezMajunga
Tananarive
152. “With the danger to the Cape route cleared up, reinforcement of the British Middle Eastern position
proceeded rapidly. In Egypt the British had approximately 630,000 men, and Churchill became impatient
for a desert offensive. Shortly after the fall of Tobruk, he made up his mind to go to Cairo to see for himself
why General Auchinleck delayed his scheduled attack on Rommel….After many discussions, Churchill
decided to split the Middle East command in two, to relieve Auchinleck, and to give the new Near East
command to Gen. Sir Harold Alexander…”
!
op. cit, pp. 537,539.
The Turn of the Tide
Field Marshal the Right Honourable!
the Earl Alexander of Tunis!
KG GCB OM GCMG CSI DSO MC CD PC PC(Can)!
1891-1969
153. command to Gen. Sir Harold Alexander and the Eighth Army to Gen. Sir Bernard L. Montgomery. The
latter, immediately on taking over on August 13, began to reorganize and retrain his forces to meet the
expected attack on the El Alamein position and for an eventual offensive. Montgomery planned not merely
to roll the Germans back on their supply lines as previous British offensives had done but to destroy them
as a fighting force so that they could not be turned against the forthcoming Anglo-American landings in
North Africa….”
!
op. cit, pp. 537,539.
The Turn of the Tide
Field Marshal the Right Honourable!
Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein!
KG, GCB, DSO, PC!
1887-1976
154. “With the danger to the Cape route cleared up, reinforcement of the British Middle Eastern position
proceeded rapidly. In Egypt the British had approximately 630,000 men, and Churchill became impatient
for a desert offensive. Shortly after the fall of Tobruk, he made up his mind to go to Cairo to see for himself
why General Auchinleck delayed his scheduled attack on Rommel….After many discussions, Churchill
decided to split the Middle East command in two, to relieve Auchinleck, and to give the new Near East
command to Gen. Sir Harold Alexander • and the Eighth Army to Gen. Sir Bernard L. Montgomery. • The
latter, immediately on taking over on August 13, began to reorganize and retrain his forces to meet the
expected attack on the El Alamein position and for an eventual offensive. Montgomery planned not merely
to roll the Germans back on their supply lines as previous British offensives had done but to destroy them
as a fighting force so that they could not be turned against the forthcoming Anglo-American landings in
North Africa.
“Meanwhile the air reinforcement of Malta continued….the effective attack range increased….Even in
the harbors of Bardia, Tobruk, and Mersa Matruh, ships suffered heavy attack. Axis coastal shipping also
met heavy losses. Thus while Rommel attempted to build up stores for resuming his offensive before
September, the supplies he received barely covered his daily requirements for his infantry forces, and not
half of what he needed for his Panzer Army….”
!
op. cit, pp. 537,539.
The Turn of the Tide
155. September, the supplies he received barely covered his daily requirements for his infantry forces, and not
half of what he needed for his Panzer Army.
“Rommel knew that if he was to win a breakthrough at El Alamein, he would have to attack before the
British heavy reinforcements could arrive in September. The Italian Comando Supremo promised heavy
shipments of oil and gasoline, and Kesselring agreed to fly in 500 gallons of gasoline a day during the
offensive. Accepting these promises, Rommel took the risk and on the night of August 30-31, 1942, hurled
an attack at the ridge of Alam el Halfa, hoping to outflank the El Alamein defenses. Montgomery refused to
be drawn out and contented himself with allowing Rommel’s drive to spend itself against his strong
defensive positions while the R.A.F. made punishing attacks on the German armor. None of Rommel’s
promised fuel oil or gasoline arrived, and on September 2, Rommel called off the attack.”
!
op. cit, p. 539.
The Turn of the Tide
156. September, the supplies he received barely covered his daily requirements for his infantry forces, and not
half of what he needed for his Panzer Army.
“Rommel knew that if he was to win a breakthrough at El Alamein, he would have to attack before the
British heavy reinforcements could arrive in September. The Italian Comando Supremo promised heavy
shipments of oil and gasoline, and Kesselring agreed to fly in 500 gallons of gasoline a day during the
offensive. Accepting these promises, Rommel took the risk and on the night of August 30-31, 1942, hurled
an attack at the ridge of Alam el Halfa, hoping to outflank the El Alamein defenses. Montgomery refused to
be drawn out and contented himself with allowing Rommel’s drive to spend itself against his strong
defensive positions while the R.A.F. made punishing attacks on the German armor. None of Rommel’s
promised fuel oil or gasoline arrived, and on September 2, Rommel called off the attack.
“‘With the failure of this offensive,’ wrote Rommel, ‘our last chance of gaining the Suez Canal had
gone. We could now expect that the full production of British industry and, more important, the enormous
industrial potential of America … would finally turn the tide against us.’”
!
op. cit, p. 539.
The Turn of the Tide
157. industrial potential of America … would finally turn the tide against us.’”
“When Rommel withdrew on September 3, Montgomery did not pursue him. With his own supply line
to the eastward secure, Montgomery continued to build up his forces for a massive offensive which began
at El Alamein on October 23….”
!
op. cit, pp. 539.-540
The Turn of the Tide
158. industrial potential of America … would finally turn the tide against us.’”
“When Rommel withdrew on September 3, Montgomery did not pursue him. With his own supply line
to the eastward secure, Montgomery continued to build up his forces for a massive offensive which began
at El Alamein on October 23. After eleven days of furious fighting, the Eighth Army finally broke through
and rolled on to the westward. Tobruk was in British hands on November 13 and Benghazi on the 24th…
Rommel was in retreat to Tunisia. Far to the westward British and American forces that had landed in
Morocco and Algeria were advancing to his rear. The tide of war had turned for the last time.”
!
op. cit, pp. 539.-540
The Turn of the Tide
159. industrial potential of America … would finally turn the tide against us.’”
“When Rommel withdrew on September 3, Montgomery did not pursue him. With his own supply line
to the eastward secure, Montgomery continued to build up his forces for a massive offensive which began
at El Alamein on October 23. After eleven days of furious fighting, the Eighth Army finally broke through
and rolled on to the westward. Tobruk was in British hands on November 13 and Benghazi on the 24th…
Rommel was in retreat to Tunisia. Far to the westward British and American forces that had landed in
Morocco and Algeria were advancing to his rear. The tide of war had turned for the last time.”
!
op. cit, pp. 539.-540
The Turn of the Tide
The tide had also turned against Hitler far to the northeast. On 19 November 1942, the Red Army
began the encirclement of the Sixth Army at Stalingrad.
jbp
160. industrial potential of America … would finally turn the tide against us.’”
“When Rommel withdrew on September 3, Montgomery did not pursue him. With his own supply
line to the eastward secure, Montgomery continued to build up his forces for a massive offensive which
began at El Alamein on October 23. After eleven days of furious fighting, the Eighth Army finally broke
through and rolled on to the westward. Tobruk was in British hands on November 13 and Benghazi on
the 24th.,,Rommel was in retreat to Tunisia. Far to the westward British and American forces that had
landed in Morocco and Algeria were advancing to his rear. The tide of war had turned for the last time.”
!
op. cit, pp. 539.-540
The Turn of the Tide
The tide had also turned against Hitler far to the northeast. On 19 November 1942 the Red Army
began the encirclement of the Sixth Army at Stalingrad.
jbp