Learning Objectives:
Compare and contrast the structure and function
of
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
ulatory
system
Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
Veins
3 tunics
Lume
The Vessels
Functions:
Distribution of blood
Exchange of materials with tissues
Return of blood to the heart
Structure:
Most have the same basic structure:
– 3 layers surrounding a hollow lumen
Learning Objectives:
Compare and contrast the structure and function
of
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
ulatory
system
Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
Veins
3 tunics
Lume
The Vessels
Functions:
Distribution of blood
Exchange of materials with tissues
Return of blood to the heart
Structure:
Most have the same basic structure:
– 3 layers surrounding a hollow lumen
2. DIGESTION • The process of conversion of complex food substances to simple absorbable forms is called digestion. • Digestion is carried out by our digestive system by mechanical and biochemical methods.
3. PHASES OF DIGESTION • The activities of the digestive system can be grouped under five main headings. • Ingestion :-This is the taking of food into the alimentary tract, i.e. eating and drinking. • Propulsion :-This mixes and moves the contents along the alimentary tract. • Digestion :-This consists of: • Mechanical breakdown of food by mastication(chewing). • Chemical digestion of food into small molecules by enzymes present in secretions produced by glands and accessory organs of the digestive system
2. DIGESTION • The process of conversion of complex food substances to simple absorbable forms is called digestion. • Digestion is carried out by our digestive system by mechanical and biochemical methods.
3. PHASES OF DIGESTION • The activities of the digestive system can be grouped under five main headings. • Ingestion :-This is the taking of food into the alimentary tract, i.e. eating and drinking. • Propulsion :-This mixes and moves the contents along the alimentary tract. • Digestion :-This consists of: • Mechanical breakdown of food by mastication(chewing). • Chemical digestion of food into small molecules by enzymes present in secretions produced by glands and accessory organs of the digestive system
Urinary system
a) Anatomy and physiology of urinary system
b) Formation of urine
c) Renin Angiotensin system – Juxtaglomerular apparatus - acid base Balance
d) Clearance tests and micturition
KIDNEY IS A VITAL ORGAN IN HUMAN BEINGS. EVERY HUMAN HAS A PAIR OF KIDNEYS WHICH HELP TO EXCRETE OUT WASTE PRODUCTS FROM THE BODY IN THE FORM OF URINE...
URINE IS FORMED IN KIDNEY BY THREE STEPS WHICH ARE
(1) FILTRATION.
(2) ABSORPTION
(3) SECRETION
Kidney is a vital organ. Each individual has a pair of kidneys .
kidney is bean shaped organ on either side of your spine, below your ribs and behind your belly. Each kidney is about 4 - 5 inches long, roughly the size of a large fist.
The kidney job is to filter the blood.
kidney is reddish brown in color.
kidneys are also called as retro-peritoneal organ.
There are three layers of tissues that surrounds kidney
1. renal capsule
2. adipose capsule
3. renal fascia.
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Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
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Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
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Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2. Introduction
• The urinary system,
also known as
the renal system
• The urinary system
refers to the
structures
that produce and
conduct urine to the
point of excretion
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3. Components of urinary system
Kidneys (2)
Ureters (2)
Urinary bladder
Urethra
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4. Kidney
• The human body
normally has two paired
kidneys, one on the left
and one on the right
• The right lies somewhat
lower than left as it is
positioned under liver
• The functional unit of
the kidney is nephron
• Urine is formed by
nephrons
5/23/2021 Fikre B. 4
5. Location and External Anatomy of Kidneys
• Located
retroperitoneally
• Lateral to T12–L3
vertebrae
• Average kidney12
cm tall, 6 cm wide, 3
cm thick
• Weight
– Males : 150gm
– Females : 135gm
5/23/2021 Fikre B. 5
7. Protective and supportive layers of kidney
• A thin, tough layer of dense connective tissue called the
fibrous capsule adheres directly to the kidney’s surface,
maintaining its shape and forming a barrier that can inhibit
the spread of infection from the surrounding regions
• Just external to the renal capsule is the perirenal fat and
external to that is an envelope of renal fascia
• The renal fascia contains an external layer of fat, the
pararenal fat
• The perirenal and pararenal fat layers cushion the kidney
against blows and help hold the kidneys in place
5/23/2021 Fikre B. 7
11. Cont.…
The lateral surface
of each kidney is
convex, while the
medial is concave
and has a vertical
cleft called the
renal hilum,
where vessels,
ureters, and
nerves enter and
leave the kidney
(from anterior to
posterior VAR) 11
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
15. Cont.…
• Renal sinus
– Surrounded by renal parenchyma
– Contains blood & lymph vessels, nerves,
urine-collecting structures
• Hilus
– On concave surface
– Vessels and nerves enter and exit
5/23/2021 Fikre B. 15
16. Blood supply
• The kidney continuously cleanse the blood
and adjust its composition
• Kidneys possess an extensive blood supply
• Under normal resting conditions, the renal
arteries deliver approximately one-fourth of
the total systemic cardiac output (1200 ml) to
the kidneys each minute
5/23/2021 Fikre B. 16
20. Microscopic Structure(Histology)
• The kidney may be
regarded as a collection of
million of uriniferous
tubules
• Each uriniferous tubule
consists of an excretory
part called nephron and of
a collecting tubule
• Each kidney contains over
1(1-25 million) million
nephrons and thousands of
collecting ducts
5/23/2021 Fikre B. 20
21. Cont.…
Nephrons
– Functional units of
kidney
– 1.25 million per kidney
• Three main parts
– Blood vessels (afferent
arterioles, glomeruli,
efferent arterioles and
peritubular capillaries)
– Renal corpuscle
(Bowman’s capsule and
glomerulus)
– Renal tubule (PCT, Loop
of Henle’s, DCT and
collecting ducts)
5/23/2021 Fikre B. 21
23. Blood vessels servicing kidney
Glomerulus
Fenestrated capillaries
Capillary filtration in glomerulus initiates urine
production
Filtrate lacks cells & proteins
Drained by efferent arteriole Peritubular
capillaries Renal vein
23
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
24. Renal corpuscle
• Composed of a glomerulus and the Bowman's capsule
• The renal corpuscle is the beginning of the nephron
• It is the nephron's initial filtering component
The glomerulus is a capillary tuft that receives its blood
supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation
– The glomerular blood pressure provides the driving force for
water and solutes to be filtered out of the blood and into the
space made by Bowman's capsule (20%)
– The remainder of the blood passes into the efferent arteriole
(80%)
– The diameter of efferent arterioles is smaller than that of
afferent arterioles
24
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
25. Cont.…
The Bowman's
capsule, also called the
glomerular capsule
– surrounds the
glomerulus
– It is composed of a
visceral inner layer
formed by specialized
cells called podocytes
– Parietal outer layer
composed of simple
squamous epithelium 25
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
26. Microscopic structure of the blood renal barrier
• Blood renal barrier is the different microscopic layers that
separate the blood from the capsular space.
• It is formed of the following:
– Endothelium of the blood capillaries with its
fenestration or pores
• It allows rapid flow of the plasma and retains the
blood cells
– Basement membranes of the endothelium which is thick
and continuous, it receives the terminal foots of the
podocytes
– The filteration slits: which is the minute spaces between
the minor processes of the podocytes and the basement
membrane of the endothelium.
– A thin membrane or diaphragm covers the slits
5/23/2021 Fikre B. 26
27. Microscopic structure of the mesangial cells
• are branched cells present between the blood
capillaries
• The cells are faintly stained and have flat nuclei
• can be easily identified by the EM and their
dense scattering iron containing protein
especially after the injection of ferritin
• They have the following functions:
–Regeneration of the basement membrane of
the glomerular capillaries
–Phagocytic function
–Supportive function
–They may be of hormonal importance
5/23/2021 Fikre B. 27
29. Cont.…
The filtration membrane
is the actual filter that
lies between the blood
and the interior of the
glomerular capsule
It is a porous membrane
that allows free passage
of water and solutes
smaller than plasma
proteins
The capillary pores
prevent passage of blood
cells, but plasma
components are allowed
to pass 29
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
30. Renal tubules
• Leads from
glomerular
capsule
– Ends at tip of
medullary
pyramid
• Four major regions
– Proximal
convoluted tubule
– Nephron loop
– Distal convoluted
tubule
– Collecting duct 30
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
31. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
• Arises from glomerular
capsule
• Longest, most coiled region
• lies in cortex
• lined by simple cuboidal
epithelium with brush borders
which help to increase the
area of absorption greatly
• Prominent microvilli
– Function in absorption
31
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
32. Nephron loop or Loop of Henle
• “U” – shaped, distal to PCT
• lies in medulla and has 2 parts
– Descending limb of loop of Henle (thin and thick limbs)
– Ascending limb of loop of Henle (thin and thick limbs)
– Thick ascending limb of loop of Henle (enters cortex and
becomes DCT-distal convoluted tubule
Thick segments
– Thick limb is lined by simple cuboidal epithelium
– Active transport of salts
– High metabolism, many mitochondria
Thin segments
– Thin limb is lined by simple squamous epithelium
– Permeable to water
– Low metabolism
32
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
33. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
• Coiled, distal to nephron loop
• Shorter than PCT
• Less coiled than PCT
• Very few microvilli
• Contacts afferent and efferent arterioles
• Contact with peritubular capillaries
33
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
34. Collecting ducts
• DCTs of several nephrons empty into a
collecting duct
• Passes into medulla
• Several merge into papillary duct (~30 per
papilla)
• Drain into minor calyx
34
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
35. Classes of Nephron
• The two general classes of nephrons are
– Cortical nephrons
– Juxtamedullary nephrons
• which are classified according to the length of their Loop
of Henle and location of their renal corpuscle
• All nephrons have their renal corpuscles in the cortex
• Cortical nephrons have their Loop of Henle in the renal
medulla near its junction with the renal cortex
• Loop of Henle of juxtamedullary nephrons is located
deep in the renal medulla
35
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
42. Ureters
• The Ureters are a pair of narrow , thick
walled muscular tubes which convey
urine from the kidneys to urinary bladder
• Each Ureters is about 25cm (10 inch)long
• The upper half lies in the abdomen and the
lower half in the pelvis
• It measures 3mm diameter, but it slightly
constricted at three places:
– At the pelviureteric junction
– At the brim of lesser pelvis
– At its passage through the bladder wall 42
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
45. NVB’s of ureter
• Blood Supply
– Ureter is supplied by
branches of
» Renal artery
» Abdominal aorta
» Gonadal artery
» Common iliac artery
» Internal iliac artery
» Inferior vesical artery
• Nerve Supply
– Autonomic nervous
system 45
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
46. Urinary bladder
• A collapsible muscular
sac that stores and expels urine
• Full bladder – spherical and
expands into the
abdominal cavity
• Empty bladder – lies entirely
within the pelvis
• The mean capacity of the
bladder is 220 ml, filling
beyond 220ml causes a desire
to micturate
• Filling upto 500ml may be
tolerated, but it becomes
painful 46
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
50. Histology of Urinary bladder
• Wall of bladder
– Mucosa - transitional epithelium
– Muscular layer - detrusor muscle
– Adventitia
50
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
51. Blood supply and its drainage
Arterial Supply
Superior vesical artery- anterosuperior parts
Obturator artery
Inferior gluteal artery
Inferior vesical artery (in males)- fundus & neck
Uterine arteries (in females)- fundus & neck &
posteroinferior parts
Venous Drainage
Vesicular venous plexus empties into internal iliac veins
Lymphatic Drainage
External iliac LN:-from superior part
Internal iliac LN:-from inferior part
Sacral or common iliac LN 51
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
52. Innervation of Urinary Bladder
Parasympathetic fibers:-
(pelvic splanchnic nn)
♣ Motor to detrusor muscle
♣ Inhibitory to internal
sphincter
when fibers are
stimulated:- bladder will
contract, sphincter relax
& urine flow into urethra
Sympathetic fibers:-(derived
from T11-L2 nerves)
♣ Inhibitory to bladder
52
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
53. Applied anatomy
• Congenital Anomalies
• Ectopia vesicae
• Infection –Cystitis
• Neurological lesions
• Rupture of bladder
• Cancer bladder
• Urinary Incontinence
53
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
54. Urethra
• The urethra is a canal extending from the neck of the bladder to
the exterior, at the external urethral orifice
• Male: about 20 cm (8”) long
• Female: 3-4 cm (1.5”) long
– Short length is why females have more urinary tract infections
than males - ascending bacteria from stool contamination
54
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
55. Female urethra
• 3 to 4 cm long
• External urethral orifice
– between vaginal orifice and
clitoris
• Internal urethral sphincter
– detrusor muscle thickened,
smooth muscle, involuntary
control
• External urethral sphincter
– skeletal muscle, voluntary
control
55
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
56. Male urethra
• ~18 cm long in males
Prostatic urethra
– ~2.5 cm long, urinary
bladder prostate
Membranous urethra
– ~0.5 cm, passes
through floor of pelvic
cavity
Penile urethra
– ~15 cm long, passes
through penis 56
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
57. Histology of Urethra
The epithelium of its mucosal lining is mostly
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Near the bladder it is transitional epithelium and
near its external opening it changes to a protective
squamous epithelium
57
5/23/2021 Fikre B.
58. NVBs of urethra
Arterial Supply
Prostatic part :-Prostatic branch of inferior vesical & middle
rectal arteries
distal part:- Arteries of bulb & urethral arteries
Venous Drainage
follow arteries & have similar names
Innervation
branches of pudendal nerve
♣ afferent fibers from urethra run to pelvic splanchnic nn
♣ nerves from prostatic plexus, arise from inf. Hypogastric plexus are
distributed to all parts of urethra
Lymphatic Drainage
sacral, internal iliac & inguinal lymph nodes
58
5/23/2021 Fikre B.