1. ORGANISATIONAL
14 BEHAVIOUR
O RGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
T ASHRAF
Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Understanding the Term ‘Organizational Behavior’
14.3 Personality and Organization
14.3.1 Measuring Personality
14.3.2 Work Motivation
14.3.3 Motivation: Improving Factors
14.4 Job Satisfaction and Reward Management
14.4.1 Measuring Job Satisfaction, its Determinants and Consequences
14.4.2 Effective Reward Management
14.5 Leadership
14.5.1 Scope of Leadership
14.5.2 Suggested Qualities of Leadership
14.5.3 Leadership and Management
14.6 Authority, Power and Politics
14.6.1 Distinction between Authority and Power
14.6.2 Authority
14.6.3 Power
14.6.4 Politics
14.7 Apply What You Have Learnt
Learning Objectives
After going through the Unit 14 on Organizational Behavior, it is expected that you
would be able to
Understand organizational behavior in its broadest multi-disciplinary context
Familiarise yourself with the theoretical and practical aspects of
organizational behavior (OB).
Appreciate the role of leadership in organizing community-based activities
related to adult education.
Discuss the relevance of the interplay between authority, power and politics.
14.1 Introduction
Running or managing an adult learning example, all such centers have staff
set-up involves some basic principles of members who need to be trained,
organization that an adult educator has motivated, satisfied and well-informed.
to keep in mind and follow while Since running a learning resource set-
performing various functions. For up is a managerial task, it is essential 155

2. T ASHRAF that those running such centers with the management of behavior in
understand some basic principles of organizations. You have already learnt
organizational behavior and routine in detail about documentation, process
management principles so that they can documentation, dissemination of
manage their respective centre in a information, networking and human
better way. Unit 14 makes an effort to communication and at the very end of
explain the basic and important your course material you will be
principles of organizational behavior so introduced to frameworks for
as to equip the centre-in-charges with understanding behavior in organizations
the theoretical knowledge of essential and for diagnosing and dealing with day
concepts and ideas which will help them to day organizational problems. The
in managing their work in a more basic purpose is to look at the
organized and systematic fashion. In relationship between individuals and the
Unit 14 you will learn the practical organizations in which they work. There
aspects of organizational behavior. is an emphasis on decision-making and
leadership with regard to the formation
As an adult educator, you carry out your
and successful functioning of ‘groups’
work in an organizational set-up and
in adult learning centres.
therefore need to comprehend some of
the concepts and problems associated
14.2 Understanding the Term ‘Organizational Behavior’
Organizational behavior (OB) is a term organizations so as to develop
related to the study of individual and competencies in foreseeing how people
group dynamics in an organizational are likely to behave. This knowledge may
setting, as well as the nature of the then help in controlling those behaviors
organizations themselves. Whenever that are not befitting the objectives of
people interact in organizations, many the organizations. Factors like
factors come into play. The subject of objectivity, replicability and sustainability
Organizational Studies attempts to are important while selecting the
understand and model these factors. methods for this purpose.
This subject is becoming more Questionnaire, interview, simulation and
important as people with diverse survey are generally used to elicit
backgrounds and cultural values have to responses of individuals located in
work together effectively and different types of organizations. To a
efficiently. OB seeks to emphasize the large extent their personalities affect
understanding of behavior in the nature of their responses.
14.3 Personality and Organization
As understanding personality is crucial Personality refers to some qualities,
for knowing behavior of an individual in characteristics skills and competencies
an organization, we will discuss in this of individuals along with certain other
section of the unit the interface traits like grooming and attitude.
156 between personality and organization. Personality means very specific patterns

3. ORGANISATIONAL
of behavior of an individual in a defined Projective Tests BEHAVIOUR
situation. But there are certain uniform This test is conducted to investigate
characteristics which always emerge in more difficult and sophisticated aspects
a person on the basis of which certain of an individual’s personality. The
inferences can be drawn. Examples could assumption is that some of the dormant
be dominant or submissive nature, fantasies, feelings, hopes and aspirations
aggressiveness or politeness. Personality can be measured to asses a personality.
consists of organization of feelings, The test consists of ten pictures; one
thoughts, cognitions and visible half being the same as other half. These
behavior. However certain patterns of are ambiguous, unstructured inkblots
behavior are not visible and are known and the individuals are asked to indicate
only after proper testing. Let us what they see in these pictures. Another
therefore discuss how to measure projective method is the thematic
personality. appreciation. Morgan and Murray (1935)
developed this test. It consists of twenty
14.3.1 Measuring Personality pictures, each of which represents a
Since personality of an individual plays social setting. These pictures provide a
a crucial role in shaping an organization, relatively defined situations and the
several methods have been evolved to individual is asked to write a story of
measure personality. By and large three what might be happening in that social
methods of assessment are being used. situation.
These are Personality Inventories, Assessment Centre
Projective Tests and Assessment Centre. This test consists of a variety of methods
Let us now briefly discuss each method. used to evaluate the personality of
Personality Inventories employees in organizations. It may
As a widely used method of measuring consist of situational tests, management
personality, it consists of several problems, in-basket exercises, business
statements related with a specific plan presentations, letter and memo
dimension of personality and individuals writing etc. It is followed by developing
are asked to indicate their degree of behavior categories to assess the
agreement or disagreement. This is performance on the key result areas.
usually done by asking both negatively The dimensions assessed are personality
and positively worded statements on characteristics such as sensitivity to
selected common themes. others, career ambition, integrity,
independence etc.
Reflection 14.1
You can make out that personality of an employee plays a key role in his or her work
related behavior. It is a major criterion in selection, promotion and other developmental
aspects of employees. Organizations can use combination of techniques to assess
personality attributes most suitable to work requirements. Work out and then write a
short note on how you would like to assess personality attributes of those working in an
adult education center.
157

4. T ASHRAF
ACTIVITY 14.1
Please group the employees working in your adult learning set-up according to above
mentioned attributes and prepare a detailed profile of each. In future, you may use the
profile for assigning them various kinds of jobs. Describe briefly how you grouped the
employees and how you plan to use the profile of each employee for assigning different
jobs.
Most organizational behavior strategies these factors are described as under:
are eventually meant to optimally utilize Job Enrichment: Jobs must be
the capabilities of individuals and groups redesigned to provide opportunities for
towards achievement of organizational achievement, recognition, responsibility
objectives. The performance of an and growth. It comprises of variety in
individual is a function of his or her ability work contents, greater use of skills and
and willingness or desire to use one’s opportunity for growth by providing
ability to achieve certain goals. However, employee with a complete unit of work
it is important that staff is adequately and increased authority.
motivated to fulfill these objectives. Flexi Time: The concept of flexi time
Once a manager is able to understand is designed to provide employees some
the traits of personality of an individual control on their work schedule. Entire
worker, she or he can use different work time is divided into “core time”
methods of motivation. Let us discuss and “flexi time”. During core time, all
the point of work motivation. employees are compulsorily present
while during flexi time they are free to
14.3.2 Work Motivation choose their own timings.
Motivation is a process that starts with Empowerment: Empowerment
physiological or psychological urge or essentially means providing authority to
need. It activates a behavior or a drive employees in their area of operation for
that is aimed at a goal or incentive. All resolving their work related problems
individuals have a number of basic needs without seeking approval from above.
which can be thought as outlets that Quality Circles: Quality circles are semi
channel and regulate the flow of autonomous work groups which meet
potential energy from the reservoir. regularly to discuss and solve problems
Most individuals have, within a given related to their specific area which aims
socio-cultural system, a similar set of at improving working conditions and self
motives or energy outlets; but differ development.
greatly in the relative strength or Employees Stock Ownership Plan: It
readiness of various motives and has become a major tool in retaining
actualization of motives depends on and motivating employees in business
specific situations in which a person finds organizations. It is an organization’s
himself or herself. established benefit plan in which
employees are offered company stock
as part of their benefit package. It
14.3.3 Motivation: Improv ing
makes employees work harder as it
Factors
directly affects the performance of the
There are several ways in which
company and the value of their stock
motivation level of employees can be
also raises.
158 augmented and improved. Some of

5. ORGANISATIONAL
ACTIVITY 14.2 BEHAVIOUR
Conduct a survey of those working at your adult learning set-up to find out their level of
motivation. Undertake corrective measures in the light of the discussion in section
14.3. Write a short account of the process that makes clear the corrective measures you
followed to increase the level of motivation of those employed in your adult learning set-
up.
Work motivation and job satisfaction are versa. Hence it is essential to understand
closely linked with the overall the relationship between these concepts
performance of workers and subsequent so as to apply them in the day to day
rewards. A well motivated employee is management of adult learning centers
likely to feel more satisfied and vice for better performance.
14.4 Job Satisfaction and Reward Management
Job satisfaction can be defined as an Several techniques have been developed
individual’s overall attitude towards his over the years which are used
or her job. It is a positive state resulting extensively and are of great importance
from the appraisal of one’s job or job for practitioners. For instance
experience. It is regarded both as a individuals are made to recall some of
general attitude as well as satisfaction the important and critical incidents
with specific dimensions of the job such which have caused satisfaction or
as pay, the work itself, promotion dissatisfaction to them and conclusions
opportunities, supervision, co- workers are drawn from such exercises. In
etc. The degree of satisfaction may vary another method a small group of
with how well outcomes fulfill or exceed employees are brought together and
expectations. encouraged to openly share their feeling
regarding their job. In group
There are various theories of job
environment people feel free to talk
satisfaction. The human relations
about various things.
movement suggested that real
satisfaction with job could only be Researchers have identified several
provided by allowing individuals enough factors leading to job satisfaction which
responsibility and freedom to enable them are broadly divided into two categories,
to grow mentally while physical/ economic namely, Organizational Factors and
school emphasized the role of the physical Individual Determinants.
arrangement of work, physical working
Organizational Factors
conditions and pay. In recent years, the
attitude of job satisfaction has come to 1 Reward System: The organizational
be linked with broader approach to reward system has been found to
improve the job design, work be related to job satisfaction. This
organization and quality of life. pertains to how fairly pay benefits
and promotions are distributed.
2 Work: The nature of work
14.4.1 Measuring Job Satisfaction,
contributes heavily. The factors
its Determinants and Consequences
such as flexibility, freedom and
Measuring job satisfaction has been a
discretion available in the 159
challenging process to managers.

6. T ASHRAF performance of one’s job bring a organization if employees are more
lot of job satisfaction. satisfied. Similarly it leads to decrease
3 Supervisory Behavior: Satisfaction in absenteeism if employees are more
tends to be higher when employees satisfied in their jobs. It also leads to
believe that their supervisor is creativity among employees and better
competent and considerate. mental health.
4 Working Conditions: Overall working
conditions in an organization have a 14.4.2 Effective Reward Management
direct bearing on the level of Employee recognition is a
satisfaction. Comfort, salary, communication tool that reinforces and
challenge and resource availability rewards the most important outcomes
are main components of working people create for your organization.
conditions. When you recognize people effectively,
you reinforce, with your chosen means
Individual Factors
of recognition, the actions and behaviors
Various individual and socio-economic
you most want to see people repeat.
variables are linked to job satisfaction.
An effective employee recognition
Researchers have found that younger
system is simple, immediate, and
people are more satisfied. Similarly men
powerful tool.
are more influenced than women if they
are provided more autonomy in their When you consider employee recognition
work (Malini 2001). processes, you need to develop
recognition that is equally powerful for
There is a direct link between job
both the organization and the
satisfaction and performance of an
employee. You must address five
employee.
important issues if you want the
A satisfied worker makes extra efforts recognition you offer to be viewed as
leading to better performance in his or motivating and rewarding by your
her work. employees and important for the
success of your organization.
There is higher outcome in an
Box 14.1 Some Tips for Effective Recognition
You need to establish criteria for what performance or contribution constitutes behavior
or actions worthy of reward.
*All employees must be eligible for recognition.
*The recognition must supply the employer and employee with specific information about
what behaviors or actions are being rewarded and recognized.
*Anyone who then performs at the level or standard stated in the criteria receives the
reward.
*The recognition should occur as close to the performance of the actions as possible, so
the recognition reinforces behavior the employer wants to encourage.
*You don’t want to design a process in which managers “select” people to receive
recognition. This type of process will be viewed forever as “favoritism” or talked about
as “it’s your turn to get recognized this month.” This is why processes that single out an
individual, such as “Employee of the Month,” are rarely effective.
160

7. Rewards and recognition that help both ORGANISATIONAL
Reflection 14.2 BEHAVIOUR
the employer and the employee get As you can make out job satisfaction and
what they need from work are a win- reward management are some of the
win situation. Avoid employee most important component in the
recognition system that functioning of an organization. It has
very close relationship with the overall
singles out a few employees who are
survival and sustainability of
mysteriously selected for the organizations. There are several
recognition, methods to assess the level of job
saps the morale of the many who satisfaction and thus arrive at some
failed to understand the criteria important conclusions. Work out how
enough to compete and win, and you would like to evolve a method to
assess the level of job satisfaction at
seeks votes or other personalized,
an adult education center.
subjective criteria to determine
winners.
Activity 14.3
Find out the job satisfaction level of the employees at your adult learning center. Try job
rotation method to instill sense of satisfaction among those lacking it. Write a short
account of the process about how you found out the job satisfaction level of the employees
and how you tried to instill a sense of job satisfaction among them.
Leadership and job satisfaction are immensely satisfied if leaders take them
interlinked as a well meaning leadership into confidence and share their wisdom
helps the process of job satisfaction and experience. Hence it is essential
among employees by providing a that people who are managing adult
motivating atmosphere. Ordinary learning centers understand the concept
workers look up to their leaders and feel of leadership and its various dimensions.
14.5 Leadership
Most of us are familiar with the word in most political or business leadership)
‘leader’. The word leadership can refer or an informal one (as in most
to the process of leading, the concept friendships). The abstract term
of leading and those entities that “leadership” usually implies that the
perform one or more acts of leading. entities doing the leading possess some
In our day to day life, leadership can be “leadership skills” or competencies;
viewed as either actual or potential. while the term “leading” suggests action
Actual leader gives guidance or of leading.
direction, as in the phrase “the Several types of entities may provide or
emperor has provided satisfactory exhibit leadership, actual or potential.
leadership”. Leadership emerges when an entity as
Potential leader has the capacity or “leader” contrives to receive deference
ability to lead, as in the phrase “she from other entities who become
could have exercised effective “followers”. The process of getting
leadership”; or as implies in the deference can become competitive in
concept “born to lead”. that the emerging “leader” draws
Leadership can have a formal aspect (as “followers” from the factions of the 161

8. T ASHRAF prior or alternative “leaders”. down will of the leader. This
undercutting the importance of
In a democratic country, the people
leadership may serve as a reminder of
retain sovereignty (popular sovereignty)
the existence of the follower. A more
but delegate day-to-day administration
or less formal bureaucracy can promote
and leadership to elected
an ordinary personality as an entirely
representatives.
effective leader. Bureaucratic
Competence or perceived competence organizations can also raise incompetent
provides a possible basis for selecting people to levels of leadership. These
leadership elites from a broader pool of leaders may build coalitions and
potential talent. Political lobbying may alliances. Political parties abound with
prove necessary in electoral systems, but such leaders. Still others depend on
immediately demonstrated skill and rapport with the masses: they labor on
character may secure leadership in the actual work place or stand in the
smaller groups such as a service agency. front-line of battle, leading by example.
Many organizations and groups aim to
identify, foster and promote what they 14.5.2 Suggested Qualities of
see as leadership potential or ability - Leadership
especially among younger members of Studies of leadership have suggested
society. The issues of succession qualities that people often associate
planning or of legitimating a leader with leadership. They include the
become important when leadership following qualities (see Fiedler 1967).
(particularly individual leadership) might
Guiding others through providing a
or must change due to term-expiry,
role model and through willingness
accident or senescence (growing old).
to serve others first
Talent and technical/specific skill at
14.5.1 Scope of Leadership some task at hand
One can govern oneself, or one can Initiative and entrepreneurial drive
govern the whole earth. In between, Charismatic inspiration -
we may find leaders who operate attractiveness to others and the
primarily within families, bands, tribes, ability to leverage this esteem to
states, nations or empires. motivate others
In addition to these, we also find, for Preoccupation with a role - a
example, religious leaders (potentially dedication that consumes much of
with their own internal hierarchies), leaders’ life - service to a cause
work-place leaders (executives, officers, A clear sense of purpose (or mission)
senior/upper managers, middle - clear goals - focus - commitment
managers, staff-managers, line- Results-orientation - directing every
managers, team-leaders, supervisors) action towards a mission - prioritizing
and leaders of voluntary associations. activities to spend time where results
most accrue
Believing that charisma and personality
Optimism - very few pessimists
alone can work miracles, most leaders
become leaders
operate within a structure of supporters
Rejection of determinism - belief in
and groups of executives who carry out
one’s ability to “make a difference”
and monitor the expressed or filtered-
162

9. Ability to encourage and nurture organizational policies, climate, and ORGANISATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
those that report to them - delegate culture
in such a way as people will grow the preferences of the leader’s
Role models - leaders may adopt a superiors
persona that encapsulates their the expectations of peers
mission and lead by example the reciprocal responses of followers
Self-knowledge (in non-bureaucratic Thus leadership is essentially about
structures) managing an organization on the basis
Self-awareness - the ability to “lead” of certain individual and situational
(as it were) one’s own self prior to qualities of managers. But there are
leading other selves similarly several variants of leadership depending
With regards to people and to upon situation and kind of organization.
projects, the ability to choose An understanding of these various
winners - recognizing that, unlike categories will help the managers of
with skills, one cannot (in general) Adult Learning Centers to run these
teach attitude. Note that “picking centers in an efficient way.
winners” (“choosing winners”)
carries implications of gamblers’ luck 14.5.3 Leadership and Management
as well as of the capacity to take Some commentators (for example,
risks, but “true” leaders, like Cogner 1992) link leadership closely with
gamblers but unlike “false” leaders, the idea of management; some would
base their decisions on realistic even regard the two as synonymous. If
insight (and usually on many other one accepts this premise, one can view
factors partially derived from “real” leadership as
wisdom).
1 centralized or decentralized
Understanding what others say,
2 broad or focused
rather than listening to how they say
3 decision-oriented or morale
things - this could partly sum this
centered
quality up as “walking in someone
4 intrinsic or derived from some
else’s shoes” (to use a common
authority
cliché).
Any of the bipolar labels traditionally
Situational leadership theory (Stodgdill
ascribed to management style could also
1957) proceeds from the assumption
apply to leadership style. Hersey and
that different situations call for different
Blanchard (1982) use this approach.
traits. According to this group of
They claim that management merely
theories, no single optimal
consists of leadership applied to business
psychographic profile of a leader exists.
situations; or in other words:
It has been said that leadership behavior
management forms a sub-set of the
becomes a function not only of the
broader process of leadership. According
characteristics of the leader, but of the
to Hersey and Blanchard (1982: 3),
characteristics of followers as well.
“Leadership occurs any time one
Other situational leadership models
attempts to influence the behavior of
introduce a variety of variables. These
an individual or group, regardless of the
variables include
reason. Management is a kind of
the nature of the task (structured leadership in which the achievement of
or routine) organizational goals is paramount”. 163

10. T ASHRAF However, a clear distinction between focus on people
management and leadership may Managers do things right, leaders do
nevertheless prove useful. This would the right things
allow for a reciprocal relationship Managers maintain, leaders develop
between leadership and management, Managers rely on control, leaders
implying that an effective manager inspire trust
should possess leadership skills, and an Managers have a short-term
effective leader should demonstrate perspective, leaders have a longer-
management skills. term perspective
Managers accept the status-quo,
Zaleznik (1977) for example, delineated
leaders challenge the status-quo
differences between leadership and
Managers have an eye on the bottom
management. He saw leaders as
line, leaders have an eye on the
inspiring visionaries, concerned about
horizon
substance; while he views managers as
Managers imitate, leaders originate
planners who have concerns with
Managers emulate the classic good
process. Bennis (1989) further
soldier, leaders are their own person
explicated a dichotomy between
Managers copy, leaders show
managers and leaders. He drew the
originality
following twelve distinctions between
Box 14.2 gives the various leadership
the two groups.
styles. Working with a community, an
Managers administer, leaders adult educator is always looking for
innovate actual or potential leaders and learning
Managers ask how and when, leaders about different styles of leadership can
ask what and why help in identifying actual or potential
Managers focus on systems, leaders leaders in a community.
Box 14.2 Leadership Styles
Leadership styles may be of relevance to in a variety of situations where there is a
requirement to manage others. Effective performance will depend on many factors
including the organizational culture in which the individual is operating.
Directive Leader: Directive Leaders are characterized by having firm views about how
and when things should be done. As such they leave little leeway for subordinates to
display independence, believing that they should adhere to the methods and schedules
as originally laid down. Having a high goal-orientation and being particularly concerned
with results the Directive Leader will tend to closely monitor the behavior and performance
of others. This may lead them to be perceived as a little cool and detached.
Delegative Leader: As the name suggests, the style of Delegative Leaders is characterized
by delegating work to subordinates. Since their style is not strongly democratic, the
process of delegation may not involve consultation. As a result, subordinates will generally
be assigned work rather than have active input into how projects should be conducted.
Participative Leader: Participative leaders are primarily concerned with getting the
best out of a team as a whole. Hence, they encourage contributions from all members of
a team and believe that by pooling ideas and coming to a consensus view the best
solutions to problems will naturally arise.
Consultative Leader: The Consultative Leadership Style combines elements of both
democratic and directive leadership orientations. They value group discussion and tend
to encourage contributions from the separate members of the team. However, although
164

11. ORGANISATIONAL
group discussions will be largely democratic in nature, Consultative Leaders typically BEHAVIOUR
make the final decision as to which of the varying proposals should be accepted.
Negotiative Leader: Negotiative Leaders motivate subordinates by encouraging them,
through incentives etc., to work towards common objectives. Hence, through a process
of negotiation attempts will be made to arrive at some mutually equitable arrangement
with the other members of the team so as to motivate them to work in a particular way.
Negotiative Leaders tend to rely on their skills of persuasion to achieve their stated
goals.
Reflection
Leadership plays a crucial role in any organization. Change of leadership and reflection
and rethinking in the top management team are powerful triggers for organizational
change. Leaders create a context in which the status quo is challenged. Try to recollect
an experience of crisis in matters of leadership during your career as an adult educator.
ACTIVITY 14.4
Please prepare an assessment-list of the leadership qualities of the staff working in
your adult learning set-up and on that basis prepare them for undertaking higher
responsibilities.
14.6 Authority, Power and Politics
Organizations or voluntary associations, 14.6. 1 Distinction between Authority
though rational entities, often do not and Power
follow strictly their own well defined Though authority and power are terms
system leaving scope for power play and quite often used interchangeably but
politics. It is therefore necessary to they are quite different. Specific
understand the dynamics of power, differences can be described as below:
politics and authority so that
1 Authority is legally enforced and is
organizations can be managed in a
derived from level of position in an
proper way. The concepts of authority,
organization. Power however is
power and politics are inter-dependent
individual and independent and
in the sense that politics - whether of
originates from charisma and social
the specifically governmental kind
positioning.
(political parties, pressure groups, etc.),
2 Authority is formal based upon
the economic kind (bureaucracies, the
superior and subordinate
organization of the workplace into social
relationship. Power is informal and
hierarchies based upon status, etc.) or
is based upon individual
the interpersonal (relations between
understanding.
males and females, children and adults,
3 Since authority is related with
etc) - involves the exercising of authority
position in an organization, it has
and power.
limited scope and is confined to
organizational structure whereas
power is linked with an individual and
165

12. T ASHRAF transcends boundaries. the ability of individuals or groups to
4 Authority is just and applied equally make their own concerns or interests
whereas power may be used count, even where others resist. Power
indiscriminately. sometimes involves the direct use of
force, but is almost always also
14.6.2 Authority accompanied by the development of
Authority is corner stone of an ideas (ideology) which justify the actions
organization. It can be defined as the of the powerful. Politics, in this sense,
ability of an individual to seek is a concept that can be defined as a
compliance to the regulated instructions process involving the “exercise of
of the superior. It refers to the formal control, constraint and coercion in
rights inherently available to a manager society”.
to give orders and see their compliance.
Power which is derived from social
According to Max Weber (1924), there
positioning lacks legitimacy. It is
are 3 types of authorities: Traditional,
dependent upon individual strength and
Rational and Charismatic authority.
competencies. Depending upon
Traditional authority rests on an
situation, there are several kinds of
established belief in the sanctity of
power, some of which are described
immortal traditions whereas legal
below.
authority rests on sheer legality of
individual’s position. Charismatic Reward power
authority has its genesis in an Coercive power
individual’s personal charisma and Legitimate power
qualities. Personal power
Expert power
Characteristics of Authority
Referent power
1 Authority resides in the position and Reward power: The extent to which a
is individual independent manager can use extrinsic and intrinsic
2 Nature of authority i.e. traditional, rewards to control other people is
legal, charismatic, determines the described as reward power .success in
nature of structure. accessing and utilizing rewards depends
3 Authority is in proportion to levels on manager’s skills.
in an organization.
Coercive power: The extents to which
4 Ideally there is a positive correlation
a manager can deny desired rewards or
between the authority and degree
administer punishments to control other
of competence.
people. Availability varies from one
14.6.3 Power organization and manager to another.
In social terms, power, almost by Legitimate power: The extent to which
definition, involves the rule by the few a manager can use subordinates’
over the majority and we have to internalized values or beliefs that the
understand the political processes (both “boss” has a “right of command” to
Structural and Interpersonal) whereby control their behavior. If legitimacy is
power is legitimated (the process lost, authority will not be accepted by
whereby power ceases to be nakedly subordinates.
coercive and becomes power that is
Personal power: Personal power is
based upon authority. By power is meant
166 derived from individual sources.

13. Expert power: Is ability to control wants to identify with the power source. ORGANISATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
another person’s behavior through the It can be enhanced by linking to morality
possession of knowledge, experience, or and ethics and long-term vision.
judgment that the other person needs
See Box 14.3 to understand the ways
but does not have?
managers acquire the power that they
Referent power: The ability to control need for leading those working under
another’s behavior because the person them.
Box 14.3 How do Managers acquire the Power needed for Leadership?
Managers can increase the visibility of their job performance by
Expanding contacts with senior people.
Making oral presentations of written work.
Participating in problem-solving task forces.
Sending out notices of accomplishment.
Additional tactics for acquiring and using power and influence include
Using coalitions and networks to alter the flow of information and the analytical
context.
Controlling, or at least influencing, decision premises.
Making one’s own goals and needs clear.
Bargaining effectively regarding one’s preferred goals and needs.
14.6.4 Politics It is an attempt to influence the
What are organizational politics? Since decision making process.
organizations do not follow their It may involve give and take strategy.
systems and procedures fairly, there is It is usually devoid of morality and
lot of politics. It essentially implies lot ethics.
of maneuverability in the allocation of A number of factors can lead to political
responsibilities, rewards and resources. behavior. If there is lack of clarity in
Politics is the use of power to develop organizational policies and presence of
socially acceptable ends and means that over ambitious individuals in workforce
balance individual and collective is higher, there are more chances of
interests. politics. Limited promotional avenues,
discriminatory behavior of management
Political behavior may take many forms.
can aggravate political behavior.
It may comprise passing a chain of
commands, withholding information, There are several ways in which politics
spreading rumors, leaking confidential takes place in organizations. Feyol
information, lobbying, using pressure (1949) describes the following political
tactics etc. The following are the strategies.
characteristics and reasons of political
Impression Management: An attempt
behavior.
is made to create an impression that
It is outside one’s job requirements. everything is good because of us and
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14. T ASHRAF anything wrong has nothing to do Coalition: Like minded people come
with us. together and promote a particular
Extra Role Relationship: Flattery, cause which is essentially political in
creating goodwill and being overtly nature.
friendly are some of the tactics Bargaining: Bargaining, negotiations
through which political behavior is etc. are used to get extra benefits
promoted. which are normally not available.
Activity 14.5
Please make a questionnaire with some of the above-mentioned strategies and ask the
staff at your adult learning set-up to fill it. This exercise will help you to assess your
leadership qualities.
14.7 Apply What You Have Learnt
P lease undertake the following Narrate the factors which have been
activities to apply and demonstrate the found to affect the motivation level
main points covered in Unit 14. of the employees of your adult
learning set-up.
What are some important
Undertake a job satisfaction survey
characteristics of the personality of
of the staff members at any of the
each staff at your adult learning set-
adult learning set-up and match
up? Prepare a comparative chart
them with their personality traits.
showing these characteristics.
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