education

1. UNIT 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF TOTAL STATION
AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

2. UNIT I: FUNDAMENTALS OF TOTAL
STATION AND ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
 Methods of Measuring Distance, Basic Principles of Total
Station, Historical Development, Classifications,
applications and comparison with conventional surveying.
Classification - Applications of Electromagnetic waves,
Propagation properties, wave propagation at lower and
higher frequencies

4. History
 Surveying is one of the most important branches of engineering. It has
its own history and evolution. The growing need of maps, location and
exact land boundaries has caused rapid development in this field.
Along with advancement in fields like transportation, mining, civil
engineering, etc. surveying has also evolved as it is an integrated part
of all these sectors.
 The advancement of surveying is determined by the precision of
instruments used. From early period of chain and compass surveying to
use of optical instruments like theodolite and further to satellite based
navigation based systems like GPS, surveying has always been an ever
growing field

5. THE BEGINNING OF SURVEYING
 Evidence of surveying methods are recorded in many places of history.
 Actually, principles and necessity of land surveying emerged along
with the idea of land ownership.
 Surveying is believed to have started from ancient Egyptian
civilization.
 When the Nile River flooded the agricultural lands and settlements near its
banks, clearing the pre-set boundaries between them, these boundaries
were re-established through the use of simple geometrical concepts and
instruments.
 In this time, the measuring device they used was a knotted rope so
surveyors were known as rope stretchers.
 Pyramids also show the ability of surveying in ancient Egypt. Such massive
structures have nearly perfect square base and north-south orientation
which would never have been possible without advancement in surveying.
Also around 3000 BC, the first land ownership record is believed to
have been established.

6. Continued….
 Around 1200 BC in ancient Babylon, a limestone tablet known as the
'Babylonian Kudurru' was inscribed and set in the land. This was an
earliest type of boundary stone, held the description of the property, the
name of the surveyor and the owner, and the ownership history. This early
tablet is somehow similar to one of today’s land surveying methods, which
is the placing of a boundary stone or other marker at the corner of the
property.
 By 500 BC, the Greeks had adopted many Egyptian surveying techniques.
It is known that mathematicians including Thales and Pythagoras traveled
to Egypt to study geometry, returning to impart their knowledge on
mathematicians and surveyors in Greece.
 The Roman Empire is another civilization noted for its land surveying
prowess. The Romans established land surveying as an official profession;
land surveyors in this time were known as agrimensores. Many Roman
surveying methods were based on those used in ancient Egypt and Greece.
 The Chinese were also ahead in the field of surveying. In early 5 AD
Chinese cartographers have been developing maps for military and
other various purposes. Pei Xiu' is considered father of Chinese
cartography. Sighting rods, water levels, ropes and set squares were some
of the tools most commonly used by Chinese surveyors. Furthermore,
compass was also originated from here.

7. CHAIN AND COMPASS SURVEYING
 The chain was invented in 1620 by Edmund Gunter, an Englishman. It
was made of 100 iron or steel links and was 66 feet long. Eighty chains
made up one mile. Ten square chains made one acre.
 Also the primary tool used by surveyors in North America from the
1600s through the end of the 1800s was a "Gunter's chain".
 A retractable steel tape to replace the chain was patented in 1860 by W.
H. Paine of Sheboygan, Wisconsin. Early surveys were often grossly
inaccurate. The iron chains stretched with use. An error of one link
(about 8 inches) in 3 to 5 chains was considered normal.

8.  The compass, invented in 1511, was in wide use until 1894. Surveyors
relied on the compass to set the direction of their chain. The magnetic
compass was a major source of error. It is subject to daily, annual and
lunar variations in the earth's magnetic field, solar magnetic storms,
local attractions and static electricity in the compass glass.
 The solar compass is a compass with a very special purpose of easily
determining "Latitude" and "True North". The solar compass was
invented in 1835 by William Austin Burt of Michigan after he had
discovered the iron deposits located in the state and concluded that a
regular compass would give such erroneous readings as to be almost
useless.
 An 1813 surveying text notes that, in New England, most work was
done with a magnetic compass and a surveyor's chain.
Continued….

10. OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY IN
SURVEYING
 Theodolites and levels
The transit was first made in 1831 by Philadelphian William J. Young. It
was an adaptation of the theodolite invented in 1720 by John Sisson of
England. Sisson had combined a telescope (invented circa 1608), a vernier, a
device for subdividing measurements by 10ths (1631) and a spirit level
(1704) into a single instrument.
Use of theodolites and levels is also quite popular in modern era. Now days
also these instrument are used as basic surveying tools. However, modern
optical instruments are far more advanced, sophisticated and accurate.

11.  Plane table survey
The earliest mention of a plane table dates to 1551 in Abel Foullon's "Usage et
et description de l'holomètre", published in Paris. However, since Foullon's
description was of a complete, fully developed instrument, it must have been
invented earlier.
A brief description was also added to the 1591 edition of Digge's
Pantometria. The first mention of the device in English was by Cyprian Lucar in
1590.
The plane table became a popular instrument for surveying. Its use was widely
taught. Interestingly, there were those who considered it a substandard
instrument compared to such devices as the theodolite, since it was relatively
easy to use. By allowing the use of graphical methods rather than
mathematical calculations, it could be used by those with less education than
other instruments.

12. MODERN TOOLS AND METHODS OF
SURVEYING
 Total station
The total station was introduced in 1971 and for the first time distance and
angle measurements could be recorded by one instrument. The total station is a
transit integrated with an EDM, electronic distance meter, which can read slope
distances from the instrument to a particular point of land.
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
GPS has its origins in the Sputnik era when scientists were able to track the
satellite with shifts in its radio signal known as the "Doppler Effect."
The United States Navy conducted satellite navigation experiments in the
mid 1960's to track US submarines carrying nuclear missiles. With six
satellites orbiting the poles, submarines were able to observe the satellite
changes in Doppler and pinpoint the submarine's location within a matter
of minutes.
In the early 1970's, the Department of Defense wanted to ensure a robust,
stable satellite navigation system would be available. Embracing previous
ideas from Navy scientists, the Department of Defense decided to use
satellites to support their proposed navigation system.
Department of Defense then followed through and launched its first
Navigation System with Timing and Ranging (NAVSTAR) satellite in 1978.
The 24 satellite system became fully operational in 1993.

13. Continued..
 UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle)
 UAVs are the most recent advancement is surveying field.
 The first aerial photograph was oblique and taken of a French village in the
late 19th century.
 The man who took it, photographer Gaspar Felix Tournachon, patented the
concept of using aerial photographs to compile maps; it was to prove much
more effective than the time-consuming ground surveys that had then been
the more commonly-used method of the national mapping organizations
that developed throughout the 19th century (such as the UK's Ordnance
Survey).
 George R. Lawrence took aerial photographs of San Francisco in 1906
following the devastating earthquake.

18. Linear and Angular measurement
Linear measurement
1. Horizontal Distance
2. Vertical Distance
3. Slope Distance
Angular measurement
1. Horizontal Angle
2. Vertical Angle / Zenith Angle
18

19. Linear Measurement
1. Direct measurement
2. Indirect method or By optical means
3. Electronic method
4. Positioning System
5. Photogrammetry method
19

20. Linear and Angular measurement
Linear measurement
1. Horizontal Distance
2. Vertical Distance
3. Slope Distance
Angular measurement
1. Horizontal Angle
2. Vertical Angle / Zenith Angle
20

21. Linear Measurement
1. Direct measurement
2. Indirect method or By optical means
3. Electronic method
4. Positioning System
5. Photogrammetry method
21

22. Direct measurement
22

23. 23

24. 24

25. 25

26. (Drone)
UAS
Surveying
LIDAR
Surveying
26

29. Applications of Total Station
Surveying work with total station
•Archaeological survey
•As-built survey
•Bathymetric survey
•Engineering surveys
•Geological Survey
•Hydrographic survey
•Measured survey
•Topographic survey

30. Archaeological survey
These survey conduct to find relics of antiquity, civilizations, etc.
As-built survey
This survey uses for payment, completion evaluation, and record purposes during
and just after the construction project. This survey also calls the executed survey.
Engineering surveys
These extremely detailed surveys need to find engineering perfects, like factories,
roads, dams, and railway. This survey is a detailed survey.
Bathymetric Survey
The map of the topography and features of the end of a water body such as lakes,
oceans, rivers, etc. are made by this survey.
Geological Survey
Economically, geological surveys are important because both surface and subsurface
conduct to find ores a mineral deposits. Besides, the terrain geological features like
faults and folds are found.
Applications of Total Station

31. Hydrographic Survey
When using this survey uses to survey water bodies like rivers, coastal
areas, lakes, streams, and other water bodies.
Measured Survey
For commercial purposes, or at the end of the construction process, this
survey can use “as build survey” before renovation works.
Topographic Survey
The topographic survey used for preparing the topographic map which
represents the complete position of points on the surface of the earth
including both natural and man features in terms of the three
coordinates.
Applications of Total Station

32. Total Station Parts

33. Total Station
Accessories

35. The superimposition is achieved by amplitude, frequency or impulse
modulation.

42. Infrared EDM

43. Different type of Prism

76. To compute the distance in Total Station by phase shift method four different
electromagnetic waves are used.
For example wave length of electromagnetic waves are 20m, 200m,2000m and
20000m. The frequency of electromagnetic waves are roughly 15MHz, 1.5MHz,
150KHz and 15KHz.
The electromagnetic waves travels in atmospheric conditions. So, various
atmospheric corrections to be applied for measured lengths.
The behavior of electromagnetic waves in defers with respect frequencies. The
corrections to be independently calculated for each frequency.
Nowadays, two frequency electromagnetic waves are used to computed the
distance. The selected two electromagnetic wave frequencies difference will be
very closer to zero.

77. D = N(
λ
2
) +
ɸ
2𝜋
λ
2
D = N(
λ
2
) +
ɸ
360
λ
2
D = N
λ
2
+ P(
λ
2
)
D = NU + R
N is of zero intensity crossing
U is half of the wave length (λ/2)
R is Phase delay as a fraction of wave length
𝑃(λ)
2
Phase shift method used in Total
Station

78. D = NU + R
If two frequencies are used, then distance D is
D = N1U1+ R1
D = N2U2+ R2
Second Electro magnetic wave length can by chosen by N1 +
1= N2, for designed maximum distance.
Practical Application
Find maximum distance measured by EDM. If λA = 50m and λB = 40m
D = N1U1= N2U2= (N1+1)U2 25N1=20(N1+1) N1=
4
Maximum D = 4 X 25 = 5 X 20 = 100m
Phase shift method used in Total Station

79. D = NU + R
If two frequencies are used, then distance D is
D = N1U1+ R1
D = N2U2+ R2
Case 1 N1 +1 = N2 and R1 = R2= 0
Case 2N1 = N2 = N and R1 = R2 ǂ 0
Case 3N1 + 1= N2 and R1 > R2
Case 4N1 + 1= N2 and R1 < R2
Case 5N1 = N2 = N and R1 > R2
Case 6N1 = N2 = N and R1 < R2
Phase shift method used in Total Station

80. D = NU + R
If two frequencies are used, then distance D is
D = N1U1+ R1
D = N2U2+ R2
Case 1
N1 +1 = N2 and R1 = R2= 0
D = N1U1+ R1 = N2U2+ R2
N1U1 = (N1 +1) U2
N1U1 = N1U2+U2
N1=
U2
U1−U2
N2=
U1
U1−U2
Phase shift method used in Total Station

81. Case 1
N1=
U2
U1−U2
N2=
U1
U1−U2
Let 𝑣 are velocity of electromagnetic waves
Let f1, f2 are frequency of electromagnetic waves
U1=
𝑣
2𝑓1
and U2=
𝑣
2𝑓2
N1=
U2
U1−U2
=
𝑣
2𝑓2
𝑣
2𝑓1
− 𝑣
2𝑓2
=
f1
f2
−f1
N2=
f2
f2
−f1
Phase shift method used in Total Station

82. Case 1
N1=
U2
U1−U2
N2=
U1
U1−U2
N1=
f1
f2
−f1
N2=
f2
f2
−f1
Case 2 N1 = N2 = N and R1 = R2 = R
D = N1U1+ R1 = N2U2+ R2
NU1+ R = NU2+ R
N = 0
N1 = N2 = 0
Phase shift method used in Total Station

83. Case 3N1 + 1= N2 and R1 > R2
D = N1U1+ R1 = N2U2+ R2
D = N1U1 + R1= (N1+1)U2+ R2
N1=
R1− R2 −U2
U2−U1
N2=
R1− R2 −U1
U2−U1

84. Case 4N1 + 1= N2 and R1 < R2
D = N1U1 + R1 = N2U2+ R2
D = N1U1 + R1 = (N1+1)U2+ R2
N1=
R2 − R1 +U2
U1−U2
N2=
R2 − R1 + U1
U1−U2
N1=
R2 − R1
U1−U2
+
U2
U1−U2
But
U2
U1−U2
= Max. N1.
This equation gives, more than maximum distance of the Total
Station. Practically this case will not arise.

85. Case 5N1 = N2 = N and R1 > R2
D = N1U1+ R1 = N2U2+ R2
NU1+ R1 = NU2+ R2
N=
R1− R2
U2−U1
In this equation, numerator has positive value and
denominator has negative value, N value becomes negative.
Practically this case will not arise.
Case 6N1 = N2 = N and R1 < R2
D = N1U1+ R1 = N2U2+ R2
NU1+ R1 = NU2+ R2
N=
R2− R1
U1−U2

86. Station Horizontal Angle Zenith Angle
Phase angle
f1 f2
A 22⁰ 44' 36" 89⁰ 26' 55" 10⁰ 32' 52.80" 19⁰ 12' 32.75"
B 105⁰ 18' 24" 91⁰ 09' 27" 359⁰ 58' 55.20" 23⁰ 44' 31.07"
C 211⁰ 32' 41" 90⁰ 32' 35" 345⁰ 12' 14.40" 14⁰ 41' 39.87"
D 299⁰ 00' 15" 88⁰ 59' 15" 180⁰ 50' 45.60" 199⁰ 55' 36.69"

87. The survey work was carried out by Digital Theodolite and EDM.
The two measuring electromagnetic wave frequencies of EDM
are 14.98962291MHz and 15.01960215MHz. The instrument was
setup in the project area and it covers all the boundary points
with single instrument station. The height of the instrument is
1.549m and target height 1.800m. Coordinate of instrument
station is 0, 0, 100.000m.
i. Compute the maximum distance can be measured by EDM.
ii. What values of slope distance will be displayed by EDM for
points A to E?
iii. Compute horizontal distance and vertical distance for
given points A to E with respect to instrument station.
iv. Compute the coordinate of measured points.
v. Compute area and perimeter of the project site.

88. Prism Stn. Horizontal
angle /
Magnetic
Bearing
Zenith
angle
Phase Angle (Φ)
P(ʎ1) P(ʎ2)
A 22⁰ 44' 36" 89⁰ 26’ 51" 201⁰51’07.20"
207⁰17’44.46"
B 98⁰ 18' 24" 91⁰ 09' 27" 357⁰56’52.80" 1⁰
32’37.97"
C 152⁰ 05' 51" 90⁰ 32’ 32" 194⁰41’16.80" 195⁰04’38.55"
D 220⁰ 32' 41" 88⁰ 59' 15" 53⁰10’ 19.20" 59⁰45’29.94"
E 306⁰ 00' 15" 95⁰ 22’ 46" 353⁰48’28.80" 65⁰47’43.18"

89. The an Electro-optical EDM was designed to measure maximum distance
of 5km. The EDM uses an electromagnetic wave frequency (f1) is
14.9896229MHz. The survey work was carried out using Digital
Theodolite and EDM. The height of the instrument and prism are 1.485m
and 1.800m. The R.L of instrument station is 90.105m.
i. Compute the second electromagnetic wave frequency (f2).
ii. What values of slope distance will be displayed by EDM, from
Instrument station to points A to E?
iii.Compute horizontal distance and vertical distance for given points A to E
with respect to instrument station.
iv.Compute the coordinate of measured points.

90. Target
Station
Magnetic
Bearing
Zenith
Angle
Phase angle (Φ)
ΔΦ1 ΔΦ2
A 22⁰ 44' 36" 89⁰ 26’ 51" 10⁰ 32' 52.80" 19⁰ 12' 32.75"
B 98⁰ 18' 24" 91⁰ 09' 27"
359⁰ 58'
55.20" 23⁰ 44' 31.07"
C 200⁰ 32' 41" 90⁰ 32’ 32"
345⁰ 12'
14.40" 14⁰ 41' 39.87"
D 266⁰ 00' 15" 88⁰ 59' 15"
180⁰ 50'
45.60"
199⁰ 55'
36.69"
E 359⁰ 25' 15" 95⁰ 22’ 46"
263⁰ 50’
38.40"
264⁰ 22’
18.08"

91. What is a wave?
- a vibration or disturbance in space.
- Waves transfer energy without transferring matter.
How are waves classified?
- Waves are classified by what they move through or by How
particles move through them.
What material do waves move through?
MEDIUM- the substance that waves travel through and need to
have in order to move.

92. Classification of Waves According to what they move through (Medium)
• Electromagnetic waves
• Mechanical Waves
Electromagnetic Waves
Waves that can travel through matter or empty space where matter is not present.
Types of Electromagnetic Waves
• radio waves
• microwaves
• infrared waves
• visible light
• ultraviolet rays
• X-rays

93. Classification of Waves
According to how particles move through them
• Transverse waves - Particles move perpendicular to the
motion of the wave
• Longitudinal Waves - Particles move parallel to the motion of
the wave.

95. Wave Behaviour
- a vibration or disturbance in space.
- Waves transfer energy without transferring matter.
What happens when…
• A wave meets a hard surface like a wall?
Reflection
- When a wave hits a surface through which it cannot pass,
it bounces back
- Reflection does not change the speed or frequency of the wave, but
the wave can be flipped upside down.

96. Wave Behaviour
• A wave enters a new medium?
Refraction
The bending of a wave as it enters a new medium.
• It is caused by a change in the speed of the wave as it moves from one
medium to another
• Greater change in speed = more bending of the wave
• A wave moves around an obstacle?
Diffraction
The bending of a wave as it moves around an obstacle or passes through a
narrow opening.
• The wave will try to curve around the boundary or outward through the
opening due to friction.

97. Wave Behaviour
• A wave meets another wave?
Interference When two or more waves
combine together.

98. Polarization
Filtering radiating light (moves in all directions) to allow only
light traveling in one direction through.

99. Electromagnetic Waves
- Do not need matter to transfer energy.
- Are made by vibrating electric charges and can travel through
space by transferring energy between vibrating electric and
magnetic fields.
How do moving charges create magnetic fields?
Any moving electric charge is surrounded by an electric field
and a magnetic field.

100. What happens when electric and magnetic fields
change?
 A changing magnetic field creates a changing electric field.
 One example of this is a transformer which transfers electric energy
from one circuit to another circuit.
 In the main coil changing electric current produces a changing magnetic field
 Which then creates a changing electric field in another coil producing an electric
current
 The reverse is also true.

101. Electromagnetic Waves
 When an electric charge vibrates, the electric field around it
changes creating a changing magnetic field.
 The magnetic and electric fields create each other again and
again.
 An EM wave travels in all directions. The figure only shows a
wave traveling in one direction.
 The electric and magnetic fields vibrate at right angles to the
direction the wave travels so it is a transverse wave.

103. Properties of EM Waves
 All matter contains charged particles that are always moving;
therefore, all objects emit EM waves.
 The wavelengths become shorter as the temperature of the
material increases.
 EM waves carry radiant energy.
 All EM waves travel 300,000 km/sec
in space. (speed of light-nature’s limit!)
 EM waves usually travel slowest in solids
and fastest in gases.

104. Properties of EM Waves
 The mode of propagation of electromagnetic waves depends
on frequency / wave length.
 While electromagnetic waves travel, they get reflected by the
earth’s surface, troposphere, ionosphere and scattered in
space producing various special components.
 Wave length of electromagnetic waves remain constant
during propagation.
 The amplitude of these waves progressively decrease with
distance from the source and finally disappears.

105. The whole range of EM wave…
 Frequencies is called the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Different parts interact with matter in different ways.
 The ones humans can see are called visible light, a small part
of the whole spectrum.

109. Propagation of electromagnetic waves in general
Sky waves
 Ionospherically scattered wave (IS)
 Ionospherically reflected wave (IR)
 Tropospherically scattered wave (TS)
 Tropospherically refiected wave (TR)
Space Waves
 Direct wave or Line of sight wave
 Indirect wave or Ground reflected wave
Ground waves
 Direct waves (d)
 Ground reflected waves (g)
 Surface waves (s)

120. EDM and GNSS

123. The Speed of Light, the Metre and the Second
The speed of light in vacuum denoted as C0 is a fundamental
physical constant whose value is known to be 299792458 m/s
and C the speed of light in a medium (usually air) is related to C0
by
𝐶 =
𝐶0
𝑛
where n is a dimensionless quantity known as the refractive index
of the medium. Now since nothing travels faster than the speed
of light in a vacuum then C < C0 and n >1. (The refractive index of
air ranges from n =1.0001 to n =1.0005 depending on the
temperature and pressure so C ranges from 299642637 to
299762482 m/s.)

124. The Speed of Light, the Metre and the Second
The metre (m) is defined in the International System of Units (SI)
as the distance light travels in vacuum in 1 / 299792458 of a
second.
The second (s) is the duration of 9192631770 periods of the
radiation corresponding to the transition between the two
hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom.
Atomic clocks (caesium fountain, rubidium laser) on-board GPS
satellites are fundamental to position fixing on the Earth