The document discusses rural electrification challenges in Uganda. It analyzes Uganda's energy sector using Ostrom's Social-Ecological Systems framework, highlighting key players and programs. The national grid reaches only 2% of rural residents. Extending the grid is difficult due to high costs and low revenues from rural customers. Alternative programs like solar PV installations and an empowerment project show promise but have limitations. Overall, increasing energy access in Uganda faces substantial barriers but could significantly improve human development.
RENEWABLE ENERGY TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE POWER SUPPLY IN THE NIGERIAN POWER IND...IAEME Publication
The challenge of climate change results primarily from the global use of fossil
fuel. Renewable energy as alternative energy source allows the use of natural sources
such as micro-hydro, wind; solar, and biomass that are sustainable to be explored.
The increase in the dependence on renewable energy calls for attention which can be
solved by the use of energy management. Energy management will provide a
consistent and controllable power supply. There is the need for the integration of
energy management into the grid planning and design. In this work, Energy
management using energy storage is thus considered as one design method for the
system to maximize simplicity and increase reliability using HOMER, a conventional
simulation tool.
3. Increasing Financing and Investments for Clean and Renewable Energy Access...ENVIRONMENTALALERTEA1
This position paper is an output from several CSOs engagements coordinated by Environmental Alert with financial support from Norad within the framework of ‘Increasing access to sustainable and renewable energy alternatives in the AlbertineGraben’ that is implemented by WWF-Uganda Country Office
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Why access to modern Energy is a necessary condition for Human Development?
MATIKE NGONG ROLLIN
Chairman of Global actions for local development Organizations,
RENEWABLE ENERGY TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE POWER SUPPLY IN THE NIGERIAN POWER IND...IAEME Publication
The challenge of climate change results primarily from the global use of fossil
fuel. Renewable energy as alternative energy source allows the use of natural sources
such as micro-hydro, wind; solar, and biomass that are sustainable to be explored.
The increase in the dependence on renewable energy calls for attention which can be
solved by the use of energy management. Energy management will provide a
consistent and controllable power supply. There is the need for the integration of
energy management into the grid planning and design. In this work, Energy
management using energy storage is thus considered as one design method for the
system to maximize simplicity and increase reliability using HOMER, a conventional
simulation tool.
3. Increasing Financing and Investments for Clean and Renewable Energy Access...ENVIRONMENTALALERTEA1
This position paper is an output from several CSOs engagements coordinated by Environmental Alert with financial support from Norad within the framework of ‘Increasing access to sustainable and renewable energy alternatives in the AlbertineGraben’ that is implemented by WWF-Uganda Country Office
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Why access to modern Energy is a necessary condition for Human Development?
MATIKE NGONG ROLLIN
Chairman of Global actions for local development Organizations,
In the present generation energy plays a vital role in our world and for human life it´s very important factor. There is a methodical meeting taking place regarding the conservation of energy and every time there is a review in the agenda. Energy demand and supply were endeavored by these countries. To rectify these problems, there should be more research in the generation of energy with the greater efficiency and try to use energy in more efficient manner. Solar energy remains as the most prominent source of energy as it is cost effective and environmentally friendly. Reviews convey that solar energy systems will play a major role in the power generations. As per present scenario there is a great importance to the solar energy using photovoltaic systems. Photovoltaic systems exhibit an important role for solar energy production.
Jurnal Internasional – Dampak Energi Terbarukan Terhadap Ketenagakerjaan di I...Dani Gunawan
Sebuah permintaan global untuk energi telah memaksa banyak negara untuk mencari energi alternatif dan terbarukan . Efek diantisipasi pengembangan terbarukan adalah peningkatan lapangan kerja sebagai bagian dari penciptaan lapangan pekerjaan hijau baru , manfaat besar bagi Indonesia untuk mengatasi tingkat pengangguran yang tinggi . Makalah ini menjelaskan dampak pengembangan energi terbarukan pada penciptaan lapangan kerja di Indonesia .
Building Energy Efficiency Into Energy EquationIJERDJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: The increasing demand of energy in the world has causes the pollution and devastation of environment and also depletion of the resources. It imminent that cannot be avoided, however, There is agitation and confrontation from country to country which later realised that only energy efficiency practices is the means of minimizing the impact to the environment, but developing countries like Nigeria centered only on end users.These studies see how energy efficiency will be built into energy generation processes and the benefit to the environment, economic growth and development of a country.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Impact Investment in Mini Hydropower, Indonesia 2013Eric Stryson
Produced in partnership with IBEKA, award winning NGO working for 20+ years to support community organization, operation and ownership of small scale hydro power plants in rural Indonesia. The plan proposes an innovative scheme whereby communities are incentivized to protect forest and water catchment resources as a means for long term viability of facilities, and lower risk for investors. State power company PLN has expressed an openness to providing premium tariffs in such cases.
In the present generation energy plays a vital role in our world and for human life it´s very important factor. There is a methodical meeting taking place regarding the conservation of energy and every time there is a review in the agenda. Energy demand and supply were endeavored by these countries. To rectify these problems, there should be more research in the generation of energy with the greater efficiency and try to use energy in more efficient manner. Solar energy remains as the most prominent source of energy as it is cost effective and environmentally friendly. Reviews convey that solar energy systems will play a major role in the power generations. As per present scenario there is a great importance to the solar energy using photovoltaic systems. Photovoltaic systems exhibit an important role for solar energy production.
Jurnal Internasional – Dampak Energi Terbarukan Terhadap Ketenagakerjaan di I...Dani Gunawan
Sebuah permintaan global untuk energi telah memaksa banyak negara untuk mencari energi alternatif dan terbarukan . Efek diantisipasi pengembangan terbarukan adalah peningkatan lapangan kerja sebagai bagian dari penciptaan lapangan pekerjaan hijau baru , manfaat besar bagi Indonesia untuk mengatasi tingkat pengangguran yang tinggi . Makalah ini menjelaskan dampak pengembangan energi terbarukan pada penciptaan lapangan kerja di Indonesia .
Building Energy Efficiency Into Energy EquationIJERDJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: The increasing demand of energy in the world has causes the pollution and devastation of environment and also depletion of the resources. It imminent that cannot be avoided, however, There is agitation and confrontation from country to country which later realised that only energy efficiency practices is the means of minimizing the impact to the environment, but developing countries like Nigeria centered only on end users.These studies see how energy efficiency will be built into energy generation processes and the benefit to the environment, economic growth and development of a country.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Impact Investment in Mini Hydropower, Indonesia 2013Eric Stryson
Produced in partnership with IBEKA, award winning NGO working for 20+ years to support community organization, operation and ownership of small scale hydro power plants in rural Indonesia. The plan proposes an innovative scheme whereby communities are incentivized to protect forest and water catchment resources as a means for long term viability of facilities, and lower risk for investors. State power company PLN has expressed an openness to providing premium tariffs in such cases.
Assessing Energy Policies, Legislation and Socio-Economic Impacts in the Ques...ssuser793b4e
The energy sector in Africa, particularly in countries like Uganda,
plays a pivotal role in shaping economic development, social progress, and
environmental sustainability. This study delves into the nuanced interplay
between energy policies, legislation, and their real-world consequences in
Uganda. By employing a case study approach, this research investigates the
multifaceted impact of Uganda's energy policies and legislation on various
stakeholders, including government institutions, businesses, and local
communities. This study provides an overview of Uganda's energy landscape,
highlighting the challenges faced by the nation in ensuring a stable and
sustainable energy supply. It then meticulously examines the evolution of
energy policies and legislation over the past few decades, analysing their
formulation, implementation, and effectiveness. Through qualitative and
quantitative analyses, this research assesses the socio-economic consequences
of these policies and legislations. It explores how regulatory decisions have
influenced energy accessibility, affordability, and reliability for urban and
rural populations. Additionally, the environmental impact of energy policies
is scrutinized, focusing on their contributions to climate change mitigation,
natural resource conservation, and the promotion of sustainable practices. The
study also evaluates the social repercussions, including the empowerment of
local communities, employment generation, and overall improvements in the
quality of life resulting from energy policy interventions. This research
critically examines the challenges faced during policy implementation, such
as bureaucratic hurdles, financial constraints, and political influences, which
often hinder the desired outcomes. It identifies key lessons from Uganda's
experiences, offering valuable insights for other African nations grappling
with similar energy challenges.
Promoting Massive Renewable Energy (RE) Projects
towards achieving Sustainable Development in Nigeria
Taiwo Benjamin
Carleton University, Canada
Presented at #naee2015
Analysis of Households’ Electricity Consumption with Ordered Logit Models: Ex...inventionjournals
Percentage of households’ electricity demand in total energy demand of households is increasing day by day. However, households’ electricity consumption fails to provide the added value to Gross National Product unlike industry sector. Therefore, the factors that increase the energy consumption of households should be analyzed and in this respect, required energy saving policies should be generated. In this paper, the ordered logit models examined the variables affecting the electricity consumption of households in Turkey. According to goodness of fit indicators, Partial Proportional Odds Model was determined as the best model that fits into our dataset. The results obtained from model show that electrically powered items and their quantities, household size, income, housing type and properties are important factors that increase households’ electricity consumption.
Household Perspectives and value of Low-Carbon off-grid Energy Technologies i...AI Publications
Kenya is constrained by low rural clean energy access, particularly among communities in remote settings. The objective of this study is to evaluate the social value and preferences of low-carbon off-grid technologies by households in Kenyan rangelands as an alternative to the national grid for powering isolated low-income communities. To this end a household survey was conducted on a settlement in Laikipia North using interview schedules to assess demographic characteristics, energy consumption patterns and average expenditure on traditional fuels, clean energy awareness, preferences and willingness to pay. Key findings revealed that residential off-grid clean energy options studied were largely found to be socially viable, as rural households are willing to switch from high-carbon fuels, but affordability is a key concern. The most acceptable off-grid low-carbon lighting technologies for remote low-income homesteads are Pico solar lamps and solar panels, while portable Liquid petroleum gas stoves and clean cook-stoves were found to be the most acceptable technology for low-carbon cooking at household level due to the relatively low cost, and portability factors which are favorable for pastoralist communities. It was also found that despite the Kenyan Government commitment towards a green economy, a change in policy direction would be necessary to ensure that there is inclusive access to clean energy through awareness programs and targeted financial interventions in support of low-income energy-deprived communities.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
This study aims at examining the multidimensional energy poverty (MEP) and its determinants in six geo-political zones of rural Nigeria. We utilized the 2018/2019 Nigeria Living Standard Survey (NLSS) data collected by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) in collaboration with World Bank. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Multidimensional Energy Poverty Index (MEPI), Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA), Tobit model, and Pearson correlation. The analysis showed that over 90% of the respondents live below the MEP line with the North East (NE) and South West (SW) having the highest (98.7%) and lowest (82%) respectively. The intensity of MEP at the national level was 0.330. The results of the multidimensional energy poverty index (MEPI) which stood at 0.31 in the country, was highest in the NE (0.345) and lowest in the SW (0.279). Although with varying strength of relationships across the zones, cooking, lighting, and kitchen appliances are notable dimensions that have a significant positive correlation with aggregate MEP. Education, sex, and occupation of the household head as well as household size and monthly expenditure are determinants of the MEP in the country. There are implications for zone-specific and women-focused interventions relating to clean energy and access to kitchen appliances.
Spatial Profiles and Determinants of Multidimensional Energy Poverty in Rural...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
This study aims at examining the multidimensional energy poverty (MEP) and its determinants in six geo-political zones of rural Nigeria. We utilized the 2018/2019 Nigeria Living Standard Survey (NLSS) data collected by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) in collaboration with World Bank.
The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Multidimensional Energy Poverty Index (MEPI), Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA), Tobit model, and Pearson correlation. The analysis showed that over 90% of the respondents live below the MEP line with the North East (NE) and South West (SW) having the highest (98.7%) and lowest (82%) respectively. The intensity of MEP at the national level was 0.330. The results of the multidimensional energy poverty index (MEPI) which stood at 0.31 in the country, was highest in the NE (0.345) and lowest in the SW (0.279). Although with varying
strength of relationships across the zones, cooking, lighting, and kitchen appliances are notable dimensions that have a significant positive correlation with aggregate MEP. Education, sex, and occupation of the household head as well as household size and monthly expenditure are determinants of the MEP in the country. There are implications for zone-specific and women-focused interventions relating to clean energy and access to kitchen appliances.
Renewable Energy Power Projects for Rural Electrification in IndiaMohit Sharma
As demand for energy is increasing around the world & in India, there is a positive growth trend coming in the renewable energy sector also. There are many rural and remote areas which are energy deficient.
Private companies are encouraged by Government creating opportunities by various governmental schemes like Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojna, Distributed Decentralized Generation and support in finance, distribution, technology, land, etc. As every area has its dynamics and differs from others in terms of topography, density of population and energy needs, there is a need of study for specific features related to a region (like a cluster of 19 villages in Gaya, Bihar requiring about 750kw Plant studied here) with the help of surveys, financial tools and earlier standards. Other renewable sources and areas are also covered in the book. The confidential information is edited-redacted.
Sustainable Infrastructural Development in Africa: The Build Operate and Tran...AJHSSR Journal
The build, operate and transfer (BOT) investment model can be advantageously adopted in Nigeria in
ensuring the rehabilitation of the decaying and obsolete electricity infrastructure in the country as low electricity
generation and consumption has serious negative implications on both the households and economic activities in
the economy. Thus, the objective of the paper is to interrogate the existing electricity infrastructure in Nigeria
and advocate for a form of private investment model. Using qualitative method and documentary evidence
predicted on the public-private partnership model, the study found that electricity infrastructure in Nigeria is
obsolete and inadequate. Power generation in Nigeria compared to other leading economies in Africa is
abysmally low due to lack of adequate investment in the sector. The BOT investment model has been used
successfully to build and maintain cost-intensive infrastructures like the power plants, highways, railways,
airports, etc in both developed and developing countries of the world; as seen in China, India, Pakistan,
Philippine, South Africa, Ghana, etc. Thus, the paper submits that the BOT alternative should be adopted to
address the power sector menace in the country.
The world today has been witnessing phenomenal outgrowth in all fields during the past few decades. This augmentation has been largely stimulated by information and communication technologies (ICT). However, the inexorable evolution of technology and global economic development are being pursued at an ever-increasing societal cost with a snowballing potentially negative impact on the environment. Hence, one of the important challenges modern society faces is sustainability. This article attempts to explore the existing body of knowledge to provide a better understanding of the impact of ICT and digital revolutions on global carbon footprint and emissions. It also attempts to explore the presence of environmental sustainability initiatives in e-government programs worldwide. It presents some thoughts about how governments may address sustainability requirements in their e-government programs and enact responsible ICT-enabled transformation.
Coupling Universal Energy Access with Financial Sustainability: the Case of L...Jacopo Pendezza
Modern energy access is an essential precondition for economic development. It is essential for poverty reduction, improvement of human health, women’s empowerment, education. With access to reliable and affordable energy services, local entrepreneurs and companies of any size can generate local jobs, income and, thereby, promote local development, in particular in rural and peri- urban areas. The major barriers toward improving rural electricity connectivity in Africa include: absence of national grid in large part of the country, high cost of delivering electricity to rural areas, high upfront investment costs; scattered settlements in the rural areas leading to long and costly distribution lines. Other challenges are harsh terrains and inaccessibility due to underdeveloped infrastructure leading to high cost of rural electrification projects; high operating costs of grids in rural areas due to low population density.
For these reasons, several experts suggest that the extension of the main grid is not the most economical viable solution to grant energy access to rural communities. In most of the case, and especially in Tanzania, the best option is the realization of renewable source powered mini-grid (both grid-connected and off-grid). This option, if carefully analyzed, allows to reach more and more rural clients and at the same time to increase the share of renewable energy production.
Experience, however, has shown that it is not enough to simply create a new mini-grid and hope for local economic activities to pick up just by themselves. Countless electrification projects have suffered from a low demand response from the commercial sector that ended up affecting plans and expectations. This usually determines two significant consequences: First, the hoped-for impact of electrification programmes on the development of local communities often struggles to materialize. Secondly, the electrification schemes suffer from a lack of new customers able to pay for their electricity connection and use the new availability of electricity for productive purposes. Such developments have undermined the entire economic viability, and thus sustainability, of many electrification programs in developing countries. This paper explores the concrete steps to be put in place in order to increase the financial sustainability of a mini-grid, in order to couple universal access to modern energy services with sound financial sustainability of the systems providing electricity. To show that, it will take in account a feasibility study that CEFA is doing the Luganga site, Tanzania.
ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SWAZILANDpaperpublications3
Abstract: The issue of causality between electricity consumption and economic growth (GDP) has been a topic concerning energy economists’ for a number of years given that the results have important implications for policy makers. This interest has been stimulated by the persistent increase in the awareness of global warming and climate change. Furthermore, this issue is currently of fundamental importance given the very real threat of global warming and hence the need to cut electricity consumption to reduce emissions to help stem climate change. Renewable energy plays a vital role in economic growth. Energy consumption is, in Africa, one of the mostly consumed capital goods for economic growth realization, and it has nowadays become a need for the society to function properly.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
1. 1
RURAL ELECTRIFICATION IN UGANDA
Susan G. Clark
PhD Candidate, School of Sustainability, Arizona State University
susan.spierre@asu.edu
Abstract—Access to reliable electricity is at least a co-requisite to sufficient human
development. In many developing countries, the percentages of the rural population that have
electricity access are often below 5%. Specifically in Uganda, only about 2% of the rural
population is currently served by the electric grid. To create effective policy and implementation
programs, this paper examines the current challenges and implications of the current energy
sector of Uganda. Ostrom’s Social-Ecological Systems framework is employed to organize the
driving forces, interactions, and key players of the current system, including recent rural
electrification programs that have resulted in some success. However, the implications of the
current system include multiple barriers to widespread rural electrification, including high costs
and little revenue. The push for solar photovoltaic systems in Uganda also has many
shortcomings to improving development within the country. I end by discussing an alternative
approach to rural electrification called the Empower Ugandans to Power Uganda Project that
offers a locally driven effort to electrification and development.
Keywords— rural electrification, human development, energy technologies
I. INTRODUCTION
The energy problems of the developing world are both severe and widespread. Lack of
access to sufficient and sustainable supplies of energy affects as much as 90% of the population
of many developing countries (Barnes and Floor, 1996). Without efficient, clean energy, people
2. 2
are undermined in their efforts to engage effectively in productive activities or to improve their
quality of life. The lack of electricity is also a hindrance to the provision of health services,
community development, education, and industrial activity (Hankins, 1993). Alazraque-Cherni
(2008) eloquently states that, “Energy is seen as an irreplaceable ingredient for societies’
economic and industrial progress. Energy powers economic growth and access to it is vital if
poverty is to be alleviated. But it is very unequally accessed and consumed.” In other words,
increasing energy access is at least a co-requisite to improving the living standards of billions of
people, particularly in developing countries, who lack access to energy services or whose
consumption levels are considerably less than those of individuals in industrialized countries
(Anderson, 2000). Figure 1 provides an empirical comparison of human development, in terms
of the Human Development Index (HDI), and per capita electricity consumption by country. It
confirms that nations which obtain high levels of human development also consume relatively
high levels of electricity. In the figure, the countries within the red region will likely not see
improved HDI values from additional electricity consumption, since increased consumption in
those countries will likely only add convenience and luxury, rather than improve development
(i.e., the figure shows the saturation effect of consumption discussed by Martinez & Ebenhack,
2007). In the green region, many research and implementation programs are being completed
since these nations are most likely to meet the United Nation’s (UN) Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) related to electricity access. However, countries within the yellow region are
associated with extreme unavailable and unreliable electricity (Mechtenberg, 2011), many of
which are located in sub-Saharan Africa. These countries could potentially see significant
improvements in human development from small increases in energy consumption.
3. 3
The energy needs within sub-Saharan Africa are dire, especially in the rural areas, where
about 68% of residents reside (World Bank, 2000). According to Karekezi and Kithyoma (2002),
sub-Saharan Africa is the least electrified region of the world, with rural electrification levels
that are often below 5%. The main energy demand in rural areas of low income countries is for
cooking and the main source of fuel for satisfying this demand comes from fuel-wood, dung, and
other forms of biomass, which are inefficient and polluting (World Bank, 2000). This type of
fuel is also expensive and requires intensive labor for collection (World Health Organization,
2000). The use of clean renewable energy technologies could play a critical role in national
development in terms of job creation, income generation, and protecting the local environment
(Karekezi and Kithyoma, 2002), while concurrently allowing the ‘leap-frogging’ of fossil fuel-
based energy sources, along the energy-development path (Alazraque-Cherni, 2008).
Here I specifically focus on the energy sector of Uganda, a developing country in Africa
with a large rural population. My interest in the country stems from a recent visit there, where I
experienced first-hand the unreliability, and in some cases the inaccessibility, of the country’s
electric grid. The overarching motivation of the study is grounded in increasing human
development in countries like Uganda by first understanding the current challenges and
processes that are occurring there. To this end, in Section II, Elinor Ostrom’s (2009) Social-
Ecological System (SES) Framework is employed to analyze the key players, interactions and
outcomes of the system. I include details of Uganda’s recently implemented Energy for Rural
Transformation (ERT) Program, which seeks to expand the current grid, as well as details of the
PV Pilot Project for Rural Electrification (PPPRE). In Section III I discuss the challenges as well
as the implications of the current system and energy programs. Next, I describe an alternative
approach to energy access in Section IV, known as the Empower Ugandans to Power Ugandans
4. 4
Project, which is based on technological capability transfer of locally built electricity generating
devices through education and empowerment. I end by examining the impacts of the rural
electrification programs on human development in Uganda.
Figure 1. Empirical comparison of human development and per capita electricity consumption per capita by country
Source: Mechtenberg, 2011
II. UGANDA’S ENERGY SECTOR
Overview
Influences at the larger-scale help drive domestic policies and programs in Uganda. In
Figure 2, I outline Uganda’s energy sector according to the SES framework (Ostrom, 2009),
showing the large scale social, political, and economic settings as well as the major players,
interactions, and outcomes of the domestic system, which is discussed next. This figure serves as
Uganda
5. 5
a platform for organizing the complex factors that drive policy outcomes within the current
system.
The UN MDGs play a prominent role in Uganda’s policy-making and influence the
objectives of their domestic energy policy. Although, electrification is not a primary goal of the
UN, researchers say that reliable energy access is critical for poverty alleviation (Anderson,
2000; Alazraque-Cherni, 2008; Hankins, 1993) which is a major objective of the MDGs.
According to UN Development Program (UNDP, 2011), Uganda is likely to achieve several
MDGs which include extreme poverty alleviation, and environmental sustainability in part due to
small successes within their electrification programs. Also, as a member of the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change, Uganda is committed to implementing and reporting climate
change adaptation measures (Kaijuka, 2007). These commitments place pressure on Uganda to
incorporate climate change mitigation and adaptation measures into its energy sector
development (e.g., control development of dams and hydroelectric plants along the Nile and
manage forest areas to reduce deforestation and biodiversity loss). Although Uganda, like many
other developing countries in Africa, contributes very little to the world’s greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions, for them issues such as poverty alleviation, food security, and other development
objectives rely on successful climate change adaption (Apuuli et al., 2000). Additionally, the
promotion of renewable energy technology is a focus of the country’s rural electrification
strategy, giving Uganda the opportunity to benefit from internationally sponsored projects via
organizations like the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) (Kaijuka, 2007).
6. 6
Figure 2. Social Ecological System Framework view of Uganda’s Energy Sector. The larger scale social, economic, and political
settings as well as related ecosystems play a role in influencing policies and programs in Uganda.
The primary source of energy in Uganda is hydroelectric power from major plants
located on the shores of Lake Victoria, which borders Uganda to the South (Figure 3). There is a
current market failure in which electricity is not supplied at a level that meets demand.
According to the World Bank, the generation capacity of the current system in Uganda is
340MW, while peak grid demand is 380 MW. Additionally, as of 2007 the electric grid only
serves about 2% of the rural population, and 5% at the national level (Figure 3) (Kaijuka, 2007).
The major hydroelectric plants generate 99.3% of the electricity produced in Uganda. The
remaining power is generated by smaller scale diesel plants, heavy oil plants, thermal generation
facilities, solar PV stations, and other small hydroelectric projects (Ezor, 2009). Petroleum-based
products provide only a small percentage of Uganda’s energy needs. Petroleum is imported, and
availability is affected by foreign currency constraints. High prices have caused many industries
to switch from petroleum to other products such as wood and electricity (Ezor, 2009). Uganda’s
7. 7
dependence on hydroelectric sources makes the country susceptible to natural and anthropogenic
hydrological fluctuations. Recent periods of drought and upstream diversions of water (mostly
for agricultural purposes) have caused a drop in the water level of Lake Victoria. As a result,
power plants have been operating at less than half capacity since 2005. To deal with the low
level of power generation, utility companies resort to load shedding, a process used to account
for energy shortages by selectively cutting off power to certain customers (Ezor, 2009; Kaijuka,
2009). Although there are possibilities for extending the grid (Figure 3), the high cost of
establishing electricity connections is a major constraint in a country with a widely dispersed
population (Ezor, 2009). The government of Uganda has realized that demand is greatly
outpacing supply, and has commissioned a variety of new power station, grid extensions and
renewable energy projects in the near future (Ezor,2009; Kaijuka, 2007).
Figure 3. (Left) Uganda is located on the North shores of Lake Victoria and is home to it major tributary, the Nile River. These
hydrological resources allow the country to produce most of its power through hydroelectric power plants.
(Right) Population distribution along the current and planned electric grid in Uganda. Source: Kaijuka (2007)
8. 8
Institutional Players, Policies and Interactions
Before the 1999 Electricity Act was passed, Uganda’s electricity was a state-owned,
vertically integrated system that was subject to unaccountability and inefficacy. Since 1999
Uganda’s power sector has evolved into a less-centralized system that involves both the
government and private companies (Figure 4). This transformation was made in the hopes that
the system would become more capable of meeting the needs of the people. Currently, three
main private companies (Eskom Uganda, Kilembe, and Kasese Cobalt) handle 99.3% of power
generation in the country. Transmission of power is controlled by Uganda Electricity Co. Ltd.
(above 33 kV) and Uganda Electricity Distribution Co. Ltd. (below 33 kV). Distribution rights
are held by Umeme, a company owned by Actis whose headquarters are in the United Kingdom.
Actis provides funding for infrastructure and advisory services to Umeme in Uganda (Umeme,
2011). The average customer, however only interact directly with the distributers, when they pay
their electric bills or issue complaints (Ezor, 2009; ESMAP, 1999).
The Electricity Act also established the Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA), an
autonomous regulatory body that provides licenses and creates tariffs. The ERA is required to
have public consultations and include stakeholders in any modification processes, but this does
not always occur. The power sector also utilizes an Electricity Disputes Tribunal that hears
disputes involving consumers, power companies and/or regulatory agencies (Ezor, 2009).
Lastly, the Electricity Act created the Rural Electrification Board (REB) and the Rural
Electrification Agency (REA) as part of the Rural Electrification Project (REP). These regulatory
bodies oversee rural electrification programs through both the public and private sector. The
REB is comprised of a supervisory board with members representing the public and various
departments within the government. The REA reports to the REB and is responsible for
9. 9
analyzing rural electrification policy issues. Both the REB and REA operate beneath the Ministry
of Energy and Mineral Development, solicit funding from parliament, donors, and other agencies
(e.g. World Bank and Global Environmental Facility) through a Rural Electrification Fund
(REF), and recommend appropriate types of electrification projects in the country (Kaijuka,
2007; Lule, 2006). Section 63 of the Electricity Act requires that the Minister shall submit a
report on progress and achievement of the rural electrification plan to Parliament once each year
(Lule, 2006).
Uganda’s Rural Electrification Project (REP) has the goal of achieving a 10% rural
electrification rate, a net increase of 400,000 households, by 2012. The primary objective is to
reduce inequalities in access to electricity and associated opportunities for increased social
welfare, education, health, and income generation (Kaijuka, 2007). Moreover, the plan sought to
promote development and use of Uganda’s indigenous, renewable energy resources on a cost-
effective basis with a tentative target of about 70 MW of power generation from small renewable
energy resources (Lule, 2006). As of 2010, about 4% of the rural population had access to
electricity, compared to about 1% in 2001. In addition, about 1,000 isolated solar PV systems
have been installed in over 50 districts of Uganda (Lule, 2006).
10. 10
Figure 4. Concept map of Uganda’s Energy Sector. The system has a public and private sector, a result of the 1999 Electricity Act
that liberalized the once state-owned, vertically integrated system.
Another project aimed at addressing the rural electrification issue in Uganda is the
Photovoltaic Pilot Project for rural Electrification (UPPPRE), which was coordinated by the
department of Energy and aimed at popularizing the use of photovoltaics (PV) in the rural areas
where the hydropower grid has not reached. It was designed as a three-year pilot project, funded
by the UNDP and GEF, and began in 1998. The program aimed to establish viable financial and
institutional mechanisms for offering solar PV systems on a commercial basis to households,
businesses, and communities. In the first two years of implementation, the project has led to the
installation, by solar companies, about 1,000 solar household systems and 42 institutional
systems (Turyahikayo and Sengendo, 2001). Some of the institutional systems have been
installed in collaboration with the Ministry of Health and local government agencies to provide
lighting for clinics and vaccine refrigeration facilities (Sengendo, 2001). The UPPPRE is targeted
11. 11
to improve the socioeconomic and technical conditions of the rural communities in several
aspects, such as domestic homes, education, health care and employment. The project included
awareness raising campaigns that informed residents of the benefits of solar power, and
environmental issues. Moreover, the UPPPRE engaged stakeholders, in particular women who
were offered training in technical skills and system installation, with the idea that this it would
produce benefits that would extend to all household members and the community at large
(Sengendo, 2001).
III. CHALLENGES AND IMPLICATIONS
Extending the Electric Grid
The difficulties of grid expansion in Uganda are many, stemming from the large,
dispersed, and poor rural population of the country. The cost of implementing and maintaining
power generation, transmissions, and distribution facilities in rural areas is very high, while the
collection of revenue from consumers is low. It is found that in low income households that
consume only small amounts of energy, the costs of meter reading, billing, revenue, collection
and administration outweigh revenue collected (Ezor, 2009). Consequently, without government
assistance or subsidy, rural electrification is commercially undesirable to private utility
companies, making it also an unsustainable endeavor. In addition, Uganda losses about 40% of
power due to system thermodynamic inefficiencies and power theft from unauthorized
connections. This constitutes a monetary loss of about $50 million a year (Ezor, 2009). To make
it worse, power theft is a self-perpetuating activity, as lower collection revenue drives higher
tariffs. Power equipment is also susceptible to being stolen; highly valued copper wires can be
sold in scrap yards for about US $10 per kilo (Ezor, 2009). Uneven access to the grid has been
12. 12
known to cause competitors of local grain mills that run on gasoline to cut the wires of
competitors that are using electric sources. Furthermore, Umeme and UEDCL workers, who are
paid on commission and have an incentive to create additional repairs, have been known to cut
lines to create more work for themselves. Low generation capacity also causes load shedding,
which is often at the expense of smaller, less-reliable customers in rural areas (Ezor, 2009).
Given these barriers to extending the current electric grid, Uganda may benefit from more
dispersed energy generating systems, such as renewable technologies, the most predominate of
which is solar PV devices. However, these devices do not come without their own set of
shortcomings.
Implications of PV Technology
There are also many challenges to the implementation of PV technology in Uganda. The
main issue is the high upfront costs of PV systems; a 50Wp system costs about US$800
(Turyahikayo and Sengendo, 2001). Household PV systems provide energy for limited energy
service at relatively high costs per unit, estimated to be US$1.7–2.88/kWh for select developing
countries, whereas the conventional grid systems provide relatively less limited energy services
at tariff rates at US$0.03/kWh–0.10/kWh (ibid). The UPPPRE did include a 6 to 24 month
payment plan to allow customers to pay over time for their system. The project established
collaborative credit agreements with domestic credit institutions, which (in theory) would
provide credit to users and vendors. However, since most rural Ugandan residents have seasonal
income based on agricultural activities, they often have difficulty borrowing from financial
institutions that require consistent monthly payments. If the banks did approve a loan, it would
include high interest rates that were too costly for customers. Also, potential borrowers were
13. 13
subject to the bank’s collateral requirements, since the solar devices have limited resale potential.
In fact, nine months after the credit system was created, only three users (one household and two
solar companies) had obtained credit for solar system loans (Sengendo, 2001). The provision of
subsidies for solar projects has been a successful mechanism for rural electrification
(Wamukonya, 2005), but subsidies in general are problematic because they create dependency on
funds from outside sources that are usually only provided in the short-term (GSI, 2011).
If a project like UPPPRE is to be successful at enabling energy access to the rural poor,
another financial model should be used. The exploration of community level, micro-finance
organizations that operate closely with users may be more successful. Such organizations could
allow payments on a timeline that better aligns with seasonal agricultural profits. Also, to be
successful at contributing to development, PV systems need to not be considered more than a
consumer good that provides lighting in households, but they need to provide the relevant
services needed to generate income that will also improve human (Turyahikayo and Sengendo,
2001; Wamukonya, 2005).
Even if a user is able to purchase or receive a PV system, the long-term use of the system
in problematic. Service personnel may be inadequately trained to handle repairs of the systems
that are designed and produced elsewhere. That is, the lack of local knowledge about imported
systems can inhibit repairs of the systems. Also, insufficient infrastructure systems (e.g., roads,
mail delivery system) slow the transportation of spare parts for system maintenance (Ezor, 2009).
Furthermore, the lack of environmentally safe disposal and/or recycling facilities in Uganda is a
critical impediment to the sustainability of the PV technologies (Varho, 2002). There are
potential hazards with leaching of toxic materials, such as cadmium, and can become
increasingly problematic with the disposal of large numbers of modules. Lead acid batteries used
14. 14
in conjunction with the PV systems also represent a serious environmental hazard, if not handled
appropriately (Varho, 2002). There are also more batteries than solar modules, since the batteries
have to be replaced several times during the lifetime of the panels. Recycling systems for
batteries do exist in some developing countries, but often only in urban areas. The sparsely
populated areas and the rugged terrain in Uganda makes organized recycling difficult (Varho,
2002).
IV. AN ALTERNATIVE
A less conventional endeavor to enable energy access to the rural poor is the Empower
Ugandans to Power Africa Project that seeks to encourage Ugandans to innovate their own
electricity generating devices (EGDs). The program was started by Dr. Abigail Mechtenberg (an
Associate Professor at Clark University) and Dr. Moses Musaazi (a professor at Makerere
University in Uganda) and involves teaching technical students in Uganda the basics of
generating electricity. Through week-long workshops, students create small versions of EGDs
with Legos and plastic gears, and are empowered to design actual prototype EGDs through the
use of readily available materials in the local market-place (Figure 5). Innovation and creativity
are stressed, allowing the devices to be co-designed with the people who will actually use them.
For example, a local women’s group in Fort Portal, Uganda are working on weaving light-weight
but durable wind turbine blades at very low cost (Figure 5). Students that take the course are
expected to pass on their knowledge to other students, so the program becomes sustainable
within Uganda. The human powered devices created and tested so far include hand cranks,
bicycle generators, and merry-go-round generators (MGR), in addition to other renewable energy
harnessing devices such as small hydroelectric generators as well as vertical and horizontal wind
turbines. Each human powered device is designed to target the needs of specific sectors that
15. 15
impact human development. The bicycle generator is intended to be used in domestic settings
and in small businesses. The hand-cranked surgical lamp is designed for hospitals as back-up
electricity and health centers in off-grid conditions. The MGR is designed to provide electricity
in schools that cannot afford either grid electricity or off-grid rural electrification (Mechtenberg,
2011).
Figure 5. (Left) Weaved turbine blades are being completed by a women’s group in Uganda using locally dried plants. (Right) A
technical student at St. Joseph’s Technical Institute in Fort Poratal, Uganda makes a hand cranked electricity generating device
out of Legos in class.
Because these devices can be locally manufactured using materials that already exist in
the developing economy they are less expensive and more sustainable. For example, a bicycle
generator can be produced anywhere that vehicles exist with low toxicity. This can be done by
purchasing a vehicle alternator and connecting it to the bicycle wheel to charge existing batteries
(Mechtenberg, 2011). However, imported devices like solar panels cannot be locally
manufactured in villages and without a recycling program, there are policy implications for
semiconductor materials within solar panels getting into the local environment (see discussion
above). The main drawback of the bicycle generator is that it requires someone to bike and
requires more operation and maintenance than solar panels. However, the burden of cycling can
be shared between members of a community, and maintenance is less technical, less expensive,
16. 16
and able to be completed by local community members that actually designed the device in the
first place. Unlike solar panels, during a crisis (or cloudy day) the bicycle generator can provide
light on-demand, enabling basic capabilities for hospitals and households in particular.
Furthermore, compared to solar PV systems, the bicycle generator is more cost effective at
generating electricity, especially if the bicycle generator is shared by multiple households for
battery charging (Mechtenberg, 2011).
V. IMPACTS ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
There exists no single technology or policy that will improve development in isolation.
Access to electricity is just one of many important factors in addressing poverty. According to
Ezor (2009), “Electricity serves as a catalyst, making other pillars of development—education,
modern healthcare, income generating activities, etc.—possible.” The barriers to grid expansion
and PV systems are important to consider, but the actual technology or infrastructure that
delivers the energy is not as meaningful as the capabilities that those energy generation systems
provides the people.
Conventional electrical grid systems meet most end-user energy demands, while typical
household solar systems provide limited energy for lighting, and for operating TV or radio for
limited time periods (Wamukonya, and Davis, 2001). Individuals that were able to buy solar PV
systems have reported improved living conditions including energy that provides opportunities
for income generation (e.g., refrigeration and battery charging), better conditions while
performing daily talks, improved health conditions, and greater conservation of natural resources
(Sengendo, 2001). The indicator of welfare gains has mainly been the extended hours for the
household. These can be used by the children for studying, while women put additional hours of
17. 17
labor into household tasks (Wamukonya and Davis, 2001). Increased socializing under solar
lights in villages of Senegal has been noted as a welfare benefit (Youm et al., 2000). Obviously
these benefits are useful, but the extent to which they contribute to actual human development is
unclear. The justification that PV systems free up time spent on gathering wood fails to
acknowledge the fact that the wood is still needed for thermal energy (e.g. cooking, heating)
(Youm et al., 2000). In addition, it is not a determined that the time diverted from wood
gathering could be used for productive development purposes. Interviews with Namibian rural
women revealed that they would use the freed time on housework and not necessarily on leisure
or income-generating activities. The reasons for not dedicating the extra time to income
generating activities were attributed to the lack of opportunities and capital, not necessarily
energy access (Wamukonya, 2005). It is clear that other services, besides access to electricity in
isolation, is needed for significant gains in human development.
One direct way of improving livelihoods is job creation. Grid extension projects, solar
PV system programs, and projects like the Empower Ugandans to Power Uganda all will
stimulate employment at some level. However, the latter creates employment and uses materials
that help to stimulate the local economy. Individuals in Uganda educate others in Uganda about
how they designed the system, and tacit knowledge is built locally about the devices, rather than
relying on the knowledge of outsiders. The cost effectiveness of the locally made devices may
allow energy access to the rural population much faster than other methods that rely on state-
owned, donor funding, and/or financial incentives. In addition, devices that are designed to target
the electricity needs of schools (MGR), hospitals (hand crank surgical lamp), and households
(bicycle generator) will transfer directly into human development objectives like improved
health care and education (Mechtenberg, 2001).
18. 18
VI. CONCLUSION
The motivation behind rural electrification is not driven by the need to get energy to the
people, but to give the people the capability to live improved lives through the services that
energy enables. As discussed above, the current power sector of Uganda is very complex, driven
by a plethora of interests and outside forces, and is limited by many barriers to meeting the needs
of the rural population. Recent changes and programs implemented to address rural
electrification issues have had some success but the percentage of people in the country with
electricity access remains very poor. Perhaps the fastest way to get energy to the people is to
empower the people of Uganda to take action, rather than waiting until modern energy sources
come to them. Through projects like the Empower Ugandans to Power Uganda, less
conventional and local efforts may potentially be an improved approach, or least a
complimentary strategy, to alleviating poverty and thus improving livelihoods in Uganda.
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