This document defines key concepts in probability and non-probability sampling. It explains that probability sampling uses random selection to select samples from a population, with four main types listed: simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling, and cluster sampling. Non-probability sampling relies on the researcher's judgment rather than random selection, with common types being convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental sampling, and snowball sampling. Examples are provided to illustrate each sampling technique.
this is an presentation regarding samples in research methodology in qualitative and quantitative approaches . this will be very useful basically this presentation most significant for university students those who are following and learning for the research methodology. in this i have discussed
what is sampling
why samples for research
sampling methods
size of sample
types of sample
advantages of sample
disadvantages of sample
process
sampling frame
time factor
sampling problems...
this is an presentation regarding samples in research methodology in qualitative and quantitative approaches . this will be very useful basically this presentation most significant for university students those who are following and learning for the research methodology. in this i have discussed
what is sampling
why samples for research
sampling methods
size of sample
types of sample
advantages of sample
disadvantages of sample
process
sampling frame
time factor
sampling problems...
Population and Sampling Techniques.pptxDrHafizKosar
The first step in the process of collecting quantitative data is to identify the people and places you plan to study. This involves determining whether you will study individuals or entire organizations (e.g., schools) or some combination. If you select either individuals or organizations, you need to decide what type of people or organizations you will actually study and how many you will need for your research. These decisions require that you decide on a unit of analysis, the group and individuals you will study, the procedure for selecting these individuals, and assessing the numbers of people needed for your data analysis.
Identify Your Unit of Analysis
Who can supply the information that you will use to answer your quantitative research questions or hypotheses? Some possibilities might be students, teachers, parents, adults, some combination of these individuals, or entire schools. At this early stage in data collection, you must decide at what level (e.g., individual, family, school, school district) the data needs to be gathered. This level is referred to as the unit of analysis.
In some research studies, educators gather data from multiple levels (e.g., individuals and schools), whereas other studies involve collecting data from only one level (e.g., principals in schools). This decision depends on the questions or hypotheses that you seek to answer. Also, the data for measuring the independent variable may differ from the unit for assessing the dependent variable. For example, in the study of the impact of adolescent aggression on school climate, a researcher would measure the independent variable, adolescent aggression, by collecting data from individuals while measuring the dependent variable, school climate, based on data from entire schools and their overall climates (e.g., whether students and teachers believe the school curriculum supports learning).
If Faiza wants to answer the question “Why do students carry weapons in high school?” what unit of analysis will she study? Alternatively, if she wanted to compare answers to the question “Why do students carry weapons in rural high schools and urban high schools?” what two types of units of analysis will she study?
Specify the Population and Sample
If you select an entire school to study or a small number of individuals, you need to consider what individuals or schools you will study. In some educational situations, you will select individuals for your research based on who volunteers to participate or who is available (e.g., a specific classroom of students). However, those individuals may not be similar (in personal characteristics or performance or attitudes) to all individuals who could be studied. A more advanced research process is to select individuals or schools who are representative of the entire group of individuals or schools.
Sampling - Types, Steps in Sampling process.pdfRKavithamani
Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to make statistical inferences from them and estimate the characteristics of the whole population. Different sampling methods are widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need to research the entire population to collect actionable insights.
Types of data sampling,probability sampling and non-probability sampling,Simple random sampling,Systematic sampling,Stratified sampling,Clustered sampling,Convenience sampling,Quota sampling,Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling,Snowball sampling,Bias in sampling.
What is Survey? History of Survey? Why it is important? Types of Survey? How it helps in Sampling? Types of Sampling? Advantages of Survey And Disadvantages of Survey
This was a presentation that was carried out in our research method class by our group. It will be useful for PHD and master students quantitative and qualitative method. It consist sample definition, purpose of sampling, stages in the selection of a sample, types of sampling in quantitative researches, types of sampling in qualitative researches, and ethical Considerations in Data Collection.
Population and Sampling Techniques.pptxDrHafizKosar
The first step in the process of collecting quantitative data is to identify the people and places you plan to study. This involves determining whether you will study individuals or entire organizations (e.g., schools) or some combination. If you select either individuals or organizations, you need to decide what type of people or organizations you will actually study and how many you will need for your research. These decisions require that you decide on a unit of analysis, the group and individuals you will study, the procedure for selecting these individuals, and assessing the numbers of people needed for your data analysis.
Identify Your Unit of Analysis
Who can supply the information that you will use to answer your quantitative research questions or hypotheses? Some possibilities might be students, teachers, parents, adults, some combination of these individuals, or entire schools. At this early stage in data collection, you must decide at what level (e.g., individual, family, school, school district) the data needs to be gathered. This level is referred to as the unit of analysis.
In some research studies, educators gather data from multiple levels (e.g., individuals and schools), whereas other studies involve collecting data from only one level (e.g., principals in schools). This decision depends on the questions or hypotheses that you seek to answer. Also, the data for measuring the independent variable may differ from the unit for assessing the dependent variable. For example, in the study of the impact of adolescent aggression on school climate, a researcher would measure the independent variable, adolescent aggression, by collecting data from individuals while measuring the dependent variable, school climate, based on data from entire schools and their overall climates (e.g., whether students and teachers believe the school curriculum supports learning).
If Faiza wants to answer the question “Why do students carry weapons in high school?” what unit of analysis will she study? Alternatively, if she wanted to compare answers to the question “Why do students carry weapons in rural high schools and urban high schools?” what two types of units of analysis will she study?
Specify the Population and Sample
If you select an entire school to study or a small number of individuals, you need to consider what individuals or schools you will study. In some educational situations, you will select individuals for your research based on who volunteers to participate or who is available (e.g., a specific classroom of students). However, those individuals may not be similar (in personal characteristics or performance or attitudes) to all individuals who could be studied. A more advanced research process is to select individuals or schools who are representative of the entire group of individuals or schools.
Sampling - Types, Steps in Sampling process.pdfRKavithamani
Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to make statistical inferences from them and estimate the characteristics of the whole population. Different sampling methods are widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need to research the entire population to collect actionable insights.
Types of data sampling,probability sampling and non-probability sampling,Simple random sampling,Systematic sampling,Stratified sampling,Clustered sampling,Convenience sampling,Quota sampling,Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling,Snowball sampling,Bias in sampling.
What is Survey? History of Survey? Why it is important? Types of Survey? How it helps in Sampling? Types of Sampling? Advantages of Survey And Disadvantages of Survey
This was a presentation that was carried out in our research method class by our group. It will be useful for PHD and master students quantitative and qualitative method. It consist sample definition, purpose of sampling, stages in the selection of a sample, types of sampling in quantitative researches, types of sampling in qualitative researches, and ethical Considerations in Data Collection.
Similar to Types of probability sampling22.docx (20)
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
In silico drugs analogue design: novobiocin analogues.pptx
Types of probability sampling22.docx
1. 1
NAME: ABDULAZIZ BELLO
REG NO: 2101271037
COURSE: COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
DEPT: HNDI MASS COMMUNICATION (MO)
TITLE: ASSIGNMENT
QUESTION:
Define probability
Types of probability
Define non probability
Types of non probability
INTRODUCTION
Probability is the branch of mathematics concerning numerical descriptions of how likely
an event is to occur, or how likely it is that a proposition is true. The probability of an event
is a number between 0 and 1, where, roughly speaking, 0 indicates impossibility of the
event and 1 indicates certainty.
What is probability sampling?
Probability sampling is a technique in which the researcher chooses samples from a
larger population using a method based on probability theory. For a participant to be
considered as a probability sample, he/she must be selected using a random selection.
Types of probability sampling
There are four commonly used types of probability sampling designs:
Simple random sampling
Stratified sampling
Systematic sampling
Cluster sampling
Simple random sampling
Simple random sampling gathers a random selection from the entire population, where
each unit has an equal chance of selection. This is the most common way to select a
random sample.
To compile a list of the units in your research population, consider using a random number
generator. There are several free ones available online, such as random.org,
calculator.net, and randomnumbergenerator.org.
2. 2
Example: Simple random samplingYou are researching the political views of a
municipality of 4,000 inhabitants. You have access to a list with all 4,000 people,
anonymized for privacy reasons. You have established that you need a sample of 100
people for your research.
Writing down the names of all 4,000 inhabitants by hand to randomly draw 100 of them
would be impractical and time-consuming, as well as questionable for ethical reasons.
Instead, you decide to use a random number generator to draw a simple random sample.
If the first number generated by the program is 1735, this means that resident #1735 on
your list should be selected to be part of the sample. You continue by matching each
number with the respective resident on the list.
Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling collects a random selection of a sample from within certain strata, or
subgroups within the population. Each subgroup is separated from the others on the basis
of a common characteristic, such as gender, race, or religion. This way, you can ensure
that all subgroups of a given population are adequately represented within your sample
population.
For example, if you are dividing a student population by college majors, Engineering,
Linguistics, and Physical Education students are three different strata within that
population.
To split your population into different subgroups, first choose which characteristic you
would like to divide them by. Then you can select your sample from each subgroup. You
can do this in one of two ways:
By selecting an equal number of units from each subgroup
By selecting units from each subgroup equal to their proportion in the total
population
Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling draws a random sample from the target population by selecting units
at regular intervals starting from a random point. This method is useful in situations where
records of your target population already exist, such as records of an agency’s clients,
enrollment lists of university students, or a company’s employment records. Any of these
can be used as a sampling frame.
3. 3
To start your systematic sample, you first need to divide your sampling frame into a
number of segments, called intervals. You calculate these by dividing your population
size by the desired sample size.
Then, from the first interval, you select one unit using simple random sampling. The
selection of the next units from other intervals depends upon the position of the unit
selected in the first interval.
Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is the process of dividing the target population into groups, called
clusters. A randomly selected subsection of these groups then forms your sample. Cluster
sampling is an efficient approach when you want to study large, geographically dispersed
populations. It usually involves existing groups that are similar to each other in some way
(e.g., classes in a school).
There are two types of cluster sampling:
Single (or one-stage) cluster sampling, when you divide the entire population into
clusters
Multistage cluster sampling, when you divide the cluster further into more clusters,
in order to narrow down the sample size
WHAT IS NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING?
Definition: Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in which the
researcher selects samples based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather
than random selection. It is a less stringent method. This sampling method depends
heavily on the expertise of the researchers. It is carried out by observation, and
researchers use it widely for qualitative research.
Non-probability sampling is a method in which not all population members have an equal
chance of participating in the study, unlike probability sampling. Each member of the
population has a known chance of being selected. Non-probability sampling is most useful
for exploratory studies like a pilot survey (deploying a survey to a smaller sample
compared to pre-determined sample size). Researchers use this method in studies where
it is impossible to draw random probability sampling due to time or cost considerations.
4. 4
TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Convenience sampling:
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where samples are
selected from the population only because they are conveniently available to the
researcher. Researchers choose these samples just because they are easy to recruit,
and the researcher did not consider selecting a sample that represents the entire
population.
Ideally, in research, it is good to test a sample that represents the population. But, in some
research, the population is too large to examine and consider the entire population. It is
one of the reasons why researchers rely on convenience sampling, which is the most
common non-probability sampling method, because of its speed, cost-effectiveness, and
ease of availability of the sample.
Consecutive sampling:
This non-probability sampling method is very similar to convenience sampling, with a
slight variation. Here, the researcher picks a single person or a group of a sample,
conducts research over a period, analyzes the results, and then moves on to another
subject or group if needed. Consecutive sampling technique gives the researcher a
chance to work with many topics and fine-tune his/her research by collecting results that
have vital insights.
Quota sampling:
Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of male and female
employees in an organization. There are 500 employees in the organization, also known
as the population. To understand better about a population, the researcher will need only
a sample, not the entire population. Further, the researcher is interested in particular
strata within the population. Here is where quota sampling helps in dividing the population
into strata or groups.
Judgmental or Purposive sampling:
In the judgmental sampling method, researchers select the samples based purely on the
researcher’s knowledge and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only those
people who they deem fit to participate in the research study. Judgmental or purposive
sampling is not a scientific method of sampling, and the downside to this sampling
5. 5
technique is that the preconceived notions of a researcher can influence the results. Thus,
this research technique involves a high amount of ambiguity.
Snowball sampling:
Snowball sampling helps researchers find a sample when they are difficult to locate.
Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and not easily available.
This sampling system works like the referral program. Once the researchers find suitable
subjects, he asks them for assistance to seek similar subjects to form a considerably good
size sample.
Non-probability sampling examples
Here are three simple examples of non-probability sampling to understand the subject
better.
1. An example of convenience sampling would be using student volunteers known to
the researcher. Researchers can send the survey to students belonging to a
particular school, college, or university, and act as a sample.
2. In an organization, for studying the career goals of 500 employees, technically, the
sample selected should have proportionate numbers of males and females. Which
means there should be 250 males and 250 females. Since this is unlikely, the
researcher selects the groups or strata using quota sampling.
3. Researchers also use this type of sampling to conduct research involving a
particular illness in patients or a rare disease. Researchers can seek help from
subjects to refer to other subjects suffering from the same ailment to form a
subjective sample to carry out the study.
References
"Kendall's Advanced Theory of Statistics, Volume 1: Distribution Theory", Alan Stuart
and Keith Ord, 6th Ed, (2009), ISBN 978-0-534-24312-8.
William Feller, An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications, (Vol 1), 3rd
Ed, (1968), Wiley, ISBN 0-471-25708-7.
Probability Theory The Britannica website
Hacking, Ian (1965). The Logic of Statistical Inference. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-05165-1.[page needed]
Finetti, Bruno de (1970). "Logical foundations and measurement of subjective
probability". Acta Psychologica. 34: 129–145. doi:10.1016/0001-6918(70)90012-
0.