This document analyzes the environmental conservation and management practices of the Karanga people in Zimbabwe. It discusses how the Karanga's religious beliefs, including their belief in ancestral spirits, taboos, totems, and sacred places, lead them to protect the natural environment. Taboos prohibit unsustainable behaviors toward plants, forests, water sources, and animals. Totems representing animal and plant clans make it taboo to harm those species. The document examines several specific Karanga taboos and how they conserve resources like water and forests. It argues that Karanga practices foster environmental ethics and harmony between people and nature.
Engler and Prantl's system of Plant Classificationmahesh s
The document summarizes the phylogenetic system of plant classification developed by Engler and Prantl. Some key points:
1) Engler and Prantl divided the plant kingdom into 13 divisions, with divisions 1-12 covering bacteria to non-flowering plants and division 13 covering seed plants.
2) They classified seed plants into gymnosperms, monocotyledons, and dicotyledons. Monocotyledons and dicotyledons were further divided into orders and families.
3) The system was the first to incorporate evolutionary principles but is not a true phylogenetic system by modern standards, with some groups considered incorrectly placed or unnatural.
Plant embryology is the study of plant development from fertilization to the formation of a mature embryo. Key developments included the discovery of pollen tubes and their role in fertilization in the 17th-18th centuries. In the 19th century, scientists discovered that the embryo forms from the fertilized ovule rather than from the pollen tube tip. Double fertilization, where one sperm fuses with the egg and one with the central cells, was discovered in the late 19th century. The 20th century saw advances in microscopy techniques that improved understanding of embryogenesis. Indian scientists like Maheshwari and Johri made seminal contributions to angiosperm embryology in the 20th century. Modern plant embryology explains
Van Tieghem and Douliot proposed that the stele is the fundamental unit of the vascular system in pteridophytes, consisting of a central cylinder surrounded by cortex. There are two main types of stele - protostele and siphonostele. Protostele is the simplest with a solid xylem core and no pith, while siphonostele is more advanced with a parenchymatous pith in the center. Siphonostele can be ectophloic or amphiphloic depending on the arrangement of phloem, and may have overlapping leaf gaps (dictyostele) or non-overlapping gaps (solenostele). Some pterid
This document provides information about mushroom cultivation. It discusses that mushrooms are fungi that grow on decaying organic matter and lack chlorophyll. Their structure includes a cap and stalk. It then discusses the health benefits of mushrooms as being high in protein, vitamins, and minerals. Tables 1 and 2 show the nutritive value and medicinal properties of different mushroom species. The document also discusses distinguishing edible from poisonous mushrooms and provides an overview of the process for mushroom spawn production, including preparing a pure culture, mother and commercial spawns, and storage and potential contamination issues.
1. The document discusses the Pteridospermales order, which includes seed-bearing plants that resembled ferns. They first appeared in the late Devonian period and went extinct in the Jurassic period.
2. It focuses on describing the Lyginopteridaceae family, which had fern-like leaves and vines or climbing growth forms. Their anatomy included mesarch stems and leaves as well as seeds enclosed in cupules.
3. Details are provided on the external features, anatomy of the stem, leaf, root, and reproductive organs of the Lyginopteris oldhamia species, including its circinate leaves, mesarch siphonostele stem, and heterosporous ovules
This document summarizes the key characteristics of bryophytes, including mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. It describes their structures, life cycles, habitats, and classification. Bryophytes are small non-vascular plants that grow in moist shady places and require water to complete their life cycles. They differ from vascular plants in lacking true roots, vascular tissue and a cuticle. Their life cycles involve an alternation between haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte generations.
Classification denotes the arrangement of a single plant or group of plants an distinct category following a system of nomenclature, and in accordance with a particular and well established plan.
The document discusses the mechanical tissues in plants and their properties and significance. It explains that plants have developed different types of specialized tissues to withstand environmental forces and stresses. These mechanical tissues include sclerenchyma fibers, sclereids, and collenchyma cells. Their distribution in plants follows engineering principles of strength and stability. Inflexible organs contain tissues arranged like I-beams to resist bending, while inextensible organs have a dense central bundle to resist pulling. Incompressible trunks utilize concentric rings of tissues like concrete pillars. These tissues allow plants to survive in varied habitats through rigidity, elasticity, and efficient material use.
Engler and Prantl's system of Plant Classificationmahesh s
The document summarizes the phylogenetic system of plant classification developed by Engler and Prantl. Some key points:
1) Engler and Prantl divided the plant kingdom into 13 divisions, with divisions 1-12 covering bacteria to non-flowering plants and division 13 covering seed plants.
2) They classified seed plants into gymnosperms, monocotyledons, and dicotyledons. Monocotyledons and dicotyledons were further divided into orders and families.
3) The system was the first to incorporate evolutionary principles but is not a true phylogenetic system by modern standards, with some groups considered incorrectly placed or unnatural.
Plant embryology is the study of plant development from fertilization to the formation of a mature embryo. Key developments included the discovery of pollen tubes and their role in fertilization in the 17th-18th centuries. In the 19th century, scientists discovered that the embryo forms from the fertilized ovule rather than from the pollen tube tip. Double fertilization, where one sperm fuses with the egg and one with the central cells, was discovered in the late 19th century. The 20th century saw advances in microscopy techniques that improved understanding of embryogenesis. Indian scientists like Maheshwari and Johri made seminal contributions to angiosperm embryology in the 20th century. Modern plant embryology explains
Van Tieghem and Douliot proposed that the stele is the fundamental unit of the vascular system in pteridophytes, consisting of a central cylinder surrounded by cortex. There are two main types of stele - protostele and siphonostele. Protostele is the simplest with a solid xylem core and no pith, while siphonostele is more advanced with a parenchymatous pith in the center. Siphonostele can be ectophloic or amphiphloic depending on the arrangement of phloem, and may have overlapping leaf gaps (dictyostele) or non-overlapping gaps (solenostele). Some pterid
This document provides information about mushroom cultivation. It discusses that mushrooms are fungi that grow on decaying organic matter and lack chlorophyll. Their structure includes a cap and stalk. It then discusses the health benefits of mushrooms as being high in protein, vitamins, and minerals. Tables 1 and 2 show the nutritive value and medicinal properties of different mushroom species. The document also discusses distinguishing edible from poisonous mushrooms and provides an overview of the process for mushroom spawn production, including preparing a pure culture, mother and commercial spawns, and storage and potential contamination issues.
1. The document discusses the Pteridospermales order, which includes seed-bearing plants that resembled ferns. They first appeared in the late Devonian period and went extinct in the Jurassic period.
2. It focuses on describing the Lyginopteridaceae family, which had fern-like leaves and vines or climbing growth forms. Their anatomy included mesarch stems and leaves as well as seeds enclosed in cupules.
3. Details are provided on the external features, anatomy of the stem, leaf, root, and reproductive organs of the Lyginopteris oldhamia species, including its circinate leaves, mesarch siphonostele stem, and heterosporous ovules
This document summarizes the key characteristics of bryophytes, including mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. It describes their structures, life cycles, habitats, and classification. Bryophytes are small non-vascular plants that grow in moist shady places and require water to complete their life cycles. They differ from vascular plants in lacking true roots, vascular tissue and a cuticle. Their life cycles involve an alternation between haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte generations.
Classification denotes the arrangement of a single plant or group of plants an distinct category following a system of nomenclature, and in accordance with a particular and well established plan.
The document discusses the mechanical tissues in plants and their properties and significance. It explains that plants have developed different types of specialized tissues to withstand environmental forces and stresses. These mechanical tissues include sclerenchyma fibers, sclereids, and collenchyma cells. Their distribution in plants follows engineering principles of strength and stability. Inflexible organs contain tissues arranged like I-beams to resist bending, while inextensible organs have a dense central bundle to resist pulling. Incompressible trunks utilize concentric rings of tissues like concrete pillars. These tissues allow plants to survive in varied habitats through rigidity, elasticity, and efficient material use.
Bryophytes are a diverse group of land plants.
Have large ecological impact.
23,000 described species world wide.
Largest group of land plants except for the flowering plants.
Integral part of natural environment of forest ecosystems.
Bryophytes are of small size.
Some of them attain a height up to half meter or a little more.
Store large amount of water, nutrients and carbon in their biomass.
In peatlands, bryophytes function as carbon sinks, which is a matter of great concern when considered with the rise of global carbon dioxide level.
Ability to remain alive for a long period without water even
under high temperature, and then resume photosynthesis within seconds after being moistened by rain or dew.
Most bryophytes are ectohydric, i.e., ability to absorb water, inorganic nutrients and mineral elements directly from the atmosphere rather than the soil and substratum.
Bryophytes possess short-lived sporophytic and dominant gametophytic phase.
Origin & Evolution of seed habit in gymnosperm.pptxRenu Jangid
The document discusses the evolution of ovules and seeds in plants. It describes 6 key evolutionary events in ovule evolution, from heterospory to the formation of integuments. These events led to the retention of the megaspore within the nucellus and the development of endosporic megagametophytes. The evolution of ovules also involved a reduction in megaspores from multiple to a single functional one per megasporangium. The document then discusses theories on the evolution of integuments and seeds, including the nucellar modification concept where integuments developed from the nucellus through vascularization and lobing.
Bryophytes are useful as pollution indicators and for monitoring air quality. They accumulate pollutants in quantities higher than other plants due to their simple structure and ability to absorb nutrients from ambient moisture. Bryophyte populations decline and disappear in polluted areas, with sensitive species showing visible symptoms from low pollutant levels. Common symptoms include plasmolysis and chlorophyll degradation. Bryophytes can also indicate ecological conditions like pH levels. Their ability to store pollutants over long periods makes them valuable for establishing pollution levels and gradients over time.
The document summarizes the structure of the ovule and types of ovules. It describes that the ovule consists of an integument(s), funicle, nucellus, and micropyle. There are two main types of integuments - unitegmic with one integument and bitegmic with two integuments. Six types of ovules are described based on the position of the micropyle and chalaza relative to the funicle: orthotropous, anatropous, hemi-anatropous, campylotropous, amphitropous, and circinotropous. Anatropous ovules have the body completely inverted so
The kingdom Fungi includes a vast variety of organisms such as mushrooms, yeast, and mold, made up of feathery filaments called hyphae (collectively called mycelium). Fungi are multicellular and eukaryotic. They are also heterotrophs, and gain nutrition through absorption.
The document discusses how palynology, the study of pollen grains and spores, can provide taxonomic evidence for classifying plants. It outlines several palynological features that can be used in plant systematics, including pollen nucleus number, storage product, unit, polarity, aperture, size, shape, sculpturing, and wall structure. These features vary across plant taxa and families, providing a basis for identification and analysis of phylogenetic relationships.
This document provides instructions for creating an herbarium, which is a collection of preserved plant specimens. It describes the purposes of an herbarium as allowing for accurate plant identification, creating a permanent record, and providing materials for research. The key aspects of making specimens are collecting whole plants or plant parts, pressing and drying them between sheets of paper for weeks, mounting them onto standard-sized paper sheets, and labeling them with identifying information. Proper preparation and storage allows herbarium specimens to last for hundreds of years.
Wall ingrowths are specialized structures that increase the surface area of plant cell membranes. They are formed through localized deposition of cell wall material which causes invaginations of the plasma membrane. There are three main types of wall ingrowths - flange, reticulate, and papillate. Flange ingrowths resemble secondary cell walls while reticulate ingrowths branch and fuse to form fenestrations. Papillate ingrowths are initially disorganized cellulose deposits that become surrounded by callose and cell wall proteins. Transfer cells are specialized plant cells that facilitate nutrient transport through extensive wall ingrowths that amplify the plasma membrane surface area.
After double fertilization and triple fusion, the zygote secretes a cellulose wall and divides into two cells - an upper embryonal cell and lower suspensor cell. The embryonal cell divides into eight octant cells which then divide further, forming a surface layer of dermatogen cells and an inner embryonal mass. The dermatogens and embryonal mass cells continue dividing and differentiating to form the various parts of the embryo, including the plumule, cotyledons, radicle, and hypocotyledons.
In this presentation, concept of epiphytes, types of epiphytes, and adaptations (morphological, anatomical and physiological) developed in them are are explained.
Viruses and bacteria have important economic roles. Viruses are used to produce vaccines, study evolution, and control harmful bacteria. They are also important research tools in genetics and engineering. Bacteria play key roles in agriculture by decomposing organic matter, fixing nitrogen, and solubilizing phosphorus to act as biofertilizers. They are crucial to many industries like dairy, leather tanning, and production of chemicals, foods, and medicines. Viruses and bacteria demonstrate the economic significance of the smallest of organisms.
1) Funaria is a terrestrial moss that grows in dense green patches in moist, shady areas like damp soil, tree trunks, and walls.
2) It has both underground protonemal filaments and above-ground leafy gametophores that produce rhizoids, a stem, and spirally arranged leaves.
3) Sexual reproduction involves the production of antheridia and archegonia on separate male and female branches that lead to fertilization and the growth of a sporophyte with foot, seta, and capsule containing spores.
Fossils provide important information about past plant and animal life on Earth. They form through a process called fossilization when remains become buried in sediment and over time the sediment hardens into rock, preserving the remains. There are many types of fossils including body fossils, trace fossils, molds/casts, and carbonized or permineralized fossils. The geological time scale maps Earth's history in distinct periods based on fossils and rock layers. Key periods include the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. Fossils are important for understanding evolution and how life has changed over geological time.
There are three main types of reproduction in algae: vegetative, asexual and sexual. Vegetative reproduction occurs through fragmentation, cell division or the formation of specialized structures like hormogones, tubers or adventitious branches. Asexual reproduction happens through the formation of spores like zoospores, aplanospores or autospores which develop into new algae. Sexual reproduction includes isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy where gametes fuse to form zygotes or oospores that develop into new organisms. Sexual reproduction provides benefits like increasing genetic diversity and adaptation to changing environments.
Lichens are symbiotic organisms consisting of a fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium. They come in a variety of forms including crustose, foliose, and fruticose. The fungal partner, called the mycobiont, is dominant and provides structure and protection. The algal partner, or phycobiont, is photosynthetic. Lichens can reproduce sexually through structures like apothecia, or asexually through soredia, isidia, or fragmentation. They are classified based on habitat, morphology, and type of partners. Lichens are widely distributed and play an important ecological role.
Evolution of plants through different geological time scaleATHIRA RAVINDRAN
The document summarizes the evolution of plants through geological time based on the fossil record. It discusses how early land plants evolved from green algae and were initially small thalloid organisms. Over time, plants developed vascular tissues, leaves, roots, seeds and other structures that allowed them to diversify and form forests. Major developments included the evolution of trees in the Devonian period and the appearance of seed plants in the Triassic period. The evolution of seeds was a key innovation that drove the spread of plants into new habitats.
This document provides information on the Menispermaceae plant family. It discusses their systematic position as flowering plants in the order Ranunculales. The family contains 68 genera and around 440 species of mostly woody climbing plants found in tropical areas. They have alternate leaves and unisexual flowers. Economically important alkaloids used in traditional medicine and as poisons on darts can be derived from plants in this family, such as tubocurarine from curare vines.
1. Sacred groves are forest patches protected by indigenous communities due to religious beliefs that conserving them maintains an important relationship between humans and the divine or nature.
2. Sacred groves are found worldwide but are especially common in India, where an estimated 14,000 groves exist and harbor rare species. They provide ecological benefits like biodiversity conservation and socio-cultural importance to local communities.
3. However, sacred groves face threats from urbanization, overexploitation of resources, and environmental destruction from religious practices. Conservation efforts are needed to protect their biodiversity and ecological services to local people.
Hunters and gatherers as well as Agricultural societiesgmatebele
Hunters and gatherers like the San or Basarwa community live nomadic lifestyles, moving in small groups between 20-50 people in search of wild fruits, vegetables, and animals. The document describes how they build temporary huts and forage from their local environment to survive. It also discusses their cultural practices like religious ceremonies, rock paintings, and how work is divided along gender lines between men who hunt and women who gather food.
Bryophytes are a diverse group of land plants.
Have large ecological impact.
23,000 described species world wide.
Largest group of land plants except for the flowering plants.
Integral part of natural environment of forest ecosystems.
Bryophytes are of small size.
Some of them attain a height up to half meter or a little more.
Store large amount of water, nutrients and carbon in their biomass.
In peatlands, bryophytes function as carbon sinks, which is a matter of great concern when considered with the rise of global carbon dioxide level.
Ability to remain alive for a long period without water even
under high temperature, and then resume photosynthesis within seconds after being moistened by rain or dew.
Most bryophytes are ectohydric, i.e., ability to absorb water, inorganic nutrients and mineral elements directly from the atmosphere rather than the soil and substratum.
Bryophytes possess short-lived sporophytic and dominant gametophytic phase.
Origin & Evolution of seed habit in gymnosperm.pptxRenu Jangid
The document discusses the evolution of ovules and seeds in plants. It describes 6 key evolutionary events in ovule evolution, from heterospory to the formation of integuments. These events led to the retention of the megaspore within the nucellus and the development of endosporic megagametophytes. The evolution of ovules also involved a reduction in megaspores from multiple to a single functional one per megasporangium. The document then discusses theories on the evolution of integuments and seeds, including the nucellar modification concept where integuments developed from the nucellus through vascularization and lobing.
Bryophytes are useful as pollution indicators and for monitoring air quality. They accumulate pollutants in quantities higher than other plants due to their simple structure and ability to absorb nutrients from ambient moisture. Bryophyte populations decline and disappear in polluted areas, with sensitive species showing visible symptoms from low pollutant levels. Common symptoms include plasmolysis and chlorophyll degradation. Bryophytes can also indicate ecological conditions like pH levels. Their ability to store pollutants over long periods makes them valuable for establishing pollution levels and gradients over time.
The document summarizes the structure of the ovule and types of ovules. It describes that the ovule consists of an integument(s), funicle, nucellus, and micropyle. There are two main types of integuments - unitegmic with one integument and bitegmic with two integuments. Six types of ovules are described based on the position of the micropyle and chalaza relative to the funicle: orthotropous, anatropous, hemi-anatropous, campylotropous, amphitropous, and circinotropous. Anatropous ovules have the body completely inverted so
The kingdom Fungi includes a vast variety of organisms such as mushrooms, yeast, and mold, made up of feathery filaments called hyphae (collectively called mycelium). Fungi are multicellular and eukaryotic. They are also heterotrophs, and gain nutrition through absorption.
The document discusses how palynology, the study of pollen grains and spores, can provide taxonomic evidence for classifying plants. It outlines several palynological features that can be used in plant systematics, including pollen nucleus number, storage product, unit, polarity, aperture, size, shape, sculpturing, and wall structure. These features vary across plant taxa and families, providing a basis for identification and analysis of phylogenetic relationships.
This document provides instructions for creating an herbarium, which is a collection of preserved plant specimens. It describes the purposes of an herbarium as allowing for accurate plant identification, creating a permanent record, and providing materials for research. The key aspects of making specimens are collecting whole plants or plant parts, pressing and drying them between sheets of paper for weeks, mounting them onto standard-sized paper sheets, and labeling them with identifying information. Proper preparation and storage allows herbarium specimens to last for hundreds of years.
Wall ingrowths are specialized structures that increase the surface area of plant cell membranes. They are formed through localized deposition of cell wall material which causes invaginations of the plasma membrane. There are three main types of wall ingrowths - flange, reticulate, and papillate. Flange ingrowths resemble secondary cell walls while reticulate ingrowths branch and fuse to form fenestrations. Papillate ingrowths are initially disorganized cellulose deposits that become surrounded by callose and cell wall proteins. Transfer cells are specialized plant cells that facilitate nutrient transport through extensive wall ingrowths that amplify the plasma membrane surface area.
After double fertilization and triple fusion, the zygote secretes a cellulose wall and divides into two cells - an upper embryonal cell and lower suspensor cell. The embryonal cell divides into eight octant cells which then divide further, forming a surface layer of dermatogen cells and an inner embryonal mass. The dermatogens and embryonal mass cells continue dividing and differentiating to form the various parts of the embryo, including the plumule, cotyledons, radicle, and hypocotyledons.
In this presentation, concept of epiphytes, types of epiphytes, and adaptations (morphological, anatomical and physiological) developed in them are are explained.
Viruses and bacteria have important economic roles. Viruses are used to produce vaccines, study evolution, and control harmful bacteria. They are also important research tools in genetics and engineering. Bacteria play key roles in agriculture by decomposing organic matter, fixing nitrogen, and solubilizing phosphorus to act as biofertilizers. They are crucial to many industries like dairy, leather tanning, and production of chemicals, foods, and medicines. Viruses and bacteria demonstrate the economic significance of the smallest of organisms.
1) Funaria is a terrestrial moss that grows in dense green patches in moist, shady areas like damp soil, tree trunks, and walls.
2) It has both underground protonemal filaments and above-ground leafy gametophores that produce rhizoids, a stem, and spirally arranged leaves.
3) Sexual reproduction involves the production of antheridia and archegonia on separate male and female branches that lead to fertilization and the growth of a sporophyte with foot, seta, and capsule containing spores.
Fossils provide important information about past plant and animal life on Earth. They form through a process called fossilization when remains become buried in sediment and over time the sediment hardens into rock, preserving the remains. There are many types of fossils including body fossils, trace fossils, molds/casts, and carbonized or permineralized fossils. The geological time scale maps Earth's history in distinct periods based on fossils and rock layers. Key periods include the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. Fossils are important for understanding evolution and how life has changed over geological time.
There are three main types of reproduction in algae: vegetative, asexual and sexual. Vegetative reproduction occurs through fragmentation, cell division or the formation of specialized structures like hormogones, tubers or adventitious branches. Asexual reproduction happens through the formation of spores like zoospores, aplanospores or autospores which develop into new algae. Sexual reproduction includes isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy where gametes fuse to form zygotes or oospores that develop into new organisms. Sexual reproduction provides benefits like increasing genetic diversity and adaptation to changing environments.
Lichens are symbiotic organisms consisting of a fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium. They come in a variety of forms including crustose, foliose, and fruticose. The fungal partner, called the mycobiont, is dominant and provides structure and protection. The algal partner, or phycobiont, is photosynthetic. Lichens can reproduce sexually through structures like apothecia, or asexually through soredia, isidia, or fragmentation. They are classified based on habitat, morphology, and type of partners. Lichens are widely distributed and play an important ecological role.
Evolution of plants through different geological time scaleATHIRA RAVINDRAN
The document summarizes the evolution of plants through geological time based on the fossil record. It discusses how early land plants evolved from green algae and were initially small thalloid organisms. Over time, plants developed vascular tissues, leaves, roots, seeds and other structures that allowed them to diversify and form forests. Major developments included the evolution of trees in the Devonian period and the appearance of seed plants in the Triassic period. The evolution of seeds was a key innovation that drove the spread of plants into new habitats.
This document provides information on the Menispermaceae plant family. It discusses their systematic position as flowering plants in the order Ranunculales. The family contains 68 genera and around 440 species of mostly woody climbing plants found in tropical areas. They have alternate leaves and unisexual flowers. Economically important alkaloids used in traditional medicine and as poisons on darts can be derived from plants in this family, such as tubocurarine from curare vines.
1. Sacred groves are forest patches protected by indigenous communities due to religious beliefs that conserving them maintains an important relationship between humans and the divine or nature.
2. Sacred groves are found worldwide but are especially common in India, where an estimated 14,000 groves exist and harbor rare species. They provide ecological benefits like biodiversity conservation and socio-cultural importance to local communities.
3. However, sacred groves face threats from urbanization, overexploitation of resources, and environmental destruction from religious practices. Conservation efforts are needed to protect their biodiversity and ecological services to local people.
Hunters and gatherers as well as Agricultural societiesgmatebele
Hunters and gatherers like the San or Basarwa community live nomadic lifestyles, moving in small groups between 20-50 people in search of wild fruits, vegetables, and animals. The document describes how they build temporary huts and forage from their local environment to survive. It also discusses their cultural practices like religious ceremonies, rock paintings, and how work is divided along gender lines between men who hunt and women who gather food.
Hunters and gatherers like the San or Basarwa community live nomadic lifestyles, moving in small groups between 20-50 people in search of wild fruits, vegetables, and animals. The document describes how they build temporary huts and forage from their local environment to survive. It also discusses their cultural practices like religious ceremonies, rock paintings, and how work is divided along gender lines between men who hunt and women who gather food.
Sacred groves play an important role in conserving biodiversity in India. They preserve many rare and endangered plant and animal species. Sacred groves originate from the close ties between indigenous religions, cultures, and nature. They are protected by traditional beliefs and restrictions. However, sacred groves now face threats from declining traditions, population growth, urbanization, and lack of legal protections. Conservation strategies aim to safeguard these areas and their biodiversity through community engagement and new laws.
Running Head RESEARCH QUESTIONRESEARCH QUESTION.docxtoltonkendal
Running Head: RESEARCH QUESTION
RESEARCH QUESTION
Research Question
(Name)
(University Affiliation)
Research Question
'Are the apparent needs of the patients and users of Cleveland Clinic being met?'
'If not, what needs to be done if these needs are to be met in the future?'
The independent variable here is the needs while the patients are the dependent variables.
Hypothesis
The perceived needs of the patient and users of Cleveland Clinic are being met.
Associative or casual
The Associative hypothesis proposes the relationships between variables. In this case when one variable changes, the other one has to change too. The above hypothesis meets this category since the needs and patients have a relationship which brings forth the outcome.
Simple or complex
In this case, we have a simple hypothesis since it's only predicting the relationship between a single variable (Needs) and a single dependent variable (Patients and users)
Non-directional vs directional
In this category, our hypothesis is non-directional since it predicts the independent variable (needs) will affect the dependent variable (Patients and users), but the direction of the effect is not specified.
Null vs Research
In our case, this is a research hypothesis since we not interested in any statistical outcome but the relationship that is existing between variables; Needs and patients.
References
Parahoo, A. K (1997). Nursing Research: Principles, Process & Issues, London, Macmillan Press
Forthcoming SUNY University Press, copyright 2016 – Do not disseminate
1
Balance and a Bean: Restoring Himdag through Traditional Farming and Sacred Knowledge
Dr. Andrea McComb Sanchez
In the summer of 2013, Tohono O’odham Community Action (TOCA) released the
inaugural issue of their magazine, Native Foodways. TOCA was formed in 1996 as an
independent grassroots organization, “dedicated to creating a healthy, culturally vital and
sustainable community on the Tohono O’odham Nation.”1 This magazine, one of the many
projects TOCA is involved in, is about creating “a tool for sharing between and among all people
committed to the revitalization of Native food, culture, and community.”2 Among those who
contributed to this ground breaking issue were author, activist, and environmentalist Winona
LaDuke; chef and founder of The Native American Culinary Association (NACA) Nephi Craig;
and chef, author, and Native foods historian Lois Ellen Frank. It contains articles on Hopi and
Coast Salish food traditions, food sovereignty, prickly pear harvesting, and basketry. This
magazine, writes Terrol Dew Johnson, a member of the Tohono O’odham Nation and the
magazine’s Publisher and Editor at Large, “is about more than what we eat.”3 That is because
food itself is about more than sustaining one’s life. Food is connected and in many cases central
to songs, dances, ceremonies, and sacred narratives. It is about personal and communal
wellness ...
This document discusses the complex relationships that different groups in Canada have had with the natural environment. First Nations traditionally had a spiritual relationship with the land and used resources sustainably to support their communities. In contrast, settlers often utilized the environment for economic gains and development. How groups interact with the land stems from their differing historical approaches and reasons for relating to the environment. The deer antler symbolizes these nuanced interrelationships between Canadians and the natural world.
The document summarizes a study conducted on the indigenous healing practices of Aeta communities in Bataan, Philippines. It explored the traditional knowledge of Aeta healers through discussions and observations of medicinal plants and healing methods. Key findings included that Aeta healers see healing as interconnected with spiritual, emotional and physical well-being. Their knowledge is passed down over generations and remains important to their communities despite modern healthcare options. The study concluded the Aeta women healers can be considered indigenous philosophers as their practices are rooted in their worldviews and provide cultural identity and agency.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Sacred natural sites are natural features like mountains, forests, rivers, lakes, or springs that have special spiritual significance to people and communities. They support important biodiversity and are connected to cultural values, traditions, and institutions, often relating to mainstream religions or indigenous beliefs. Sacred sites play an important role in conservation by representing ancient cultural values and caring for nature. Their protection has been recognized internationally by agreements like the Convention on Biological Diversity. However, sacred natural sites face threats from factors like population growth, erosion of traditional cultures, and climate change.
The passage discusses the relationship between Christianity and ecology. It notes that traditionally Christians have viewed nature as being for human use, but some argue this has contributed to environmental problems. It suggests rethinking traditional religious views to incorporate more emphasis on environmental sustainability and humanity's responsibility as caretakers of creation.
The major wild animals of India are elephant, tiger, lion, deer, bear etc. Wild animals are very important in balancing the environment. They provide stability to different natural processes of nature. It can be found in all ecosystems, desert, rain forests, plains and other areas.
An investigation into the effect of religious norms as aAlexander Decker
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Totem, Taboos and sacred places: An analysis of Karanga people's environmental conservation and management practices
1. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention
ISSN (Online): 2319 – 7722, ISSN (Print): 2319 – 7714
www.ijhssi.org ||Volume 4 Issue 11 || November. 2015 || PP.07-12
www.ijhssi.org 7 | P a g e
Totem, Taboos and sacred places: An analysis of Karanga
people’s environmental conservation and management practices.
1
Makamure Clemence, 2
DR Vengesai Chimininge
1
Programme Leader and Lecturer in the Department of Religious Studies and Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts
and Education at Zimbabwe Open University
2
Lecturer and Chairperson of the Department of Religious Studies and Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts and
Education at Zimbabwe Open University
ABSTRACT : The Karanga people who occupy parts of Masvingo and Midlands provinces since time
immemorial had mechanisms to preserve and manage their local environment. Their beliefs and practices are
environmentally friendly. In their day to day life encounters, the Karanga people try to conserve and manage
the environment. The Karanga people believe that environmental protection and management is sanctioned by
the creator God and the ancestors of the land. Their religion is centred on relationships with living people,
spirits of the dead, animals, land and plant life. Their relation to land, animals, plant life and water bodies has
been and is still environmentally conservative in nature. It is in light of this background that this paper seeks to
examine some of the beliefs and practices of the Karanga people which lead to the conservation and
management of the natural environment. Interviews, personal observations and documentary analysis shall be
used to glean data for this paper
I. Introduction
The Karanga are a group of Shona speaking people who occupy parts of Masvingo and Midlands provinces in
Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe is a country which is land locked between Zambia to the north, Malawi to the northeast,
Botswana to the west, South Africa to the south and Mozambique to the east. Masvingo is a Province in
Zimbabwe found in the south-eastern section of the landlocked country. It borders Mozambique on its eastern
border and the provinces of Matabeleland South to the south Midlands to the north and west and Manicaland to
the north east. The province is largely populated by members of the Karanga tribe, who are the most populous
tribe in Zimbabwe. Masvingo is divided into seven administrative districts, which are Bikita, Chivi, Zaka and
Masvingo in the center of the province, Gutu in the north, and Mwenezi, and Chiredzi in the south and east
respectively. All these seven districts are inhabited by the Karanga people. This paper gives a special focus on
the karanga people in Masvingo province necessarily because it where the researchers of this paper were born.
Apart from this most parts of the province are remote and inaccessible that little meaningful research has been
done in the area. The karanga have a strong belief in Mwari their god who is approached through the
intermediaries known as Vadzimu (spirit mediums). For them, Mwari is the owner of the land and everything in
it. The environment belongs to the spirits. The land is sacred because it belongs to the ancestors. In their belief
systems the karanga attitude to the environment are primarily about the power and relation with spirits. For
them, there is a causal relationship between the moral condition of the community and its physical environment.
Land is sanctified by its possession by the ancestral spirits whose remains are buried in it. The spirits thus, look
after their property, the land. So, the romantic view of the karanga people‟s attitude to the environment implies
that the karanga are intrinsically in harmony with nature. The karanga people‟s strong beliefs in ancestral spirits,
taboos, totems and sacred places bear witness to the contention that their practices are meant to conserve and
manage the environment. Their attitude to the environment is based on fear or respect of ancestors. This being
the case therefore, karanga religion is a strong environmental force in the global village. The view of this paper
is that, the Karanga‟s perception to land, animals, and plant life and water bodies is that they contain life which
needs to be preserved. The paper will argue that for the karanga life is sacred. The article will argue that among
the karanga, environmental protection and management is sanctioned by the creator god Mwari and the
ancestors of the land. Rather, the article will argue that Karanga people‟s beliefs and practices are
environmentally friendly. In their day to day life encounters, the Karanga people try to conserve and manage the
environment. Their religion is centred on relationships with living people, spirits of the dead, animals, land and
plant life. Their relation to land, animals, and plant life and water bodies has been and is still environmentally
conservative in nature. It is in light of this background that this paper seeks to examine some of the beliefs and
practices of the Karanga people which lead to the conservation and management of the natural environment.
Interviews, personal observations and documentary analysis were used to glean data for this paper.
2. Totem, Taboos and sacred places: An analysis of Karanga...
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II. Karanga attitudes to nature
The karanga people have bottomless beliefs in the sacrality of the land. They believe that land is the back
(musana) of the ancestors on which nature and humanity are carried. Land is sacred since it is the ancestral land.
It is sacred because it bears the remains of ancestors particularly in the form of graves of the chiefs. For the
karanga, land belongs to the living, the unborn and the dead. Land is sacred that it should not in any
circumstance be sold or transferred to another. It is for this reason that among the karanga no one has liberty to
gather wild fruits, cut down trees, hunt certain animals or pollute certain water bodies in areas or places
regarded as sacred. Basically, karanga religious beliefs play an integral role in determining positive values and
attitudes towards the environment and are a crucial component of any efficacious environmental policy among
the karanga communities. As is argued in this paper Karanga religious beliefs, taboos, totems and sacred places
are a scientific explanation of environmental degradation prevention. The karanga people therefore, have an
anthropocentric worldview. Everything is seen in terms of its relation to human beings (Mbiti, 1969:16). This is
the reason why among the Karanga communities the highest good is to live in harmony with all the sacred
forces or environment. So, human existence for the Karanga remains under the tutelage of the sacred. It is
observed, regulated and promoted by the sacred. The view of this paper is that most animals, plants and other
biological life are imbued with the power of the Great Spirit or ancestors hence are considered to be sacred. The
karanga consider rocks, water bodies and mountains as living beings. This is the reason why before climbing a
particular mountain or entering a particular forest one must ritually ask permission. The karanga perceive most
aspects of nature as kin, endowed with consciousness. Trees, animals, insects and plant are all to be approached
with caution and consideration. The karanga believe that there are spirits in the trees, forests, rivers and so forth.
It is all because of these that the Karanga have their own restrictions and taboos towards particular animals,
trees or water bodies and all these serve the purpose of preserving the natural environment.
III. Karanga taboos as mechanisms to protect the environment
The karanga people have always looked at the environment as a very important and inseparable part of the
human community. For them, the environment is important to the well-being of the individual. Thus, the
communitarian nature of karanga society can be understood in the context of the moral relationship that is struck
between the individual and the environment through the observance of taboos. Such teachings complement and
cement a good moral relationship between the individual person and the environment. The view of this paper is
that Mbiti‟s (1969) maxim that “I am because we are”, though anthropocentric as it characterises the
relationship between the individual and his society, can also be applicable to the relationship between the human
community and the environment. In this context, the society is what it is because of the existence of the
environment that provides it with some of its needs and wants. Tatira (2000) rightly notes that “the Shona
people realise the importance of preserving the environment as a factor in overall development. This knowledge
is manifested in some of the taboos that control child behavior in relation to the environment.” Thus, karanga
taboos are ethical outfits which foster good human relations as well as promoting good relations between human
beings and the natural environment.
Taboos are „avoidance rules‟ that forbid members of the human community from performing certain actions,
such as eating some kinds of food, walking on or visiting some sites that are regarded as sacred, cruelty to
nonhuman animals, and using environmental resources in an unsustainable manner. For the Karanga people,
taboos are understood as specific rules that forbid people from performing certain actions. The violators of the
moral code as contained in taboos are said to invite misfortunes, for themselves and the community at large in
the form of bad luck, disease, drought, and even death.
Taboos (zviera) among the karanga people form integral ingredients of the Karanga environmental ethics.
Among the karanga people, environmental taboos have a pivotal ethical role toward the ontological wellbeing of
the individual person and the environment at large. Prohibitions and restrictions through taboos on unsustainable
use of certain plant species, forests, mountains, rivers, pools and nonhuman animals, among other ecological
species in the ecosystem, is not a new epistemology among the karanga people, rather it reflects a long standing
tradition. At the same time, they are currently very lively and continue to shape karanga environmental ethics.
Although the karanga people have felt the impact of the full weight of the domineering influence of colonisation
and globalization, they have continued to cling on to some of their enchanting values, including taboos. With
regard to the continued relevance of taboos in contemporary karanga communities Gelfand (1973) echoed that
karanga possess much that is worth retaining for the prospects that they save a good deal to the succeeding
generations. Despite the tide of modernity and cultural imports, contemporary karanga communities have hang
about to some of their deep-seated taboos.
For the karanga people, belief in certain avoidance rules (taboos) has moral implications on the human person
and his relation to the environment. According to Tatira (2000) Shona people often use zviera (taboos) as one of
the ways of teaching young members of their society to positively relate to the natural environment. In other
words zviera (taboos), among other karanga practices, encourage conformity to societal expectations on correct
3. Totem, Taboos and sacred places: An analysis of Karanga...
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human behavior towards the environment. So, karanga environmental taboos transcend simple prohibitions on
certain sacred sites, plants and nonhuman animal species, pools, and rivers, among others, and enforce a
desirable and sustainable use of the environment. In this regard, Gelfand (1979) reiterated that a critical study of
avoidance rules entails that correct behavior is being emphasized. Thus taboos were improvised by the karanga
people as mechanisms to promote desirable environmental ethics.
For the karanga, human beings do not live in a moral vacuum; rather, they live, and ought to live, in harmony
with the environment. Therefore, taboos among the karanga, just like those of any other social grouping, must
be understood as moral rules that regulate human behavior, especially as it impacts negatively on the
environment. In this regard, taboos are meant to make the individual adjust his interests so that they conform to
those of the society and the environment at large. It can be proposed that the „I‟ in Mbiti‟s declaration “I am
because we are” should take on board the interests of the individual human persons, while the „we‟ becomes a
broader term referring to the human community and the environment. Such a conception of the relationship
between the human society and the environment foster sound environmental ethics that does not only take into
account the well-being of the individual and his community, but also that of the environment. The environment
should be construed as an end in itself in a similar way that human beings are perceived, rather than viewing it
as a mere means to some human ends. Thus, taboos have an esoteric role towards nature if considered in terms
of their embedded environmental role that they play.
Besides being a source of environmental ethics, karanga taboos also cultivate a concept of wholeness between
the human community and the environment. By and large, observance of the karanga environmental taboos
brings about a sustainable use of the environment and takes into account its wholeness. Thus, Ramose (1999)
notes that: The principle of wholeness applies also with regard to the relation between human beings and the
physical or objective nature. To care for one another, therefore, implies caring for the physical nature as well.
Without such care, the interdependence between human beings and the physical nature would be undermined.
The idea of wholeness of the human being in relation to the environment as enshrined in karanga taboos is
important in fostering a sustainable use and preservation of the various natural resources, such as water sources,
natural vegetation, wildlife, and endangered non-human species.
It is a taboo among the karanga for a person to urinate into water. If one urinates into the water one would
contract bilharzia. This taboo was and is meant to prevent pollution of a water source that could potentially pose
a health threat to human and nonhuman users of this water sources. Water among the karanga is very important
in so far as it is used for domestic purposes, such as drinking, cooking, washing, bathing, and irrigation. Water
contributes significantly towards sustaining the lives of other living things, such as nonhuman animals and
plants. The karanga have the dictum which reads „mvura upenyu’ (water is life). This implies that water is vital
in their day to day life and it needs to be conserved and managed properly. Through these environmental taboos,
the karanga have managed, throughout history, to ensure sustainable conservation and management of water
resources like rivers, wells, springs and water sheds.
The other environmental taboo that tries to protect water bodies is the prohibition to fetch water with a dirty clay
port. The karanga have the maxim that „Ukachera mvura nechirongo chitema, tsime rinopwa’, which means “if
you fetch water with a sooty black pot, the well will dry up”. For this reason people feel obliged to avoid using
sooty black pots to fetch water. It is important to note that this taboo discourages people from using pots that are
blackened by soot from the fireplace. Thus, zvinoera kuchera mvura mutsime nechirongo chitema which means
“it is taboo to fetch water with a pot that has been blackened with soot from the fireplace”. This taboo covers
other water sources such as rivers, dams, and pools. As Aschwanden (1989) sees it, “Pools, springs and swamps
sustain the life of the rivers and they give the vital water. Therefore, such places are regarded as an origin of the
fertility of nature. Also, they safeguard human life and are thus to be especially respected as sacred places.”
Among karanga traditional communities, the well (tsime) is the most common source of drinking water that
deserves high levels of reverence. So, because of that, the well is a very important place that symbolizes
household cleanliness. Such a high standard of cleanliness is a virtue that every individual craves for and ought
to exhibit in one‟s various daily chores. So, taboos are vital among the karanga people for they help in
transmitting values on issues pertaining to hygiene.
Totems as environmental preservation models among the karanga people
A totem is an animal, plant, or natural object (or representation of an object) that serves as the emblem of a clan
or family among a tribal or traditional people. A totem represents a mystical or ritual bond of unity within the
group. In prehistoric societies, totems were key symbols of religion and social cohesion; they were also
important tools for cultural and educational transmission. Totems were often the basis for laws and regulations.
In karanga societies, it is a violation of cultural and spiritual life to hunt, kill or hurt an animal or plant totem.
This attitude has been and is the basis of environmental laws and regulations that existed in karanga societies.
Totems are as sacred as the traditional karanga societies that use them.
4. Totem, Taboos and sacred places: An analysis of Karanga...
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The karanga concept of totems was and is also meant to conserve and manage the environment. For example, if
a person belongs to the patrilineal clan of the Shumba (Lion) totem then he or she is prohibited from eating any
animal from the cat family. It becomes part of that person‟s ethos to avoid enchanting any animal from the cat
family as a source of meat. The karanga people hold that if one eats the totem that one will either fall sick or the
offender will lose all the teeth. Basically, totemism is crucial in extending some moral consideration to
nonhuman animals. Violation of taboos is feared because of the nasty consequences that the offender would
face. The observance of taboos promotes a virtuous life that fosters a desirable environmental ethic, while the
breaking of taboos leads the moral agent to a vicious life that disregards not only the moral standing of the
environment, but also its sustainable use. Within the ecosystem, there are certain rare animal species that are
facing merciless annihilation, such as pythons, pangolins, fish, and rhinoceros. In this regard, the karanga people
have devised strategies of curbing unsustainable use of such animal species by way of totems. Totems prohibit
unsustainable use and cruelty to creatures which one uses as a totem. According to Nemauzhe the headman in
Chivi district said „ukadya mutupo wako, unobva mazino ose muromo ukasara wava hwashu’ which means if
you eat your totem animal, you will lose all your teeth. It is taboo, among the Shona, for one to eat one‟s totem
animal (Bourdillon, 1976). Otherwise, one risks losing one‟s teeth for violating this taboo.
So, the karanga concept of totemism is a strategy that helps to conserve and manage the use of various animal
species and ensure that communities have adequate natural resources for the benefit of both present and future
generations. For Gelfand (1973), these conservation strategies are based on “…the principle of exogamy” where
one group or family among the Shona communities, depending on patrilineal identity, is prohibited from eating
certain animals, birds, and fish species as a way of regulating the human usage of such animals. Duri & Mapara
(2007) noted that taboos concerning totems “…were institutional wildlife conservation measures meant to
preserve various animal species so that they could be saved from extinction due to unchecked hunting.”
Apart from the preservation of animals through totemism there are also other prohibitions which are meant to
protect other animal species. For example, Pomerai reiterated in an interview ukauraya shato, mvura haizonayi
which means “if you kill a python, rain will not fall.” As a rare, blameless, symbolic reptile, the python is
protected by the karanga environmental degradation prohibitions society.
Singer (1985) stated “when we, humans, change the environment in which we live, we often harm ourselves.”
Thus, the wanton destruction of endangered species has adverse effects on, not only such species per se, but also
on human beings at large. Hence, the Shona environmental prohibitions teach people to be mindful of various
animal species and the natural environment. In addition, these taboos teach people to desist from being cruel to
defenceless and harmless creatures within the environment.
Generally, the whole concepts of totemism among the karanga people help conserve and manage the
environment. This is the reason why each clan in the karanga communities has its own animal as a totem. The
fact that people are not to eat any animal in the family of the totem animal would mean that there is reduced
pressure towards the hunting of each animal species depending on the clan‟s totem. Consequences that are said
to befall anyone who eats the totem were safeguarding measures to ensure that the prohibitions are perfectly
observed.
IV. The sacred as environmental conservation mechanisms
The sacred refers to that which is the object of veneration and awe. It refers to restricted or set off sites, objects,
animals and plants. Among the Karanga, a person may be designated as sacred and so can an object or place
which is regarded as extraordinary or unique. The karanga people share with most Shona beliefs in the sacred.
There are different objects, sites, birds, animals and plants that the Karanga regard as sacred. Land itself is
believed to be sacred. It is sacred in so far as it belongs and bears the remains of the ancestors in the form of
graves. Land is also sacred because it is where the people‟s umbilical code is buried. In the karanga
environmental perspective, land belongs to the living, the unborn and the dead. Land is not supposed to be sold
or transferred from one tribe to other.
Forests are also sacred among the Karanga. It is for this reason that chiefs, headmen and Kraal heads authorise
through rituals the gathering of fruits in forests regarded as sacred. Chiefs prohibit the cutting down of certain
trees like muhacha (mobola plum), muonde (fig tree), mushozhowa (psudalachnostylis maprouniflolia) and
other big tress. The sacred sites include certain mountains that members of the karanga communities are
discouraged from visiting, cutting down trees, and hunting wildlife in them. For example, it is believed that the
one who visits or defiles a sacred mountain risks getting temporarily lost or disappearing forever, and, in some
cases, becoming insane. For instance, in Mwenezi district, there is a myth of members of the Zion church who
disappeared after they had visited and tried to conduct a church service at the summit of Hariyeumba Mountain,
which is believed to be sacred. It is perceptible to note that such myths help in ensuring a harmonious
relationship between human societies and the whole of nature. More importantly, there is some ethical import in
the taboos that discourages misuse of the nature‟s resources. Such taboos implicitly inform human beings to
treat and see natural vegetation and wildlife as ends in themselves, rather than assuming the once dominant
western, traditional, homocentric view of ethics, where only the welfare of human beings have intrinsic moral
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worth (Velasquez & Rostankowski, 1985). In this regard, taboos protecting natural vegetation and wildlife foster
an environmental ethic that is not anthropocentric.
The karanga recognises the interconnectedness and coexistence between people and natural vegetation and
wildlife. According to the karanga belief systems, sacred sites, such as mountains, have symbolic importance.
For instance, it is believed that these sacred mountains developed some natural fires as a way of informing
people of the advent of the rainy season. At times, some unusual sounds are heard in some mountains and the
sounds are believed to be sending important messages to the communities at large. For instance, people in Chivi
South belief that Matanha Mountain in Runesu village gives the warning of the coming of the new season with a
loud unusual sound which sound like one pulling a metal object. Kuduva one of the villagers reiterated that the
sound will be heard at the coming of every season and this will be heard for two to three days. As the rain
season approaches, Kuduva said, some unusual noise of cows and calves as well as the whistling of people are
heard in the same mountain. The villagers would then start to get prepared for the rain season as soon as they
hear these unusual sounds. As a result people are not allowed to climb the mountain at want and no tree or
animal in it should be killed Kuduva said. Hunting is strictly prohibited in Matanha Mountain. Those who have
tried to hunt in the mountain have mysteriously lost their dogs or have seen strange phenomena such as a big
snake with human head and at times it is said, they see a big lion. So, because of this belief, it is assumed that if
such sacred areas are tempered with, traditional messages and warnings would be hindered, thereby adversely
affecting the communities. All in all the karanga through these stories have managed to conserve a balance in
nature. Sacred forests and mountains are reserved for certain karanga traditional ceremonies and relevant taboos
help in preserving them. Such taboos discourage people from visiting these sites thereby aiding the cause for a
harmonious living between human beings and the whole of nature. This has helped to maintain the naturalness
of sacred places compared to other areas deemed non-sacred, because people have respected and feared these
areas. This is because sacred places are believed to be the domain of spiritual forces and, therefore, deserving
utmost reverence.
These sacred sites prohibitions function somewhat as nature conservation areas or as nature buffer zones.
Consequently, this contributes to a general respect for nature.
The wanton destruction of forests has far reaching negative consequences on the work of Shona traditional
healers (n‟anga), nonhuman animal welfare, wildlife habitats, grazing areas, and climatic conditions. In essence,
a heightened destruction of natural vegetation leads to deforestation that eventually threatens fauna and flora
through soil erosion and global warming. In this regard, sacred sites taboos are important in curtailing
environmental problems that are human induced.
The karanga people also perform some rituals under muhacha (mobola plum), muonde (fig tree), mumvee
(sausage tree) and mushozhowa (psudalachnostylis maproaniflolia) trees. Important to note is the notion that
rituals have served as environmental conservation derives. Generally tall trees are regarded as sacred because
they are thought to be inhabitants of the spiritual bodies and for this reason trees like muhacha (mobola plum),
muonde (fig tree), mumvee (sausage tree), mukamba and mishuku (mahobohobo tree) are seen standing tall in
the fields in the karanga communities. Mukute (Waterbery) trees also receive sacred revere among the karanga
people. Mukute (Waterbery) tree is regarded as a source of water. If mukute trees are cut the water source would
dry up. If one fell a Mukute (Waterbery) tree, he or she will automatically die or a close relative of the offender
will die. Mkange in an interview said “ukatema mukute unopenga pakarepo nekuti unenge wamhura midzimu
yenzvimbo” this literary mean that “if you fell down a Waterbery tree you will automatically become insane”
The Karanga also regard certain animals as sacred. They disregard the hunting of certain animals like pangolin,
baboons, monkeys, pythons and other defenceless animals in their surroundings. These animals are seen as
personifications of spiritual beings. Among the karanga communities in Zaka and Chivi districts the appearance
of a baboon has many implications. Chikukwa in an interview clearly stated that the appearance of a baboon
which normally moves alone is a warning to the community. In his own words he said “Gudo rinonzi
mugarandonga harifanirwi kuurawa nokuti ndimo munogara midzimu yedu. Ukariona riri mumunda unofanira
kuridzinga zvakanaka kwete kuriuraya.” This means that one should not under any circumstance kill a baboon
which moves not in a group even when you find it in your own field because it symbolises the appearance of the
ancestors. In Chivi district monkeys are not killed at random because they are associated with the territorial
spirits. This is because chief Makovere is of the Shoko totem so by killing a monkey one would have
disrespected the chieftainship of the area. Birds such as hungwe (eagle), chapungu and hwaya (rain bird) are
perceived as conventional messengers from ancestors. People are refrained from killing them.
A critical analysis behind the sacrality of these birds, trees, mountains and animals would indicate that the sole
reason was to preserve them. In the critical sense, tall trees which the Karanga regarded as sacred provide
shelter to both people and animals. So, to safeguard these trees, prohibitions were enforced. Basically, the
karanga belief in the sacrality of the animals serves as a spring board for environmental conservation and
management.
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So, institutional prohibitions, associated with sacred places, objects, birds and animals were designed to develop
positive societal attitudes towards the environment. This also involved restricting the cutting and using of
certain types of vegetation. Although, in the karanga cosmology, the natural vegetation and wildlife are used,
instrumentally, to fulfil men‟s ends, they also have a significant value because of their spiritual significance.
Certain natural vegetation and wildlife are revered because they are believed to be hosts of some spiritual forces.
It is, therefore, taboo to visit or defile sites, objects, birds, forests and mountains that are regarded as sacred.
Among the karanga people, water sources such as pools, rivers, wells, springs and wetlands are regarded as
sacred hence, they are approached carefully. Pools like Gonawapotera, Mupwanezi, Rupati, and Chirinda
springs and wells like Vadore, Chimusvina and Negari are thought to be inhabited by Njuzu (maimed) spirits.
They are also thought to be embedded with other different spirit forces. Bathing, urinating, plucking grass or
defecating in or around these water sources is strictly prohibited. If one defecates in a water source, he or she
will be struck by diarrhoea which will only stop when the offender has consulted a traditional healer and
payment to appease the ancestors is done. The payment can be in a form of a goat which will be ritually killed
and dedicated to the ancestors so as to solicit forgiveness.
An analysis of karanga taboos, totems and sacred places show that deterrence is used as a way of safeguarding
and promoting sustainable use of nature‟s resources. They are mechanisms towards deterring people from
engaging in unwarranted and malicious killing of animals and birds as well as unwarranted destruction of the
natural vegetation and unhygienic practices that may contaminate water sources. Thus, taboos, totems and
sacred places, objects and animals are revered so as to foster environmental awareness thereby protecting nature.
Important to note is the contention that environmental awareness among the karanga people takes a spiritual
dimension in that ancestral spirits (midzimu) are said to be the custodians of nature. This is necessarily because
they have a conscious interest in the way the living interacts with the environment. It is in the karanga belief that
the environment, including water sources, vegetation and animals should be treated with respect since their
misuse may provoke ancestral spirits who may in turn punish the human community with droughts and floods.
Infringement of the prohibitions is believed by the karanga to lead to the suffering of the offender, society, and
the environment. This understanding of environmental ethics emanates from the African communitarian view of
the human person (Menkiti, 2006) where an individual person‟s action can only be understood within the
context of his community.
V. Conclusion
This paper has established that taboos, totems and sacred places have been used as mechanisms to foster a
sustainable use of the environment by the Karanga. It noted that among the karanga people, an unconscious
appreciation of certain environmental taboos, totems and sacred places inform an esoteric environmentally
based knowledge that is meant at a sustainable use of nature‟s resources. The karanga have an environmental
ethic that takes into account the interests of not only sentient beings, but also nature. Although they do not
disapprove of a sustainable use of natural resources, including other living creatures for draught power and food,
they are against wanton destruction of fauna and flora without justification. They also take great exception to the
cruelty of animals because for them, all animals are sentient and therefore deserve to be given moral
consideration. For them, a person who exhibits violent surges through cutting down trees without any need for
them and cruelty to other living creatures lacks morality (unhu). For the karanga people, the natural environment
has certain sacred places that are so indispensable in their religious beliefs, such as mountains, curves, rivers,
grave sites, and forests that ought not to be defiled through undue cutting down of trees that grace them and
killing of other living creatures for the sake of it. Therefore, the karanga cherish a life of living in harmony with
the natural environment and what it holds, as reflected by their tendency to use the environment in a sustainable
way. So, the conservation, protection and management of the environment have been the cornerstone of the
Karanga ethos, culture and traditions. They have developed and maintained traditional knowledge and practices
for the conservation and management of the natural environment. All these were fostered through their religious
beliefs.
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