In the classroom, learners actively process new information by storing it in memory and retrieving relevant information from lessons. George Armitage Miller first proposed the information processing theory and discovered that working memory can hold around seven items. John Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed the multi-store model of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Alan Baddeley later expanded this with the working memory model including the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad. Information processing theory explains how humans encode, store, and retrieve information.

1. THEORY OF INFORMATION PROCESSING
COMPREHENSIVE SUMMARY
In a classroom setting, learners are continually learning and utilizing memory processes
in order to store the information being provided by the instructor. They are also actively retrieving
the information required for the lesson. From an instructor’s standpoint, Information Processing
is used to help learners to further enhance their respective skills and understand the curriculum
presented. A great way for teachers and instructors to practice the information processing skills
of their learners is to test their focusing, information gathering, remembering, and organizing skills.
George Armitage Miller was the first to put forth the idea of the theory of information
processing. He was one of the original founders of cognition studies in psychology. His studies
are based on Edward C. Tolman’s sign and latent learning theories, which propose that learning
is an internal and complex process which involves mental processes (Çeliköz, Erişen, & Şahin,
2019). Miller discovered the capacity of the working memory, which can generally hold up to seven
plus or minus two items. Additionally, he coined the term “chunking” when describing the
functionalities of short-term memory.
Aside from Miller, John William Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin are also associated with the
Cognitive Information Processing Theory. This refers to the proposed multi-stage theory of
memory, which is one of the leading models of information processing theory (Sala, 2007).
Information processing theory is an approach to cognitive development studies that aims to
explain how information is encoded into memory. It is based on the idea that humans do not
merely respond to stimuli from the environment. Instead, humans process the information they
receive. While experts believe that the brain’s mechanisms and functions are relatively simple,
the magnitude and scope of neural networks and their behaviors are quite powerful as a whole
(Wang, Liu, & Wang, 2003).
These include how the brain processes information. Information processing theory not
only explains how information is captured, but how it is stored and retrieved as well (Çeliköz,
Erişen, & Şahin, 2019). The process begins with receiving input, also called stimulus, from the
environment using various senses. The input is then described and stored in the memory, which
is retrieved when needed.
There are various attempts to develop models of information processing. The two most
popular are the multi-store model by Atkinson and Shiffrin and the working memory model by
Baddeley and Hitch. John William Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed the multi-store model
in 1968 to illustrate their view of human memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1977). The model shows
the three subsections of human memory and how they work together.
Sensory Memory. It holds the information that the mind perceives through various senses
such as visual, olfactory, or auditory information. These sense organs often receive a barrage of
stimuli all the time. However, most are ignored and forgotten by the mind to prevent getting

2. overwhelmed. When sensory information engages and gets the attention of the mind, it is
transferred to short-term memory.
Short-Term Memory (Working Memory). Information in short-term memory only lasts
around 30 seconds. Cognitive abilities affect how individuals process information in working
memory. Additionally, attention and focus on the most important information also play an
important role in encoding it into long-term memory. Furthermore, repetition significantly helps the
ability to remember details for a long time.
Long-Term Memory. It is thought that long-term memory has an unlimited amount of
space as it can store memories from a long time ago to be retrieved at a later time. Various
methods are used to store information in the long-term memory such as repetition, connecting
information, relating information to meaningful experience or other information, and breaking up
the information into smaller chunks.
Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed the model of working memory back in 1974. They
provided an in-depth understanding of the mind and how it processes information. Four more
elements are added to further illustrate the information processing theory (Goldstein & Mackewn,
2005), namely:
Central executive. It is considered the control center of the mind where information
processes are regulated between various memory stores. It controls and implements the cognitive
processes that encode and retrieve information. Additionally, the central executive receives
information from the visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and phonological loop. The frontal
lobe of the brain is thought to house the central executive, as this is where all active decisions are
processed.
Phonological loop. It works closely with the central executive and holds auditory
information. Furthermore, it is composed of two sub-components: Phonological store – It holds
auditory information for a short period. Articulatory rehearsal process – It stores the information
for longer periods of time through rehearsal (Baddeley & Hitch, 2019).
Visuospatial sketch pad. It is considered another part of the central executive that holds
spatial and visual information. It helps the mind imagine objects and maneuver through the
environment.
Episodic buffer. Baddeley later added the fourth element of the model, which also holds
information. It increases the capability of the mind to store information. He believed that the
episodic buffer transfers information between short-term memory, perception, and long-term
memory. As it is still relatively new, research is still conducted as to its specific mechanisms
(Goldstein & Mackewn, 2005).
In addition, Craik and Lockhart’s Level of Processing Model and Parallel-Distributed
Processing Model and Connectionist Model were an additional models created to expand this
theory. The first of these was created by Craik and Lockhart in 1973. Their levels of processing
theory states that the ability to access information in long-term memory will be affected by how
much it was elaborated upon. Elaboration is the process of making information meaningful so it
is more likely to be remembered. People process information with different levels of elaboration

3. that will make the information more or less likely to be retrieved later. Craik and Lockhart specified
a continuum of elaboration that starts with perception, continues through attention and labeling,
and ends at meaning.
Second, the parallel-distributed processing model and connectionist model contrast to the
linear three-step process specified by the stage theory. The parallel-distributed processing model
was a precursor to connectionism that proposed that information is processed by multiple parts
of the memory system at the same time. This was extended by Rumelhart and McClelland’s
connectionist model in 1986, which said that information is stored in various locations throughout
the brain that is connected through a network. Information that has more connections will be
easier for an individual to retrieve.
The benefits of Information processing theory can be extended beyond individuals. Just
like a human mind, an organization is also an entity that processes information as part of its critical
functionalities. As such, the concepts in the information processing theory can be applied to
organizations. By understanding how information is processed in a task, organizations can reduce
uncertainty. The greater the uncertainty, the more information needs to be processed by the
decision-makers in order to fully execute the task and understand its implications (Galbraith,
1974).
On the other hand, when enough information related to the task is processed, it becomes
well understood even before its execution. As such, many of its steps can be preplanned, which
improves efficiency, resource management, and change management. Furthermore, relevant
strategies can be formulated to take advantage of opportunities and minimize potential issues.
Prepared by:
VIGE Y. ALVARADO
Ph.D Student

4. References:
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Baddeley, A. (2006). Working Memory. In S. Pickering (Ed.), Working Memory and Education, 1-
31. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012554465-8/50003-x
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (2019). The phonological loop as a buffer store: An update. Cortex,
112, 91-106. https://doi.org10.1016/j.cortex.2018.05.015.
Bouchrika, I. (2022). What is Information Processing Theory? Stages, Models & Limitations.
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Culatta, R. (2022). Information Processing Theory (G. Miller).
https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/information-processing/
Miller, G.A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity
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[Available at http://www.musanim.com/miller1956]
Psychology Research and Reference. "Information Processing Theory."
iResearchnet.com. https://psychology.iresearchnet.com/developmental-
psychology/cognitive-development/information-processing-theory/
Vinney, Cynthia. (2021, December 6). Information Processing Theory: Definition and Examples.
https://www.thoughtco.com/information-processing-theory-definition-and-examples-
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