The theory of knowledge

The Theory of Knowledge
Epistemology as a branch of philosophy that
investigates the origin, nature and methods
and limits of human knowledge cannot be
overemphasized.
Philosophers are concerned with
determining the basis of all knowledge and
to agree upon standards and criteria for
judging the veracity of such claims.

The Theories of Knowledge
A theory is a coherent group of general
prepositions used as principles of
explanation for a class of phenomena. It is a
branch of a science or an art that deals with
its principles and methods and put forth as a
possible explanation of certain relations and
serves as a basis of argument or
experimentation by which the truth is
established.

1. The Objective Theory
This theory asserts that there is a world
outside of ourselves which exists. This outer
world has qualities of its own. These qualities are
not determined by the various sense organs or
the mental condition and analytical capability
of the perceiver. These are the physical objects
outside of or beyond ourselves which are lent
to the perceiver.

John Locke refers to this as “Copy Theory”
or “Representative Realism”

There are two pieces of evidence that are
cited as references of the objective theory in
relation to the theory of knowledge: 1) Sense
Experience; 2) Reflection. These are
characterized by our awareness of something
which may not be outside of or our beyond
ourselves.

Sometimes we are not even aware that
something in our minds exists. What exists is
either sensible or intelligible; and thus
knowledge is the knowledge and sensation is
the sensible.
Two kinds of knowing: 1) Perceptual Knowing
– concerned with the sensing of particular
things, and 2) Conceptual Knowing –
concerned with the recognition of universal
identities

Sensation is always true, though what
imagination creates may often be false.
Because sensations are always true, knowledge
based on true sensation is always true as well. It
is through the repetition of individual sensation
that the knowledge of the universal emerges in
thinking.

2. Conception Theory
The knowing of universal forms which are
expressed in class concept of plant, birds, and
human beings, begins with sensation but is
completed in the intellect by way of memory
which enables the knower to identify that
which is the same in varied experiences.

According to Aristotle, repeated memories
of the same thing give rise to experience;
because the memories, though numerically
many, constitute a single experience”.
Experience that is universal when established as
a whole in the soul – the one that corresponds
to the many, the unity that is identifiably
present in them.

It is that universal manifested in the form of
the particular that enables us to recognize
what we are sensing. Particulars are objects
and their attributes get their identities by the
way of the definitions of the universals for the
individual’s change and come and go while
essences are potentially in the intellect and
become actual experience.

Human Beings possess two intellects: 1)
Passive, records particular sensations; 2) Active,
identifies the universal in particular sensation.
The passive intellectual becomes all things and
the active intellect makes all things.

The passive intellect is related to sense
perception and perishes as a body and sense
perish.
Aristotle analyzes two kinds of certain
knowledge: 1) scientific knowledge which
provides facts; 2) intuitive apprehension which
scientific knowledge of facts and particulars
occurs.

Other source of Knowledge
Custom – is a group pattern of habitual activity
usually transmitted from one generation to
another. It is a habitual practice and the usual
way of acting in a given circumstances of a
certain environment.
Traditions – is the handling down of statement,
beliefs, legends, and custom from generation
to generation especially by words of mouth or
by practice.

Sense Perception – This is inherent capacity of
any of the faculties, as sight, hearing smell,
taste, or touch by which man perceive stimuli
from outside and inside the body.
Intuition – This is a direct perception of fact and
truth, which is independent of any reasoning
process and considered one possible source of
knowledge

Intuition – According to Carl Jung, a
psychologist, this is “thinking which is done on
the level of unconsciousness”. On the other
hand, Henri Bergson, renowned French
Philosopher, referred to intuition as a “dynamic
process of thought which penetrated the static
limitation of logic”.

Authority – Testimonies by individuals who are
considered authorities in their specialized fields
and verified facts from exceptional and
extraordinary fields of various sciences found and
attested by qualifies bodies are sources or our
knowledge.
Reason – faculty or power acquiring intellectual
knowledge, wither by direct understanding of first
principles or by argument to form conclusion,
judgments or inferences from facts and premises.

The Problem of Knowledge
Philosophers have been concerned with finding out
if we can really “know” anything in the sense of
possessing information that is open to questions.
The SOPHISTS, these class of wise men were
extremely doubtful about the possibility of
discovering anything that was really true. The two
leading Sophists – Portagoras and Gorgias, to them
man should no bother to seek what he can never
find, instead, everyone should measure matters
according to his nature and needs, inasmuch as
man alone was the measure of all things. Man
should accept the fact that all his alleged
knowledge was only relative to man’s outlook.

To Socrates, we do not learn anything – we
remember that we already know all the knowledge
of forms or universal already in our mind.
Kinds of Knowledge according to Socrates:
Visible and Intelligible
Opinions
Shadow

The only judgments we were forced to make are
those regarding clear and distinct ideas. We are
compelled to assert to any clear and distinct ideas
and to believe that whatever is clear and distinct
ideas is true.

Barriers in Attaining Knowledge
1. Blind adherence to Authority. This is what referred
to as authoritarianism – a belief that knowledge is
acquired and validated by way of complete
subjection to authority, devoid of effort to find out
what is true or false.
2. Propaganda. This is a deliberate and methodical
strategy of spreading unfounded and misleading
information or ideas to influence and control the
minds of the followers to adhere to a certain
belief or ideology of a particular movement or
organization.

3. Prejudice. This is an unfavorable opinion or feeling
without justifiable grounds or adequate
knowledge or information on the issue or subject.
An individual with prejudice is emotionally
charged. He thinks and reasons resulting from
some judgment and action according to his self –
interest.
4. Fallacies in reasoning. A fallacy is any sort od
mistake in reasoning or inference. It is a deceptive
arguments that seems conclusive and valid but
actually false. (Ambiguity: Major source)

Contextual Fallacies. Do not depend on
grammatical misuses of language, or upon formal
mistakes in reasoning. They depend on context in
which the utterance is made.
Linguistic Fallacies. Based on the structure and
consistency of an arguments, examples of which are
those dealing with play on words.
Material Fallacies. Errors are based on the
content of the argument that is apparently faulty
with misleading evidence or an appeal to feeling
instead of reason based on logic.

The theory of knowledge

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