The Impact of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident on the Environment, and Consequential Effects on Japanese Energy Policy

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2332688

The
Impact
of
the
Fukushima
Daiichi
Nuclear
Power
Plant
Accident
on
the

Environment,
and
Consequential
Effects
on
Japanese
Energy
Policy

On
March
11,
2011,
the
Great
East
Japan
Earthquake
triggered
a
tsunami
that

traveled
almost
ten
kilometers
on
land.
The
9.0
magnitude
earthquake
and
40.5

meter-‐high
tsunami
were
the
highest
recorded
in
Japanese
history
(Hamada
and

Ogino
2012).
Tokyo
Electric
Power
Company
(TEPCO)
had
six
boiling
water
type

nuclear
power
reactors
operating
in
the
Fukushima
Daiichi
Nuclear
Power
Plant

(FDNPP),
which
were
equipped
with
sea
defenses,
but
these
defenses
were
not

adequate
for
the
tsunami
that
struck.
The
reactors
were
immediately
shut
down,
but

the
tsunami
demolished
the
reactor’s
backup
power
system,
causing
the
cooling

system
to
malfunction
(Ohta
2012).
Despite
efforts
to
inject
water
into
the

overheated
reactor
cores
in
an
attempt
to
cool
the
system
manually,
hydrogen

explosions
occurred
in
three
of
the
reactors,
releasing
a
multitude
of
radionuclides

into
the
atmosphere
(Saito
et
al.
2014).
The
consequences
of
the
FDNPP
incident

raised
concerns
regarding
the
well-‐being
of
the
environment
due
to
impacts
from

radionuclides,
as
well
as
questions
of
what
direction
Japan’s
energy
policy
would

head
in
after
such
a
severe
nuclear
power
related
incident.

Of
the
radionuclides
released,
131I,
133Xe,
134Cs,
and
137Cs
were
detected,
with

half-‐lives
of
5.24
days,
8.02
days,
2.07
years,
and
30.17
years,
respectively
(Sohtome

et
al.
2014;
Povinec
et
al.
2013;
Ohta
et
al.
2012).
133Xe
had
the
highest
initial

activity,
estimated
by
Povinec
(2013)
to
be
between
13,000
to
20,000
PBq,
but

disappeared
quickly
due
to
its
relatively
short
half-‐life.
Additionally,
131I
and
134Cs

had
the
biggest
effect
on
the
external
effective
dose
immediately
following
the

accident,
but
when
these
concentrations
started
to
diminish,
137Cs
became
the
most

prominently
detected
radionuclide.
137Cs
has
shown
to
be
a
significant
concern
due

to
its
long
half-‐life,
which
is
substantially
longer
than
that
of
any
radionuclide

emitted
by
the
FDNPP
and
causes
chronic,
low-‐level
exposure
to
radiation
(Taira
et

al.
2012).

Radionuclides
entered
the
earth’s
system
via
both
dry
and
wet
deposition

from
the
atmosphere
and
also
directly
via
waterways
from
the
damaged
reactors

(Yasunari
et
al.
2011).
FDNPP’s
reactors
were
cooled
with
seawater,
and
due
to
the

damage
of
the
accident,
large
volumes
of
contaminated
water
was
leaked
into
the

ocean
(Sohtome
et
al.
2014).
TEPCO
estimated
that
the
520-‐ton
flow
of
water
from

the
reactor
to
the
open
ocean
contained
2.8
PBq
131I,
.940
PBq
134Cs
and
.940
PBq
of

137Cs

in
the
period
between
1
–
6
April,
2011
(Hamada
and
Ogino
2012).
It
is

difficult
to
estimate
the
concentration
of
radionuclides
in
the
ocean,
as
they
dilute

upon
hitting
the
water.

Radiocesium
from
FDNPP
was
mostly
deposited
into
the
North
Pacific
Ocean,

where
it
was
then
moved
eastward
by
surface
currents
and
then
southward
through

the
Kuroshio
Extension
Current
(Kumamoto
2015).
There
is
a
significant
concern
in

how
the
presence
of
radionuclides
in
the
oceans
will
effect
the
safety
of
seafood.
The

Ayu
Plecoglossus
is
a
herbivorous
fish
that
is
a
significant
food
source
for
both

humans
and
bird
species,
and
is
thus
a
good
indicator
of
how
these
radionuclides,

particularly
137Cs,
will
travel
through
the
food
chain.
Ayu
graze
on
algae
on
the

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bottom
of
riverbeds,
where
particles

of
radiocesium
had
gathered
after

the
Fukushima
accident.
While

concentrations
of
radiocesium
in
the

muscles
and
internal
organs
of
Ayu

have
decreased
since
the
accident
in

2011,
indicating
a
decrease
in
the

risk
of
radiocesium
moving
up
the

food
chain,
the
sediment
at
the

bottom
of
rivers
still
act
as
a

considerable
source
of
radionuclide

exposure.
Radiocesium
is
highly

insoluble
and
its
granular
nature

interacts
strongly
with
clay

minerals,
causing
it
to
physically

attach
to
sediment,
making
removal

extremely
difficult
(Niimura
et
al.

2015;
Tsuboi
et
al.
2015).

It
is
estimated
that
the
22%

of
137Cs
emitted
from
the
accident

deposited
over
Japanese
land
is

likely
to
stay
there;
radiocesium
is

strongly
adsorbed
by
micaceous
clay

minerals,
which
tightly
hold
the

radiocesium
within
the
soil,
causing

it
to
stay
there
for
many
years

(Kumamoto
et
al.
2015;
Yasunari
et

al.
2011).
Radiocesium
has
high

biological
availability
and
the

primary
pathway
for
exposure
to

cesium
is
through
ingestion.

Despite

its
tight
adsorption
to
clay
minerals,

there
is
some
transfer
of

radiocesium
to
edible
parts
of
crops

via
plant
root
uptake
(Takeda
et
al.

2014).
However,
this
transfer
has

been
shown
to
decrease
rapidly
in
a

short
period
of
time.
Fujimura
et
al.

(2015)
studied
the
transfer
factor

(a
measurement
estimating
the

concentration
of
radionuclides
in

plants)
of
137Cs
in
rice,
and
found

that
it
decreased
67%
in
one
year,
and
it
decreased
exponentially
to
0
in
just
3
to
4

years,
suggesting
that
clay
minerals
prevented
the
uptake
of
the
radiocesium.

Figure
1.
Distribution
of
air
dose
rates
taken
by
car-‐borne

surveys
from
June
4
–
13,
2011
(Andoh
et
al.
2015)

Figure
2.
Distribution
of
air
dose
rates
taken
by
car-‐borne

surveys
from
November
5
–
December
10,
2012
(Andoh
et

al.
2015)

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Due
to
the
adsorption
of

137Cs
by
micaceous
clay
minerals,
it

has
a
very
low
chance
of
seeping

from
the
soil
into
the
groundwater.

Studies
done
after
the
Chernobyl

nuclear
power
plant
accident

(CNPP)
and
from
atmospheric

weapons
tests
in
the
50s
and
60s

have
shown
that
the
downward

movement
of
137Cs
decreases

significantly
within
a
matter
of
years

due
to
its
fixation
to
soil
particles

(Takahashi
et
al.
2015).
A
majority

of
the
radiocesium
becomes
trapped

within
the
top
1
cm
of
soil
and
will

not
travel
much
further
downwards

(Yasunari
et
al.
2011).
Due
to
this

limited
movement,
the
137Cs
is
likely
to
only
move
18
cm
within
300
years,
which

constitutes
10
half-‐lives.
This
is
comparatively
less
movement
than
was
seen
after

the
dropping
of
the
atomic
bomb
at
Nagasaki,
where
137Cs
moved
downward
30
cm

within
40
years
(Ohta
2012).

Car-‐borne
surveys
enabled
the
compilation
of
very
precise
data
relating
to

the
airborne
spread
of
radionucldies
after
the
accident
and
the
air
dose
rate.
Figures

1
and
2
show
how
the
areas
of
high
dose
rates,
with
Figure
1
showing
movement

from
June
4
-‐13,
2011
and
Figure
2
illustrating
November
5
–
December
10,
2012.

The
difference
in
these
illustrations
highlights
the
dissipation
of
radionuclides
out

away
from
Fukushima
and
the
decrease
in
severity
of
dose
rates
over
time
(Andoh

et
al.
2015).

When
compared
to
a
map
showing
the
deposition
of
137Cs
on
June
14,
2011

(Figure
3),
it
is
clear
to
see
that
there
is
marked
overlap
between
areas
of
high
dose

rate
and
high
concentrations
of
137Cs
(measured
in
kBq/m2).
This
follows
with

conclusions
made
by
Saito
et
al.
(2015),
whom
stated
that
radiocesium
had

substantially
higher
radiation
doses
than
the
other
radionuclides
emitted
from

FDNPP,
and
was
found
to
create
an
external
effective
dose
rate
greater
than
the

public
dose
limit
of
1
mSv
y-‐1,
(Taira
et
al.
2012).

The
Chernobyl
Nuclear
Power
Plant
(CNPP)
accident
of
1986
and
previous

radionuclide
emissions
from
atomic
weapons
testing
in
the
50s
and
60s
provide

critical
information
on
the
behavior
and
movements
of
radiocesium
through
time.

Povinec
et
al.
(2013)
created
a
model
using
137Cs
patterns
from
the
CNPP
accident

and
nuclear
weapons
testing
to
predict
what
path
FDNPP
radiocesium
would
take.

This
model
concluded
that
137Cs
activity
would
not
exceed
20
Bq/m3,
a
level
of

activity
similar
to
the
observed
activity
from
atmospheric
nuclear
weapons
tests.

This
information
enabled
the
conclusion
that
the
global
population
does
not
face
a

risk
of
radiation
from
consumption
of
seafood
from
the
Fukushima
region.

Based
on
conclusions
from
the
literature
on
the
environmental
impacts
of
the

FDNPP
accident,
it
can
be
determined
that
the
environmental
risks
posed
by

Figure
3
Deposition
density
of
137Cs
on
June
14,
2011

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2332688

radionuclides
are
substantial,
but
not
astronomical.
While
there
is
still
a
significant

concern
over
the
long-‐term
presence
of
137Cs,
there
are
recorded
decreases
in
air

dose
rates,
concentrations
of
radionuclides
in
marine
biota,
and
in
edible
portions
of

crops,
and
there
is
evidence
showing
that
groundwater
is
highly
unlikely
to
become

contaminated.

Additionally,
information
on
radionuclide
concentration
and
activity
from

the
CDNPP
accident
and
atmospheric
atomic
weapons
testing
enables
the

comparison
of
the
detriment
of
the
FDNPP
accident.
When
put
into
perspective
with

the
CDNPP
accident
and
weapons
testing,
the
impact
of
the
FDNPP
accident
seems

less
severe;
the
Nuclear
and
Industrial
Safety
Agency
(NISA)
estimated
that
the
total

emitted
radiation
of
the
CNPP
accident
measured
to
be
about
5,200
PBq
(Hamada

and
Ogino
2012),
while
radiation
from
atmospheric
nuclear
weapons
testing
was

measured
at
about
2,000
PBq
(Povinec
et
al.
2013).
Recently,
TEPCO
released
a

statement
stating
that
more
radionuclides
were
released
from
the
accident
than

previously
imagined,
reporting
radiation
levels
of
just
over
1,000
PBq
(TEPCO

2012).

Since
the
accident,
all
nuclear
reactors
were
decommissioned
and
Japanese

citizens
have
firmly
opposed
resuming
nuclear
operations.
As
the
world’s
fifth-‐
largest
energy
consumer
(Vivoda
2012),
it
stands
in
a
precarious
position
as
an

importer
of
95%
of
total
energy
consumption
(Hong
et
al.
2013).
Previously,
30%
of

the
country’s
electricity
was
generated
from
nuclear
power
(Hayashi
and
Hughes

2013),
and
prices
in
electricity
experienced
an
incredulous
increase
in
the
absence

of
nuclear
power.
The
Japanese
government
is
now
left
with
the
daunting
task
of

creating
an
energy
scheme
that
is
affordable,
substantial,
and
sustainable.

In
June
of
2010,
the
Japanese
government
devised
the
Basic
Energy
Plan,

which
devised
a
set
of
energy
and
emissions
goals,
including
a
goal
to
increase
its

use
of
nuclear
energy
to
50%,
while
receiving
70%
of
its
electricity
through
zero-‐
emission
sources
by
2030,
which
would
cut
its
emissions
by
25%
(Hayashi
and

Hughes
2013).
These
goals
became
unrealistic
with
the
decommissioning
of
the
54

nuclear
power
plants.
While
nuclear
power
constituted
only
30%
of
the
nation’s

power,
28%
was
from
liquid
natural
gas
(LNG),
25%
from
coal,
and
13%
from

petroleum
(Meltzer
2011).
In
a
scenario
whereby
Japan
completely
abandons

nuclear,
one
or
more
of
these
sources
would
need
to
be
greatly
increased
to
meet

the
energy
deficit,
placing
economic
pressures
on
the
country
and
backpedaling
on

environmental
goals.

In
the
wake
of
the
FDNPP
accident
in
2011,
the
former
prime
minister,
Naoto

Kan
declared
that
Japan’s
energy
policy
would
receive
a
complete
overhaul.
He

proposed
a
new
energy
scheme
that
would
promote
solar
and
renewable
energies,

having
them
generate
20%
of
the
nation’s
power
by
2020
(Vivoda
2012).
Zero-‐
carbon
sources
such
as
photovoltaics
or
wind
turbines
are
highly
appealing,
but
are

severely
costly;
in
Japan,
the
price
of
electricity
from
photovoltaic
panels
is
twice
as

high
for
homeowners
and
five
times
as
high
for
businesses,
diminishing
the

practicality
of
the
source.
While
more
economically
feasible,
wind
turbines
face
a

tipping
risk
in
an
area
that
experiences
a
multitude
of
hurricanes
(Meltzer
2011).

Recently,
in
the
absence
of
nuclear
power
generation,
Japan
has
been
forced

to
increase
reliance
on
LNG
and
coal,
which
greatly
interferes
with
its
climate

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change
goals.
These
imported
fuel
sources
are
costly
and
have
caused
the
price
of

electricity
in
Japan
to
greatly
increase
(The
Economist
2014).

Japan
has
several
options
for
proceeding
with
its
future
energy
plan:
it
can

play
it
safe
and
choose
to
turn
its
back
on
nuclear
completely,
it
can
reopen
some
of

its
nuclear
reactors
to
help
lessen
the
blow
of
its
energy
struggles,
or
it
can
continue

down
the
path
it
forged
with
nuclear
power.

If
Japan
chooses
to
abandon
nuclear
power
all
together,
it
will
have
to

increase
its
dependence
on
other
energy
sources
to
make
up
for
the
30%
of

electricity
previously
generated
by
nuclear
energy.
Hong
et
al.
(2013)
estimates
that

if
Japan
moves
away
from
nuclear
power,
it
will
have
to
increase
its
electricity

production
by
renewable
sources
to
35%
(with
natural
gas
as
a
backup
source),
and

meet
the
rest
of
the
country’s
energy
demand
with
fossil
fuels.

Problems
with
this
projection
immediately
become
evident;
photovoltaics

and
wind
turbines
are
costly
and
impractical
for
Japan
(Meltzer
2011),
the
levelized

cost
of
electricity
will
skyrocket
to
£16/MWh
(Hayashi
and
Hughes
2013),
new

infrastructure
supporting
these
sources
will
need
to
be
built,
and
it
will
greatly

increase
greenhouse
gas
emissions.
The
Intergovernmental
Panel
on
Climate

Change
(IPCC)
set
forward
an
emissions
goal
of
50
-‐150
kg
CO2
MWh-‐1,
and
the

hypothetical
nuclear-‐free
energy
scheme
would
likely
emit
262
kg
CO2
MWh-‐1
due
to

the
increased
reliance
on
fossil
fuels
(Hayashi
and
Hughes
2013;
Hong
et
al.
2013).

These
issues
can
largely
be
avoided
if
Japan
chooses
to
reopen
its
nuclear

reactors.
Hong
et
al.
(2013)
estimates
that
if
Japan
were
to
increase
its
nuclear

power
generation
to
35%,
greenhouse
gas
emissions
would
be
40%
lower
than
in

the
nuclear-‐free
scenario
(only
262
kg
CO2
MWh-‐1).
According
to
a
study
by
the
IEA,

Japan
will
need
to
double
its
generation
of
nuclear
power
by
2050
in
order
for
the

world
to
achieve
the
“international
2
degree
C
warming
goal”
(IEA
2015).
Doing
so

would
decrease
Japan’s
dependence
on
imported
energy,
while
decreasing
the
cost

of
electricity.

The
literature
suggests
that
a
move
toward
nuclear
would
be
strongly
in

Japan’s
favor.
The
rolling
blackouts,
extremely
high
cost
of
electricity,
and
increased

fossil
fuel
emissions
that
are
occurring
as
a
result
of
a
lack
of
nuclear
power
is
in
no

way
in
the
best
interest
of
Japanese
citizens
(Hiranuma
2014;
Hayashi
and
Hughes

2013).
Additionally,
there
are
few
energy
sources
that
are
more
suitable
to
Japan’s

needs
than
nuclear
power,
and
relying
less
on
imported
sources
such
as
LNG
and

coal
would
increase
Japan’s
energy
independence
and
ensure
that
fuel
prices
remain

low
(Economist,
2014a).

The
Japanese
government
seems
to
be
in
agreement
with
a
shift
back

towards
nuclear
power.
In
April
2013,
Prime
Minister
Shinzo
Abe
adopted
the
Policy

on
Electricity
System
Reform,
which
outlined
goals
of
a
stable
supply
of
electricity

with
low
rates.
Almost
a
year
later
in
April
of
2014,
the
Strategic
Energy
Plan
was

updated
to
include
the
“3E
+
S”
strategy,
which
aims
to
enhance
energy
security

while
striving
for
economic
efficiency
and
environmental
sustainability,
all
while

emphasizing
the
importance
of
safety
(Hiranuma
2014).

Since
the
accident,
the

Nuclear
Regulation
Authority
(NRA)
of
Japan
has
been
creating
new
standards
on

nuclear
reactors
in
hopes
of
restoring
public
faith
in
nuclear.

ENVU6EH

2332688

Despite
the
government’s
goals
to
increase
safety
move
towards
a
secure

energy
future,
there
is
still
strong
public
opposition
of
nuclear
power.
Regardless,

the
Japanese
government
is
pursuing
the
reactivation
of
nuclear
reactors.
A
city
in

the
Kagoshima
prefecture
voted
to
reopen
two
nuclear
reactors
in
the
local
Sendai

power
plant,
despite
disapproval
from
the
local
citizenry,
and
is
expected
to
resume

operations
by
the
end
of
2015
(The
Economist
2014a).
Prime
Minister
Shinzo
Abe

recognizes
that
total
reliance
on
nuclear
power
is
still
risky,
and
although
he
has

come
out
as
a
supporter
of
reopening
nuclear
reactors,
he
has
done
so
while
also

stating
that
he
would
like
to
reduce
reliance
on
the
energy
source
as
much
as

possible
(Tsukimori
and
Saito
2015).
The
NRA
approved
the
reactors
in
Sendai

despite
its
location
in
an
active
volcano
area.
Although
the
NRA
has
the
self-‐
proclaimed
most-‐strict
safety
regulations
in
the
world,
citizens
are
skeptical
of
the

agency;
it
seems
unclear
as
to
whether
the
agency
is
simply
driving
the
Abe

administration’s
ambitious
agenda,
or
if
it
is
truly
proceeding
with
the
public’s
best

interests
in
mind
(The
Economist
2014b)

Japan
does
not
have
many
options
when
it
comes
to
the
fate
of
its
idled

reactors.
The
factors
of
electricity
cost,
emissions
goals,
and
energy
availability
are

all
pushing
the
Japanese
government
back
towards
nuclear
power.
If
it
chooses
to

disregard
nuclear
power
completely,
Japan
will
be
faced
with
an
unreasonable
cost

of
electricity
while
spewing
an
irresponsible
amount
of
greenhouse
gasses
from

costly
imported
fossil
fuel
sources
into
the
atmosphere.
It
seems,
then,
that
the

Japanese
government
is
now
stuck
in
a
situation
where
it
can
gamble
the
livelihood

of
its
citizens
with
nuclear
operations,
or
dig
itself
into
an
environmental
and

economic
sinkhole.

Public
opposition
to
resuming
nuclear
operations
is
reasonable;
the
risks

associated
with
nuclear
power
are
severe,
long-‐lasting,
and
dangerous.
In
an
area
so

susceptible
to
natural
disasters,
it
is
not
inconceivable
that
another
string
of
natural

disasters
could
cause
more
complications
with
nuclear
reactors.
However,
a

comprehensive
look
at
the
evidence
shows
that,
while
the
FDNPP
accident
was

serious
and
had
a
series
of
impacts
on
the
integrity
of
the
environment,
scientific

studies
have
shown
that
these
impacts
are
diminishing
and
are
less
severe
than

previously
realized.
The
CNPP
accident
and
atmospheric
weapons
testing
both
had

more
negative
consequences
on
humans
and
the
environment
than
the
FDNPP

accident.
In
order
to
make
meaningful
steps
towards
energy
security,
the
Japanese

government
must
take
these
environmental
impacts
into
account
when
considering

its
stance
on
nuclear
power.

Word
Count:
2,743

ENVU6EH

2332688

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The Impact of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident on the Environment, and Consequential Effects on Japanese Energy Policy

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