The endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. The major endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus and regulates other endocrine glands by producing hormones like TSH, ACTH, FSH, and LH. The thyroid gland, located in the neck, produces the hormones T3 and T4 which increase metabolism under control of TSH from the pituitary.
Structure and Function of
I. Pituitary Gland
II. Thyroid Gland
III. Parathyroid Gland
IV. Adrenal Glands
V. Pancreas
VI. Sex Glands
VII. Thymus
VIII. Pineal Gland
Dr. K. Rama Rao
Govt. Degree College
TEKKALI; Srikakulam Dt. A. P
Phone: 9010705687
Structure and Function of
I. Pituitary Gland
II. Thyroid Gland
III. Parathyroid Gland
IV. Adrenal Glands
V. Pancreas
VI. Sex Glands
VII. Thymus
VIII. Pineal Gland
Dr. K. Rama Rao
Govt. Degree College
TEKKALI; Srikakulam Dt. A. P
Phone: 9010705687
The endocrine system is composed of organs positioned throughout the body in widely separated locations. Endocrinology is the study of the structure and functioning of the endocrine system.
Endocrine Glands. Explaination of different glands.Function of different glands and the disorders caused by the alterations in the level of hormone secreted by the different glands.
The endocrine system is composed of organs positioned throughout the body in widely separated locations. Endocrinology is the study of the structure and functioning of the endocrine system.
Endocrine Glands. Explaination of different glands.Function of different glands and the disorders caused by the alterations in the level of hormone secreted by the different glands.
It includes introduction on endocrine system and detail description of hypothalamus and pituitary gland with functions of various hormones and disorders.
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Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
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- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
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These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
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The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
2. 2
Overview of the Endocrine System
System of ductless glands that secrete
hormones
Hormones are “messenger molecules”
Circulate in the blood
Act on distant target cells
Target cells respond to the hormones for which they
have receptors
Hormones are just molecular triggers
Basic categories of hormones
Amino acid based: modified amino acids (or amines),
peptides (short chains of amino acids), and proteins
(long chains of amino acids)
Steroids: lipid molecules derived from cholesterol
4. 4
Mechanisms
of hormone
release
(a) Humoral: in response to changing
levels of ions or nutrients in the blood
(b) Neural: stimulation by nerves
(c) Hormonal: stimulation received from
other hormones
6. Pituitary gland
It is also known as hypophysis
It is small pea shaped gland, measuring about 1 gm in
weight.
It lies in bony cavity at the base of brain known as Sella
Turcica.
Pituitary gland is connected to hypothalamus by
hypophysial stalk known as infundibulum or pituitary
stalk.
It is divided into 2 parts –
Adenohypohysis or anterior pituitary (75%)
Neurohypohysis or posterior pituitary (25%)
It is divided by small avascular zone called pars
intermedia.
Pituitary gland is slightly larger in females than in males.
6
7. Adenohypophysis-
It is made up of 5 different types of cells.
These cells are responsible for production of 7
major hormones secreted by pituitary gland.
These 5 types of cells are-
Somatotrophs
Corticotrophs
Thyrotrophs
Gonadotrophs
Lactotrophs
7
8. 8
Two divisions:
Anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis)
Posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis)
Sits in hypophyseal fossa: depression in sella turcica of
sphenoid bone
Pituitary secretes 9 hormones
The Pituitary
1. TSH
2. ACTH
3. FSH
4. LH
5. GH
6. PRL
7. MSH
8. ADH (antidiuretic hormone), or vasopressin
9. Oxytocin
_________________________________________________________________
The first four are “tropic”
hormones, they regulate the
function of other hormones
________
10. 10
Hypothalamus controls anterior pituitary by 2 hormones
Releasing hormones (releasing factors)
Secreted like neurotransmitters from neuronal axons
into capillaries and veins to anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis)
TRH-----turns on TSH
CRH-----turns on ACTH
GnRH (=LHRH)---turns on FSH and LH
PRF-----turns on PRL
GHRH----turns on GH
Inhibiting hormones
PIF-----turns off PRL
GH inhibiting hormone ---turns off GH
Hypothalamus control posterior pituitary by nerve signals
11. 11
What the letters mean…
Releasing hormones (releasing factors) of hypothalamus
Secreted like neurotransmitters from neuronal axons into capillaries
and veins to anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
TRH (thyroid releasing hormone) -----turns on* TSH
CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone) -----turns on ACTH
GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) ---turns on FSH and
LH
PRF (prolactin releasing hormone) -----turns on PRL
GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone) ----turns on GH
Inhibiting hormones of hypothalmus
PIF (prolactin inhibiting factor) -----turns off PRL
GH (growth hormone) inhibiting hormone ---turns off GH
These hormones are secreted within the hypothalamus
itself and are brought to the anterior pituitary through
minute blood vessels called hypothalamic hypophysial
portal vessels.
*Note: “turns on” means causes to be released
12. 12
So what do the Anterior Pituitary Hormones do?
Somatotrophs- 30-40% cells of adenohypophysis are
somatotrophs. release hGH- causes growth of cells and
tissues and regulate metabolism. It typically stimulates
liver, muscle, cartilage, bone, and other tissue to
synthesise and secrete insulin like growth factor (IGFs).
These (IGFs) promote of body cells, protein anabolism,
tissue repair, lipolysis, and elevation of blood glucose
level.
Control through- GHRH; GHIH
Thyrotrophs- (5%) release TSH which causes to secrete
thyroxine and triiodothyronine.
Control through- TRH; GHIH
13. `
Corticotrophs- (20%)release 2 basic hormone
ACTH and MSH. ACTH stimulates the
adrenal cortex to produce corticosteroids:
aldosterone and cortisol(glucocorticoids).
MSH stimulates dispersion of melanin in
melanocytes.
Control through- CRH; dopamine.
Gonadotrophs- (4-5%) secretes two powerful
hormone FSH and LH(interstitial cell stimulating
hormone). These two hormones are secreted in
both male and female but have different role.
13
14. FSHfemale stimulates follicle growth and
ovary to produce estrogen;
FSHmalestimulates sperm production by
testes.
LHfemalesecretion of estrogen and
progesterone and promotes ovulation and
formation of corpus luteum.
LHmalestimulates interstitial cell in testes
to produce and develop testosterone.
These 2 hormones are responsible for
development and maturity of gonads.
14
15. Lactotrophs- (3-5 %) secrete prolactin
which promotes development of breast
and milk secretion of mammary glands.
15
16. Functions of hGH
It is also known as somatotropin or
somatotropic growth hormone.
Increase protein synthesis in cells.
Decreased protein breakdown
Stimulates lipolysis in adipose tissue.
Increases utilisation of free fatty acid for
energy.
Decreased rate of glucose utilisation.
Fats are maximally used for production of
energy, amino acids proteins and promotes
growth. 16
17. Disorders related hGH
Hyposecretion dwarfisim in childhood
panhypopituitarism in adulthood.
Hypersecretion giantism/gigantism in
childhood
acromegaly in adulthood
17
18. 18
Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis)
Neurohypophysis is made up of cells called
pituicytes. They stores and releases two major
hormones ADH and Oxytocin.
ADH is formed in supraoptic nuclei of hypothalamus
and oxytocin in paraventricular nuclei of
hypothalamus.
ADH (antidiuretic hormone AKA vasopressin) as the
name indicates it decreases the production of urine
and retains it water in body. Dehydration or low B.P
stimulates synthesis of ADH.
ADH helps in 3 ways-
1. It acts on sweat (sudoriferous) gland and
decreases the secretion of sweat.
19. 2. It causes reabsorption of water in kidneys.
3. It makes vasoconstriction and therefore
increases blood pressure. Therefore known as
vasopressin.
pain, stress, trauma, injury, anxitey and drugs
like morphine, nicotine, Ach stimulates ADH
secretion.
Oxytocin- it is released during pregnancy. As the
concentration of progesterone decreases at the
end of pregnancy, production and release of
oxytocin is increased. It act upon the smooth
wall of uterus causing contraction. It also
stimulate smooth muscle of mammary gland to
contract and eject milk. 19
20. 20
TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone
ACTH: adrenocorticotropic hormone
FSH: follicle-stimulating hormone
LH: luteinizing hormone
GH: growth hormone
PRL: prolactin
MSH: melanocyte-stimulating hormone
ADH: antidiuretic hormone
Oxytocin
TRH (thyroid releasing hormone)
turns on TSH
CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)
turns on ACTH
GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)
turns on FSH and LH
PRF (prolactin releasing hormone)
turns on PRL
GHRH (growth hormone releasing hm)
turns on GH
TSH stimulates the thyroid to produce
thyroid hormone
ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to
produce corticosteroids: aldosterone and
cortisol
FSH stimulates follicle growth and ovarian
estrogen production; stimulates sperm
production and androgen-binding protein
LH has a role in ovulation and the growth
of the corpus luteum; stimulates androgen
secretion by interstitial cells in testes
GH (aka somatrotropic hormone)
stimulates growth of skeletal epiphyseal
plates and body to synthesize protein
PRL stimulates mammary glands in breast
to make milk
MSH stimulates melanocytes; may
increase mental alertness
ADH (antidiuretic hormone or vasopressin)
stimulates the kidneys to reclaim more
water from the urine, raises blood pressure
Oxytocin prompts contraction of smooth
muscle in reproductive tracts, in females
initiating labor and ejection of milk from
Can we put it all together?
Blue is from hypothalamus
Black is from pituitary
22. 22
The Thyroid Gland
Anterior neck on trachea
below to larynx, in front of
2nd ,3rd, 4th tracheal ring.
Two lateral lobes and an
isthmus(middle lobe).
Gland is made up of
follicles and is lined by
cuboidal epithelium which
secretes colloid in lumen.
This colloid contains
protein thyroglobulin
(iodine containing
glycoprotein).
Parafollicular “C” cells:
produce calcitonin
23. Under the influence of TSH follicular cells
Produces two hormones-
Thyroid hormone: tyrosine based with 3 or 4
iodine molecules
T4 (thyroxine/tetraiodothyronine) and T3
(triiodothyronine)
Calcitonin involved with calcium and
phosphorus metabolism.
50mg of iodine is required every year to
produce normal quantity of thyroid hormone.
Iodine is absorbed from GIT, then it is either
excreted into urine or taken up by thyroid
gland and stored in form of thyroglobulin.
80% of body iodine is located in thyroid gland.
23
24. Functions of thyroid hormones
Increase in basal metabolic rate- 240 gm of
glucose release 1000 calories of energy but 1 mg of
thyroid hormone releases 1000 calories of energy.
Effect on growth- promotes physical growth,
development of skeleton, sexual growth, mental growth,
development of brain in fetal life.
Effect on protein, fat, carbohydrate
metabolism- helps in gluconeogenesis, glycolysis,
mobilisation of fat from adipose tissue
Effect on heart- increases heart rate, force of
cntraction, activity of S.A node
Other effects- increases muscle strength but on
excess secretion causes muscle weakness due to
excess protein catabolism. Excessive level causes
impotency.
24
25. 25
Some Effects of Thyroid Hormone
(Thyroxine)
Increases the basal metabolic rate
The rate at which the body uses oxygen to transform
nutrients (carbohydrates, fats and proteins) into
energy
Affects many target cells throughout the body;
some effects are
Protein synthesis
Bone growth
Neuronal maturation
Cell differentiation
26. 26
Adrenal (suprarenal) glands
(“suprarenal” means on top of the kidney)
Each is really two endocrine glands
Adrenal cortex (outer)
Adrenal medulla (inner)
Unrelated chemicals but all help with extreme situations
27. 27
Adrenal Gland
Adrenal cortex-
Made up of 3 zones- zona glomerulosa, zona
fassiculata, zona reticularis
Secretes lipid-based steroid hormones, called
“corticosteroids” – “cortico” as in “cortex”
MINERALOCORTICOIDS
– Aldosterone is the main one
GLUCOCORTICOIDS
– Cortisol (hydrocortisone) is the main one
Adrenal medulla-
It is made up of chromaffin cells. It secretes
epinephrine and norepinephrine
28. 28
Aldosterone, the main mineralocorticoid
Secreted by adrenal cortex in response to
a decline in either blood volume or blood
pressure (e.g. severe hemorrhage)
Is terminal hormone in renin-angiotensin
mechanism
Prompts distal and collecting tubules in
kidney to reabsorb more sodium
Water passively follows
Blood volume thus increases
29. 29
Cortisol, the most important glucocorticoid
(Glucocorticoid receptors are found in the cells of most vertebrate tissues)
It is essential for life
Helps the body deal with stressful situations within
minutes
Physical: trauma, surgery, exercise
Psychological: anxiety, depression, crowding
Physiological: fasting, hypoglycemia, fever, infection
Regulates or supports a variety of important
cardiovascular, metabolic, immunologic, and
homeostatic functions including water balance
People with adrenal insufficiency: these stresses can cause hypotension, shock
and death: must give glucocorticoids, eg for surgery or if have infection, etc.
30. 30
Cortisol, continued
Keeps blood glucose levels high enough to support
brain’s activity
Forces other body cells to switch to fats and amino acids
as energy sources
Catabolic: break down protein
Redirects circulating lymphocytes to lymphoid and
peripheral tissues where pathogens usually are
In large quantities, depresses immune and
inflammatory response
Used therapeutically
Responsible for some of its side effects
31. 31
Hormonal stimulation of glucocorticoids
HPA axis (hypothalamic/pituitary/adrenal axis)
With stress, hypothalamus sends CRH to
anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
Pituitary secretes ACTH
ACTH goes to adrenal cortex where stimulates
glucocorticoid secretion
Sympathetic nervous system can also stimulate it
Adrenal cortex also secretes DHEA
(dehydroepiandrosterone)
Converted in peripheral tissues to testosterone and
estrogen (also steroid hormones)
Unclear function in relation to stress
32. 32
Steroid-secreting cells
have abundant smooth
ER
As opposed to rough ER
in protein-secreting cells
Steroids directly diffuse
across plasma
membrane
Not exocytosis
Abundant lipid droplets
Raw material from which
steroids made
In general:
33. 33
Adrenal medulla
Part of autonomic
nervous system
Spherical chromaffin
cells are modified
postganglionic
sympathetic neurons
Secrete epinephrine
and norepinephrine
Amine hormones
Fight, flight, fright
Vesicles store the
hormones
34. 34
The Pancreas
Exocrine and endocrine cells
Acinar cells (forming most of the pancreas)
Exocrine function
Secrete digestive enzymes
Islet cells (of Langerhans)
Endocrine function
35. 35
Pancreatic islet
endocrine cells
Alpha cells: secrete glucagon
raises blood sugar
mostly in periphery
Beta cells: secrete insulin
lowers blood sugar
central part (are more abundant)
Also rare Delta cells:secrete
somatostatin(GHIH)
inhibits glucagon
36. Diabetes Mellitus
Mostly due to decreased secretion of insulin from
beta cells of islet of langerhans of pancreas
It may due to obesity which causes decrease in
number of insulin receptors target cells in body.
It can be characterised by- hyperglycemia,
glucosuria, polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia etc.
Type 1 diabetes mellitus or IDDM-
Progressive loss of beta cells and in severe case
its fully absent. In this insulin injections are given
to prevent death. Aka juvenile diabetes because
it may occur at the age of 20 and persist life long.
36
37. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus or NIDDM
It is commonest form and genetic factors play
major role in this condition.
Generally observed in children above the age of
4 those are overweight.
In this insulin level in blood is not low bur
condition is due to fact that insulin receptors
becomes less sensitive and even reduce in no.
Beta cells of langerhans are active but problem
is with peripheral action of insulin. Therfore
known as NIDDM. Increased blood glucose level
can be controlled through diet, exercise, weight
loss etc.
37
38. 38
The Gonads (testes and ovaries)
main source of the steroid sex hormones
Testes
Interstitial cells secrete androgens
Primary androgen is testosterone
Maintains secondary sex characteristics
Helps promote sperm formation
Ovaries
Androgens secreted by thecal folliculi
Directly converted to estrogens by follicular granulosa cells
Granulosa cells also produce progesterone
Corpus luteum also secretes estrogen and progesterone
39. 39
Endocrine cells in various organs
The heart: atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
Stimulates kidney to secrete more salt
Thereby decreases excess blood volume, high
BP and high blood sodium concentration
GI tract & derivatives: Diffuse neuroendocrine
system (DNES)
40. 40
Endocrine cells in various organs continued
The heart: atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
Stimulates kidney to secrete more salt
Thereby decreases excess blood volume, high BP and high blood
sodium concentration
GI tract & derivatives: Diffuse neuroendocrine system (DNES)
The placenta secretes steroid and protein hormones
Estrogens, progesterone
CRH
HCG
The kidneys
Juxtaglomerular cells secrete renin
Renin indirectly signals adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone
Erythropoietin: signals bone marrow to increase RBC production
The skin
Modified cholesterol with uv exposure becomes Vitamin D precursor
Vitamin D necessary for calcium metabolism: signals intestine to absorb
CA++