As humans we think all the time because we possess the ability and capacity to do so. However, it is not all types of thinking that is productive or relevant to our own very existence. Although we have the natural abilities to think as humans, this mental ability is an art and a craft. Consequently, the art of correct thinking can be acquired through learning.
There are several different types of thinking such as: creative thinking, design thinking, innovative thinking, positive thinking, and of course critical thinking. For the purpose of this course, we will concentrate on critical thinking.
On the importance of critical thinking skills and how to teach them - presented at the eLearning Consortium of Colorado (eLCC) Conference, April 18, 2014 - Breckenridge, CO
What is thinking and difference between thinking and critical thinking, Characteristics, How critical thinking can be used for problem solving and the steps included, Attitude of Critical thinkers.
On the importance of critical thinking skills and how to teach them - presented at the eLearning Consortium of Colorado (eLCC) Conference, April 18, 2014 - Breckenridge, CO
What is thinking and difference between thinking and critical thinking, Characteristics, How critical thinking can be used for problem solving and the steps included, Attitude of Critical thinkers.
This slideshow was created with images from the web. I claim no copyright or ownership of any images. If a copyright owner of any image objects to the use in this slideshow, contact me to remove it. This is for a course in Introductory Psychology using Wayne Weiten's "Psychology: Themes and Variations" 8th ed. Published by Cengage
Characteristics of Critical Thinking, Importance of Critical Thinking, Elements of Critical Thinking Process, Principles of Critical Thinking, Types of Critical Thinking, Critical Thinking Skills, Critical Thinking Barriers
Critical thinking is a intellectually disciplined process of actively and skilfully conceptualising, applying, synthesising and evaluating information gathered by observation, experience, reasoning or communication as a guide to belief and action.
· HOME· CHAPTERS · GLOSSARY· AUTHOR BIOS· HELP ChapterLesleyWhitesidefv
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Chapter 3
Sections
Chapter 3. Critical Thinking: The Means to InquireBy Helen Zaikina-Montgomery
Essential Questions
· What does it mean for doctoral learners to think critically?
· What is metacognition, and how is it related to critical thinking?
· Why do doctoral learners need to know how to engage in critical thinking and metacognition?
· What are the main differences between academic and nonacademic publications?
· What is comparative analysis and synthesis of literature?
· What are assertions, and how can researchers avoid making them in scholarly writing?
Introduction
This chapter presents material about critical thinking, metacognition, and comparative analysis of academic literature. Critical thinking and metacognitive functioning include cognitive processes, considered the highest level of Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956), such as evaluation, analysis, and synthesis. The ability to think critically about empirical research and findings as well as to critically analyze one’s own writing is essential to the successful completion of a doctoral program at Grand Canyon University (GCU).
Critical thinking involves discipline as well as systematic and unbiased evaluation of facts, using metacognitive strategies to correct and refine one’s thinking processes. This chapter outlines the components of critical thinking, provides examples of how to apply critical thinking in daily life, and presents examples of how critical thinking works in academic reading and writing.
The chapter also presents a discussion of metacognition with examples of the process and application. Finally, this chapter includes examples of comparative analysis and synthesis of academic literature and informs learners about how to critically analyze the material they read. As learners at GCU progress through the doctoral program, critical analysis and synthesis become increasingly important skills to possess and demonstrate in academic work.
Definitions of Critical Thinking
In higher education, critical thinking can be a great mystery, with scholars and administrators failing to reach consensus on how to teach, evaluate, and measure learners’ critical-thinking skills. Colleges vary in their criteria of critical and reflective thinking, but many still include both in important university materials, such as the university or a specific school’s mission statement. Specifically, the mission statement of the GCU College of Doctoral Studies (CDS) highlights reflection as a component of critical thinking:
The College of Doctoral Studies seeks to engage learners in the process of becoming scholar-practitioners by deliberately invoking design principles that create scaffold, embedded curriculum grounded in adult learning theory. The College of Doctoral Studies provides structured, integrative, learning-centered doctoral programs which encourage reflective thinking from learners and collaborativ ...
This slideshow was created with images from the web. I claim no copyright or ownership of any images. If a copyright owner of any image objects to the use in this slideshow, contact me to remove it. This is for a course in Introductory Psychology using Wayne Weiten's "Psychology: Themes and Variations" 8th ed. Published by Cengage
Characteristics of Critical Thinking, Importance of Critical Thinking, Elements of Critical Thinking Process, Principles of Critical Thinking, Types of Critical Thinking, Critical Thinking Skills, Critical Thinking Barriers
Critical thinking is a intellectually disciplined process of actively and skilfully conceptualising, applying, synthesising and evaluating information gathered by observation, experience, reasoning or communication as a guide to belief and action.
· HOME· CHAPTERS · GLOSSARY· AUTHOR BIOS· HELP ChapterLesleyWhitesidefv
· HOME
· CHAPTERS
· GLOSSARY
· AUTHOR BIOS
· HELP
Chapter 3
Sections
Chapter 3. Critical Thinking: The Means to InquireBy Helen Zaikina-Montgomery
Essential Questions
· What does it mean for doctoral learners to think critically?
· What is metacognition, and how is it related to critical thinking?
· Why do doctoral learners need to know how to engage in critical thinking and metacognition?
· What are the main differences between academic and nonacademic publications?
· What is comparative analysis and synthesis of literature?
· What are assertions, and how can researchers avoid making them in scholarly writing?
Introduction
This chapter presents material about critical thinking, metacognition, and comparative analysis of academic literature. Critical thinking and metacognitive functioning include cognitive processes, considered the highest level of Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956), such as evaluation, analysis, and synthesis. The ability to think critically about empirical research and findings as well as to critically analyze one’s own writing is essential to the successful completion of a doctoral program at Grand Canyon University (GCU).
Critical thinking involves discipline as well as systematic and unbiased evaluation of facts, using metacognitive strategies to correct and refine one’s thinking processes. This chapter outlines the components of critical thinking, provides examples of how to apply critical thinking in daily life, and presents examples of how critical thinking works in academic reading and writing.
The chapter also presents a discussion of metacognition with examples of the process and application. Finally, this chapter includes examples of comparative analysis and synthesis of academic literature and informs learners about how to critically analyze the material they read. As learners at GCU progress through the doctoral program, critical analysis and synthesis become increasingly important skills to possess and demonstrate in academic work.
Definitions of Critical Thinking
In higher education, critical thinking can be a great mystery, with scholars and administrators failing to reach consensus on how to teach, evaluate, and measure learners’ critical-thinking skills. Colleges vary in their criteria of critical and reflective thinking, but many still include both in important university materials, such as the university or a specific school’s mission statement. Specifically, the mission statement of the GCU College of Doctoral Studies (CDS) highlights reflection as a component of critical thinking:
The College of Doctoral Studies seeks to engage learners in the process of becoming scholar-practitioners by deliberately invoking design principles that create scaffold, embedded curriculum grounded in adult learning theory. The College of Doctoral Studies provides structured, integrative, learning-centered doctoral programs which encourage reflective thinking from learners and collaborativ ...
Logical Reasoning: relevance, obstacles and structureNGANG PEREZ
The definition of logic could be stated as the science of reasoning, proof, thinking or inference (according to the Oxford Compact English Dictionary). It is the ability to reason that is central to logical thinking. For many of us, these reasoning skills are often put to the test during arguments. Being able to reason is clearly a valuable skill! But is it something that we should be "teaching"? Do students learn how to form logical arguments within the home? Do fellow teachers encourage their students to think logically? Or do we compel the students to “give back our notes (cram work)” during exams? To what extend do tutor facilitate students to think out of the box (class notes?). This is something very critical and we shall see its importance in this chapter as well as the obstacles and structure.
HOW TO ANSWER AN INVESTOR “WHY DO YOU WANT TO RAISE CAPITAL?”NGANG PEREZ
This is indeed a very simple question but for some entrepreneurs who are raising capital, they find it difficult to give an honest, correct and logical answer to the investor. To many, it may sound simple, however the response is not in its simplicity but rather in its logicality. How logical and rational and convincing is your response to that simple question if asked? I have come to the realization that, many entrepreneurs take for granted certain things considering they already know the answer whereas, they have a limited knowledge on what could either merit or demerit their opportunity to receiving funding.
Success in raising capital for your business is very practical and easy. It often leaves clues, and if you look closely you will find a trail. There are a number of simple rules you can follow to significantly improve your chances of raising capital. Some of these rules are based on plain, old common sense. Some have been validated by the bitter experiences of other entrepreneurs. If you follow the golden rules in this lesson, you will avoid some of the most common mistakes and roadblocks people face when they try to raise funding.
One thing the entrepreneur often forgets to understand is the fact that, Investors take a risk by investing in their businesses. These are the risks that influence how investors think and react to the business opportunities, that entrepreneurs engage in. All business opportunities are surrounded by a certain amount of risks, which in the eyes of the entrepreneur are minimal, usually because they neglect them or did not see them. That’s why, for investors, rigorous risk analysis lies at the heart of making every investment decision. Many entrepreneurs just don’t understand how to analyze their business from an investor’s perspective. And only those entrepreneurs who know how to do this can improve their chances of raising funding. This paper gives you an understanding on the 7 critical risks entrepreneurs should identify and address in their business before approaching a potential investor. The knowledge and insights you gain from this lesson will surely serve you throughout your journey as an entrepreneur.
The principal goal of this lesson, is to provide participants with knowledge and techniques on how to find and target the right investors, avoid costly mistakes, and craft convincing proposals that will make investors want to give you money. There are certain things you need know about investors as an entrepreneur before approaching them for funding. Don’t you think so? This lesson will make you see from a broader perspective how to position the concept of raising funds within the confines of your business. Whether you want to raise $5,000 or $10 million to kick-start your business idea, grow an existing business, or turn around a failing one, this lesson is the foundation that will significantly increase your ability to find, approach, engage and convince potential investors to give you funding. Most investors complain that it’s hard to find good businesses to invest in. Entrepreneurs, on the other hand, complain that it's hard to find investors who are willing to invest in their business. The big reason for this mismatch and confusion is most entrepreneurs who are looking to raise funds are flying blind. Their businesses just don’t meet the requirements that potential investors are looking for. The truth is funding is Available and Abundant for those who know how to access it! Many entrepreneurs often give the common excuse that funding is scarce. This is not only false, it's actually very misleading. If capital is really scarce, how come the volume of investments and loans to entrepreneurs and businesses continue to grow every year?
UNDERSTANDING THE THEORIES AND TYPES OF ENTERPRISE NETWORKSNGANG PEREZ
To begin, Casson and Giusta (2007) said a network refers to a set of elements or members that are connected to each other. Seibert, Kraimer, and Liden (2001) defined a network as “the pattern of ties linking a defined set of persons or social actors”. Before I go any further, to you, what do you think a network is all about? What opinion do you hold in your mind about this concept? From the two definitions I just presented, you will realize that connections or ties are the fundamental features of all networks. The connections are the results of relationships between the members. In addition, all members of a network are either directly or indirectly linked to each other (Casson & Giusta 2007). Thus, networks consist of a set of elements or members that are connected to each other as a result of the relationships of the members. Therefore, your class is made up of a network of individual members called students. Also, your church is made up of a network of Indi dual people called brethren as well as your family is made of a network of individual persons called family members. Almost in every situation in normal life and business, a network is bound to exist. This makes me tempted to say Man cannot live without a network, so also do businesses need networks to survive. I find it challenging when I hear people say, “I don’t need another man in this life” or “I can succeed without the help of any man” and there are many examples of such comment’s rights? I’m sure you too often hear people make statements. It's funny, and yes truly funny because such statements are made may be from ignorance or usually from nonsense pride. Hear me and hear me well! Even to go to heaven, you need God’s network if not you lie yourself. One famous Cameroonian politician once said, “you scratch my back, I scratch your back”. Therefore, the importance of networks cannot be overemphasized in business.
The main objective of this course is to provide students with knowledge and techniques in developing networks and clusters of SMEs. But before we delve into details of such techniques, it is imperative we understand how these SMEs came about. There are certain things you need know about SMEs. Don’t you think so? This will trigger the student to reflect from a broader perspective how to position the concept of networks and clustering within the confines of SMEs. For example, what are SMEs and what contributions do they bring to society? Are SMEs in America different from those in Cameroon? If so, what makes them different and are there similarities between them? A discussion on SMEs is relevant due to the role they play in employment creation and economic growth worldwide (Fan, 2003; Tambunan, 2008; Wattanapruttipaisan, 2003). We need to know, enterprises of this category are attributed as backbones to economic development.
ACTS OF GENDER BASED VIOLENCE, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCESNGANG PEREZ
In the 24 developing countries studied in a recent survey, a combined total of only 7% of survivors of gender-based violence, including physical and sexual acts, formally reported their attacks to police, medical or social services.
In India, less than 1% of survivors reported gender-based violence to formal sources.
In the same 24 developing countries, the surveyors explored whether women told their friends, family members or neighbors about their attacks and found that the rates of this “informal reporting” ranged from 15% in Honduras to 60% in Ukraine.
In Papua New Guinea, 59.1% of men admit to forcing an unwilling intimate partner into having sex.
According to the UN, there were 15,654 cases of sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2012.
CORPORATE STRATEGY AND GOVERNANCE a must readNGANG PEREZ
The modern business world now recognizes the importance of strategic issues and the contribution of strategic management to business success. While this has many benefits it also brings many problems. It could be argued that ‘strategy’ (or ‘strategic’) is the most overused/misused phrase in business today. Everybody seems to have a ‘strategy’ for everything. By attaching the term ‘strategy’ to an activity, it somehow becomes more important – “more grand” – but in reality very little actually gets done! To illustrate this, the lecturer recalls the recent experience of sitting through a seemingly endless meeting, listening to people talking on-and-on about ‘strategy’ or the need for a strategic view. Finally, someone said something sensible; ‘… there’s too much strategy and not enough people doing things!’ This blunt comment is memorable for two reasons. Firstly, it ended a tedious meeting. Secondly, and more importantly, it illustrated a key point: strategy must lead to action, not be a substitute for it. Ultimately, all organizations need ‘people doing things’. The goal of strategy is to ensure that they are doing the right things. These actions need to be coordinated, efficiently executed and focused on meeting customer need.
GLOBALIZATION, INTERNET AND MARKET POSSIBILITIESNGANG PEREZ
Globalization is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide. As a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, globalization is considered by some as a form of capitalist expansion which entails the integration of local and national economies into a global, unregulated market economy. Globalization has grown due to advances in transportation and communication technology. With the increased global interactions comes the growth of international trade, ideas, and culture. Globalization is primarily an economic process of interaction and integration that's associated with social and cultural aspects. However, conflicts and diplomacy are also large parts of the history of globalization, and modern globalization.
ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURING IN THE 21st CENTURYNGANG PEREZ
For which of you, intending to build a tower, sitteth not down first, and counteth the cost, whether he have sufficient to finish it? Lest haply, after he hath laid the foundation, and is not able to finish it, all that behold it begin to mock him,
Until we can manage time, we can manage nothing else. Until you value yourself, you will not value your time. Until you value your time, you will not anything with it. Lost wealth my be replaced by industry, lost knowledge by study, lost health by temperance or medicine but lost time is gone forever.
INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF SOURCINGNGANG PEREZ
Emphasis on sourcing is not something new within the business environment. A research institute conducted a study on strategic sourcing for 25 senior operation managers in the United States of America, and concluded that “the one dictum that would still be valid a half-a-century from now is the policy of buy low, sell high”. Strategic sourcing is not necessarily the act of buying low and selling high, rather it looks in to the sustainability of what was bought low and equally the sustainability of what was sold high. Majority of today’s businesses, only look for opportunities to make fast cash without having a second thought on the consequences of their operations in the future. Strategic sourcing is primarily about the first part of this lecture.
Let me begin this chapter by saying that, the purpose of business is to create and retain a customer. Value in one’s product or service should be and almost always is defined on customers’ terms. Hope you know that? Value is a customer’s opinion and never a manufacturer’s opinion. If your product or service is perceived by the customer as having value then that perception will result in a purchase. If the customer uses your product consistently and is satisfied with the results, then it will result in creation of customer value.
MARKET SEGMENTATION, POSITIONING AND TARGETINGNGANG PEREZ
Modern companies understand the fact that they cannot appeal to all buyers in the market or at least not to all buyers in the same way. Do you know why? The Christians say Jesus Christ died for the World, yet not everyone in the same World believes in him. Then what more of Companies? See! Let me you tell the truth, not every distraction requires your attention. When you understand this as a marketing management student your perception about appealing to customers will change. The reason is because you cannot satisfy everybody. In pidgin we say “you born pikin but you no born yi heart”. Meaning people will always have their own way of reasoning and you cannot control them. Believe me when I say so. As a business man, you will need to find your own share (market segment) and satisfy them. Not everybody will like your product. Just take it like that.
Therefore, you should be able to understand that there are numerous buyers in the market and they are too widely scattered. These buyers are varied in their needs and buying practices. Also, the companies themselves vary widely in their abilities to serve different segments of the market. In such a scenario, the companies must design customer-driven marketing strategies that build the right relationships with the right customers.
As an introduction, I think it is necessary you understand that, in most of the markets, be it consumer market or organizational buying market, buyers differ enormously in terms of their buying dynamics. So the task for the marketing manager is not only to understand these differences in buying patterns but also to generalize them for better targeting and product offer. In consumer markets, for example, not only do buyers typically differ in terms of their age, income, educational levels and geographical location, but more fundamentally in terms of their personalities, lifestyles and their expectations from the products and services available in the market.
The marketing environment and the marketing information systemNGANG PEREZ
In this second chapter of our lecture we will begin with the environment and latter move to analyze the constituents in this environment regarding the market. You know, whether a business be carried online, or on air, or on land, or on waters, one thing is certain that it was conducted within an environment. Therefore understanding this environment becomes imperative for the success of the business always. Please take marketing students, the environment is one; but the conditions and the parameters are not always the same. Many people believe that organizations can survive if they are sure about the management of their internal systems like business processes, flow of goods and internal practices of quality and cost control. Most organizations devote a large part of their effort in managing the internal controllable elements, whereas they need to respond and adapt to the external environmental changes. Though they cannot significantly influence the external environment but they can be responsive to larger social and other environmental changes, which is likely to affect their business in both short run and long run. It is imperative for an organization to understand the market as well their consumers really well. I will not speak much before we get in to the details of the matter.
You are about to study (marketing), is as old as civilization. If this is true, then from where comes the idea that marketing is a 21st century concept? Study to discover the truth my students. Those who say that the concept of marketing is an emerging topic is business probably speak out of ignorance and do not understand that marketing has its roots right from the Garden of Eden. What could Eve had told Adam about the fruit that had to ability to make the man disobey God is called marketing. Till tomorrow only Eve alone knows what she told Adam that convinced him to eat the fruit. What she did is called word of mouth marketing. Hope you understand. Therefore although marketing is talked and discussed in business terms today, its origin goes back to the ancient civilization when man used symbols, signs and material artifacts to transact and communicate with others. Modern marketing revolves around the concepts, which are age old. The first signs that man made to communicate with others gave birth to the idea of marketing. The evolution of marketing has made it a structured discipline to study; otherwise marketing did exist in the ancient past.
In science and everyday life, we think a lot about causes and effects. This is called the law of causation. Yes! It is a law, which states that things don’t just happen. Many people think that in life and business and even in other aspects of nature, things just happen. No, they don’t. There is a cause for everything, and for every cause the is an effect. Recall that it is call the law of cause and effect or causation. However, the complexities of life at times may put someone under the effects which he/she did not cause. We will deal with that latter. All I want you to keep in mind now is the fact that, knowledge about causation allows us to understand the world, make predictions, and change things. Yes, I mean change things and you will understand how you can change things through this law. I guaranty you, after going through this lectures your life will experience a turnaround in the way you think and act. Remember #things don’t just happen. In this chapter we shall discuss some of the principles of causal reasoning. First we start with a set of rules known as "Mill's methods."
They were formulated by the famous English philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), who wrote on a wide range of topics from logic and language to political philosophy.
One of the central attributes that distinguishes man from other living organisms is the ability to think. Without this distinctive characteristic, life would be hard to live. This course on logical reasoning is out to demonstrate the importance of logical reasoning in your daily lives in general and in your respective professions in particular.
“If this business were split up, I would give you the land and bricks and mortar, and I would take the brands and trademarks, and I would fare better than you”. This statement was made by John Stuart, Chairman of Quaker. It revealed the importance that some business executives attached to the concept of brand equity even when many had not grasp the vision. Tangible assets ruled for much of the 20th century. Business executives knew brands were there but their value was not recognized by many. Then the 1980s arrived, and by this time the value of brands was recognized not only by top corporate officials but also by consumers. This brand equity is the measurable value derived from marketing and other strategic management efforts attributable to a brand. This measureable value enables customers in making buying decisions, builds customer loyalty, builds market share, protects market share, helps command higher prices and assist in business expansion. But there is also a flip side, a neglected brand erodes value. The problem gets more acute when it comes to understanding what makes a brand valuable than others: how should one measure the strength of a brand? What limited numbers of indicators should one use to evaluate what is commonly called brand equity?
The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Modern Society.pdfssuser3e63fc
Just a game Assignment 3
1. What has made Louis Vuitton's business model successful in the Japanese luxury market?
2. What are the opportunities and challenges for Louis Vuitton in Japan?
3. What are the specifics of the Japanese fashion luxury market?
4. How did Louis Vuitton enter into the Japanese market originally? What were the other entry strategies it adopted later to strengthen its presence?
5. Will Louis Vuitton have any new challenges arise due to the global financial crisis? How does it overcome the new challenges?Assignment 3
1. What has made Louis Vuitton's business model successful in the Japanese luxury market?
2. What are the opportunities and challenges for Louis Vuitton in Japan?
3. What are the specifics of the Japanese fashion luxury market?
4. How did Louis Vuitton enter into the Japanese market originally? What were the other entry strategies it adopted later to strengthen its presence?
5. Will Louis Vuitton have any new challenges arise due to the global financial crisis? How does it overcome the new challenges?Assignment 3
1. What has made Louis Vuitton's business model successful in the Japanese luxury market?
2. What are the opportunities and challenges for Louis Vuitton in Japan?
3. What are the specifics of the Japanese fashion luxury market?
4. How did Louis Vuitton enter into the Japanese market originally? What were the other entry strategies it adopted later to strengthen its presence?
5. Will Louis Vuitton have any new challenges arise due to the global financial crisis? How does it overcome the new challenges?
This comprehensive program covers essential aspects of performance marketing, growth strategies, and tactics, such as search engine optimization (SEO), pay-per-click (PPC) advertising, content marketing, social media marketing, and more
1. 1
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS AND
MANAGEMENT STUDIES
Chapter 3: The Concept of Critical Thinking
PROGRAMME: ALL BSc
COURSE TITLE: Logical Reasoning, Conceptualization and
Critical Thinking
COURSE CODE: PAID311
TOTAL CREDITS: 3
BY
NGANG PEREZ (MAJOR 1)
PAN AFRICAN INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT
-WEST AFRICA (PAID-WA) BUEA
LECTURE NOTES FOR Logical
reasoning, conceptualization and
critical thinking
2. 2
COURSE OUTLINE FOR LOGICAL REASONING, CONCEPTUALIZATION AND CRITICAL
THINKING
PROGRAMME: ALL BSc
COURSE TITLE: Logical reasoning, conceptualization and critical thinking
COURSE CODE: PAID311
TOTAL CREDIT: 3
TOTAL LECTURE HOURS: 15
LECTURER: NGANG Perez (Major 1)
A. COURSE OVERVIEW AND OUTLINE
1. Course Description:
This course provides students with a general overview on the concept of critical thinking and
logical reasoning. It emphasizes the importance of attitudes and practice for good thinking in
today’s society. It establishes a balance approach to think more and think better be it politically,
culturally, economically and socially. Critical thinking is thinking clearly and rationally. It
involves thinking precisely and systematically, and following the rules of logic and scientific
reasoning, among other things. As such the study, equips students with the technical skills to a
tremendous force of constructive argument. Thus the topics understudy will include focal areas
such as; logic and reasoning, structure and parts of argument, the concept of critical thinking
amongst others.
2. COURSE OBJECTIVES: By the end of this course, student should be able to:
• Learning Objectives: By the end of this course, students should be able to:
➢ Lay down the foundational principles of logical reasoning and its relevance
➢ Develop their capacity to think logically and critically about any given situation
within their environment
PAN AFRICAN INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT-
WEST AFRICA (PAID-WA) BUEA
3. 3
➢ Bring out clearly the differences between logical reasoning and balanced
argument
➢ Understand how to identify cause-and-effect relationships
➢ Outline the Different Types of Values
➢ Understand Moral Values and Normativity
3. COURSE SCHEDULE AND TOPICS
This course will cover the following topics in 5 learning sessions with one session per week as
follows:
Week 3: Session 3/Chapter 3: The Concept of Critical Thinking
Date:
Topics
• Thinking Skills in the Age of Globalization
• Misconceptions about Critical Thinking
o What Critical Thinking is not!
o What Critical Thinking is!
• The relevance of critical thinking
• Critical Thinking Skills
• Barriers to critical thinking
• How to overcome these Barriers to critical thinking
• Some practical applications of critical thinking skills
• Conclusion and Summary
• Review Question
4. GENERAL COURSE REVIEW AND FINAL EXAM PREPARATION
Date:
Topics
• Chapter 3: The Concept of Critical Thinking
5. OTHER REQUIREMENTS
➢ Required Text Books or Articles
❖ Leo A. Groarke and Cristopher W, Tindale 2004. Good reasoning matters: A constructive
approach to critical thinking. (3rd Edition). New York, Oxford University Press
❖ Barbara Minto, 2008. The pyramid principle: Logic in writing and thinking (3rd edition).
Prentice Hall.
❖ Nemeth, C. and Ormiston, M. (2006). Creative idea generation: Harmony versus
stimulation. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37(3):524-535.
❖ Fang, X., Singh, S., and Ahluwalia, R. (2007). An examination of different explanations
for the mere exposure effect. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(1):97-103.
❖ Epstein, R. (1999). Critical thinking. Wadsworth, Belmont, MA
4. 4
➢ Important weblinks
1) https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/critical-thinking.html [accessed 25th
July 2019]
2) https://philosophy.hku.hk/think/critical/ct.php [accessed 25th July 2019]
3) https://thinkeracademy.com/critical-thinking-skills/ [accessed 25th July 2019]
B. COURSE EVALUATION
• Written Assignment 15%
• Graded Quiz 10%
• Discussion Assignment 5%
• Final Exams taken on Campus 70% total 100%
C. LECTURE NOTES AND PRESENTATION (Next Page)
5. 5
WEEK 3:
SESSION 3/CHAPTER 3 THE CONCEPT OF CRITICAL THINKING
3.0 Brief Introduction
As humans we think all the time because we possess the ability and capacity to do so. However, it
is not all types of thinking that is productive or relevant to our own very existence. Although we
have the natural abilities to think as humans, this mental ability is an art and a craft. Consequently,
the art of correct thinking can be acquired through learning.
There are several different types of thinking such as: creative thinking, design thinking, innovative
thinking, positive thinking, and of course critical thinking. For the purpose of this course, we will
concentrate on critical thinking.
3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this session, students should be able to;
• Define accurately the term critical thinking
• Different between what critical thinking is from what it is not
• Understand why we should critically think
• Bing out the critical thinking skills
• Apply knowledge of critical thinking to practical situations
• Identify barriers to critical thinking and overcome them. how to
3.2 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
➢ Critical thinking: Critical thinking is the analysis of facts to form a judgment. The subject is
complex, and several different definitions exist, which generally include the rational,
skeptical, unbiased analysis, or evaluation of factual evidence.
3.3 THE MAIN CONTENT
There are many different explanations of critical thinking. An understanding of all the respective
schools of thought makes the concept very complex. However, it can be seen that they all
emphasize the importance of clarity and rationality.
Many people traced the importance of critical thinking in education to Dewey. But Dewey did not
make very extensive use of the term "critical thinking". Instead, in his book “How We Think”, he
argued for the importance of what he called "reflective thinking". In this chapter we will look at
some aspects of critical thinking in the age of globalization, the misconceptions about critical
thinking and a host of other factors. Stay tune!
6. 6
3.3.1: Thinking Skills in the Age of Globalization
Whether we like it or not, globalization is changing the way we work and live. First of all, we are
increasingly faced with complex problems that affect the whole world, whether it is global
warming, pollution, financial crises, or new epidemics. We need good thinking and creative ideas
to coordinate efforts to solve these problems. At the personal level, globalization brings about an
ever-quickening pace of life. We have a huge amount of information available, but what we learn
today might easily become obsolete tomorrow. Although fast changes also bring new
opportunities, we now have to compete with talented people across the world. To be successful in
this environment, we need good thinking skills that can help us make reliable decisions and acquire
new knowledge quickly.
But what do we mean by good thinking skills? Basically, it comes down to two things—critical
thinking and creativity. Critical thinking is thinking clearly and rationally. It involves thinking
precisely and systematically, and following the rules of logic and scientific reasoning, among other
things. As for creativity, it is a matter of coming up with new and useful ideas, generating
alternative possibilities. This subsection is about these two sets of thinking skills, but at this point,
you might ask, which is more important, critical thinking or creativity? The short answer is that
they are equally important. We need creativity to come up with ideas to solve problems, but we
also need critical thinking to evaluate and improve these ideas. They complement each other, and
we need both to survive and to prosper.
3.3.2: Misconceptions about Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is a discipline that many people have a misconception of what the concept is all
about. These misconceptions have negative consequences on people who are willing to acquire
skills and become effective critical thinkers. Below are some of the most common misconceptions
raised by Andrew Beck (2011) in his book titled “Critical thinking: an appeal to reason”
3.3.2.1: What Critical Thinking is not!
• It is often believed that critical thinking means excessive criticism. This means always
employing a negative criticism of the arguments people make. This is not true because as we are
going to see, it has to do with making a balanced judgment about the truthfulness of an argument.
• Critical thinking is not about being partial or biased in your reasoning or decision- making.
Impartiality and objectivity are core values of the art of critical thinking. It has to do with making
a faire judgment of your own claim or argument and that of others.
• Critical thinking is not about being passive in discussions and debates. On the contrary it
involves being an active contributor in debates and discussions and to defend your own arguments
and claims.
• Critical thinking is not practically useful because people in real life do not listen to reason.
They act on the basis of self-interest, emotion, or personal relationships. The first problem with
this objection is that it confuses rational thinking with talking about reasons. It might be true that
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many people are irrational, and to influence them we need to appeal to authority, emotions, or
anything other than reason. But we can still use critical thinking to think strategically about the
best means to achieve our objectives.
• Critical thinking is not opposing emotions, relationships, and so on. Consider for example
love and friendship. They are certainly valuable, but critical thinking can help us cultivate them.
For example, thinking carefully about what is good or bad about a relationship can help us improve
it and make it more fulfilling. Besides, it is not always wise to act solely on the basis of emotions.
They can be biased by ego, fear, and greed. Thinking more about our decisions can counteract this
problem.
3.3.2.1: What Critical Thinking is!
Thinking is a mental activity that the mind engages in with the help of the senses. Although the
Rationalist proponents are in strong support of their theory of innatism which argues that man is
born with innate ideas, the Empiricist school rejects this theory. The leading proponent of the
Empiricist school and distinguished British philosopher, John Locke argues that at birth, the human
mind is like a tabula rasa (a black sheet of paper). Hence whatever the mind acquires is from
experience. Therefore, to him, knowledge comes from experience and not inborn because it is the
sense that feed the mind with ideas to perform its functions.
The word critical in Latin is criticus and in Greek is Kritokos, both meaning able to make
judgment. There are several definitions of critical thinking as this concept has been under research
for several decades. Among the numerous definitions advanced by scholars in this discipline, that
of Robert Ennis is one of the most explicit. He defines critical thinking as reasonable reflective
thinking that is aimed at deciding what to belief or what to do (David Hunter, 2014). There are
some key elements of this definition worth revisiting. Let’s take a look!
• Critical thinking is reasonable thinking: This has to do with the ability of exercising logical
reasoning skills. It is reasonable because there is a method that needs to be applied in working out
things.
• Critical thinking is reflective thinking. This refers to thinking that pushes us to question
our thoughts and decisions and that of others as well. We are bound to question any information,
action or object that do not appear intellectually satisfactory to us.
We have mentioned before that critical thinking leads us towards what to believe in the sense that
it is a matter of what the facts or evidence are. For example, to say it is rainy outside is a fact. It
also involves reasoning about what the facts are and this is known as theoretical reasoning
To say critical thinking leads us towards what to do involve two key elements: what to value or
what to strive for. It has to do with your goal and the best means to attain that goal. It is all about
focusing on the right idea and the right action to take. For example, should I buy a new dress now
or continue with the old ones?
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We decide what to do on the bases of what we already value or what we already think makes for
a good life. Decisions about what to value are among the most difficult and profound decisions we
can make. But critical thinking can help us to make some of these decisions.
Hence deciding what to do involves reasoning about what to do and how to do it. This is call
practical reasoning. To think critically on what to belief or what to do is reasonable because we
have to have not just reasons but good ones for the decisions we make.
3.3.3: The relevance of critical thinking
Critical thinking is very relevant in our everyday lives as humans for several reasons:
• It gives us the ability to reflect skeptically. Within the context of critical thinking,
skepticism gives us the ability to apply doubts in certain situations. It does not mean we doubt
everything we hear and see. It means being open and holding to the fact that there is a possibility
that what you know at a given time may only be part of the picture. Hence critical thinking gives
us the tools to use skepticism and doubt constructively.
• Critical thinking helps us to make better and informed decisions whether something is
likely to be true, effective or productive. It guides you on when to be trustful or skeptical.
• Critical thinking gives you the ability and skills to defend yourself from false accusations
and manipulations.
• It enable you to be able to provide evidence and reasons for the opinions we hold.
• Critical thinking skills enable us to ask the right questions and to say yes or no when these
responses are appropriate.
• Critical thinking enables us to be able to provide good reasons for our decisions and actions.
• When we become critical thinkers, you possess an intellectual mind that is autonomous,
independent and free, rather than just sticking to or being drilled by what people say.
• As a critical thinker, you will possess the ability to distinguish cultural and irrational
believes that carry no evidence for their stands.
• As a critical thinker, you are able to live an examined life. The distinguished Greek thinker,
Socrates once said” The unexamined life is not worth living’. As humans, we are able to examine
our lives objectively in order to improve it.
• Critical thinking skills help us to solve practical and theoretical problems that we encounter
in our daily lives, by seeking the right solutions.
3.3.4: Critical Thinking Skills
Every human being has the ability to become a critical thinker because we all have the minds and
brains required for this mental activity. However, the art of critical thinking requires a number of
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skills and abilities which can be acquired through learning and training. A critical thinker is
someone who is able to do the following:
• Understand the logical connections between ideas.
• Formulate ideas succinctly and precisely.
• Identify, construct, and evaluate arguments.
• Evaluate the pros and cons of a decision.
• Evaluate the evidence for and against a hypothesis.
• Detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning.
• Analyze problems systematically.
• Identify the relevance and importance of ideas.
• Justify one’s beliefs and values.
• Reflect and evaluate one’s thinking skills.
Below, are some of the skills that are indispensable to practice the art of critical thinking.
• You need to be a logical and rational thinker. This kind of a person uses good reasons to
make decisions or to solve problems. You cannot separate logical reasoning from critical thinking
given that the two go together.
• Evaluation skills. You need to be able to evaluate your own beliefs and actions, as well as
that of others whether they are right or wrong or have sufficient grounds to convince others.
• Analysis. You should have the ability to relate concepts to ideas and categories and to
derive meaning from them. Irrespective of the form it takes, analysis always aims at giving a
meaning to a set of statements or arguments. It also involves analyzing evidence and drawing
conclusions from them. This can be applied in a variety of settings.
• Synthesis. You need to be able to isolate irrelevant from relevant information to be able to
come out with the most relevant message from any written or oral discuss, argument or debate.
• Reflexive thinking. You need to develop your own ability towards using the right approach
to problem solving by asking the right questions.
As we can see from the list, critical thinking skills are essential for all sorts of careers in which we
have to communicate ideas, make decisions, analyze, and solve problems. This is why critical
thinking is called a domain-general thinking skill. But critical thinking is not just for the workplace.
To live a meaningful life and plan for the future, we need to think about ourselves honestly and
carefully. The Greek philosopher Socrates (469–399 B.C.E.) once said, “the unexamined life is
not worth living.” One big difference between human beings and other animals is our capacity for
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self-reflection. We can examine the purpose and meaning of our life and change ourselves
accordingly. Critical thinking contributes to this process of self-evaluation and transformation.
Good critical thinking is also the foundation of science and democracy. Science requires rationality
in designing experiments and testing theories. A vibrant and progressive democracy requires
citizens who can think objectively about social and political issues and are able to avoid biases and
prejudices. So obviously the cultivation of critical thinking should be a central aim of education.
3.3.5: Barriers to critical thinking
There are a number of factors that can hinder one from becoming an efficient critical thinker,
which includes the following:
• Traditional beliefs and customs
• Religious beliefs
• Misconception of the subject matter of critical thinking, as many people think that critical
thinking is only about negative criticism of people’s thoughts and ideas. However, this is not true
given that critical thinking aims to offer an objective, balanced and transparent appreciation of
one’s argument and that of others.
• Over estimating our own reasoning abilities. This happens when we think that our own
reasons and belief system is the best (ethnocentrism).
• Lack of method and strategies to practice critical thinking. Some people have the interest
to become critical thinkers but they do not know how to go about it.
• Many people are also very reluctant to criticize experts, for example students and teachers.
The former feel very inferior intellectually to say anything against their teachers given that they
are the ones who trained them.
• Due to impatience, some people do not pay sufficient focus and attention to details. This
kind of attitude hinders a full application of critical thinking skills.
3.3.5.1: How to overcome these Barriers to critical thinking
All the above barriers can be overcome by improving on the relevant critical thinking skills through
training, reading and applying the knowledge to real world situations. For example, if you are
trained to reason logically, you will be able to question some religious and traditional beliefs
without ample evidence to support their stands. Note that questioning is not a problem, rather the
problem probes in if you are questioning to learn or otherwise. Each of the critical thinking skills
highlighted above can make a positive impact on improving your ability to think critically. I have
not said you should question the existence of God ooh? Because whether you believe it or not God
exist. Just take it like that. It may be subjective to you, but because I am your lecturer you will
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have to take it from me for your own good. However, critical thinking remains very useful in our
society and daily lives.
So how do we enhance our critical thinking if it is so useful? Obviously, we are all able to think
critically to some extent, or we will not survive very long! But there is always room for
improvement. Even with a skill as natural as running, training with an expert can improve our
breathing and posture and help us run even better. Thinking is something we all do and take for
granted, but the fact is that even normally intelligent people can sometimes be stubborn and biased.
Psychology research tells us that people make lot of mistakes in their reasoning—they
overestimate their abilities, interpret the world to confirm their prejudices, and look for causes and
patterns in the wrong places. By studying critical thinking, we are more likely to avoid such errors.
We can also help other people by studying critical thinking. Sometimes we get the feeling that an
argument is wrong but we do not know exactly why. Critical thinking gives us the concepts and
vocabulary to explain what is wrong. This promotes understanding and more effective discussions.
Hope you understand?
Good critical thinking is a cognitive skill. In general, developing a skill requires three conditions—
learning the theory, deliberate practice, and adopting the right attitudes. By theory we mean the
rules and facts we have to know in order to possess the skill. For example, one cannot be a good
basketball player without knowing the rules that govern the game. An even after knowing the rules,
for you to be a good player, you will need to devote considerable time in practicing. It was
generally noted that top basketball players trained averagely for 10hours per day. After
understanding the rules of the game in theory and in practice, the one last thing that is required for
critical thinking to be complete is the art of adopting the right attitude. This is what differentiates
good players from great players in and out of the pitch- the right attitude.
3.3.6: Some practical applications of critical thinking skills
Questions
Which of the following actions involves the use of critical thinking skills?
1. Riding a bike
2. Watching the news on TV
3. Doing laundry
4. Planning a vacation
5. Conducting a literature review
6. Identify five activities you do on a daily basis that do not involve critical thinking and
explain why you think so.
7. Identify five activities that you do on a daily basis that would be improved by thinking
critically about them and explain how this would happen by thinking critically.
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8. List five reasons why it is good t think critically
9. Identify and explain five possible obstacles to thinking critically and describe one strategy
for overcoming each obstacle.
3.4 Conclusion
The idea that we should think critically might seem downright boring, and yet we should not
underestimate the power of critical thinking. It requires having the discipline to reflect on the
reasons for our actions, and this is very important if we want to improve ourselves and become
more successful. Warren Buffet is one of the world's richest persons, widely admired for his
investment record and philanthropy. The adherence to critical thinking is a crucial factor in Buffet's
success. Here is what he says about the importance of being able to give reasons for our actions:
You ought to be able to explain why you're taking the job you're taking, why you're making the
investment you're making, or whatever it may be. And if it can't stand applying pencil to paper,
you'd better think it through some more. And if you can't write an intelligent answer to those
questions, don't do it.
I never buy anything unless I can fill out on a piece of paper my reasons. I may be wrong, but I
would know the answer to that. "I'm paying $32 billion today for the Coca-Cola Company
because..." If you can't answer that question, you shouldn't buy it. If you can answer that question,
and you do it a few times, you'll make a lot of money.
Making money might not be your top priority, but if we can apply the same discipline in giving
reasons for our actions and think about these reasons carefully, we are more likely to achieve our
goals.
3.5 Summary
Thinking is a mental activity that the mind engages in with the help of the senses. Although the
Rationalist proponents are in strong support of their theory of innatism which argues that man is
born with innate ideas, the Empiricist school rejects this theory. The leading proponent of the
Empiricist school and distinguished British philosopher, John Locke argues that at birth, the human
mind is like a tabula rasa (a black sheet of paper). Hence whatever the mind acquires is from
experience.
Every human being has the ability to become a critical thinker because we all have the minds and
brains required for this mental activity. However, the art of critical thinking requires a number of
skills and abilities which can be acquired through learning and training.
Good critical thinking is also the foundation of science and democracy. Science requires rationality
in designing experiments and testing theories. A vibrant and progressive democracy requires
citizens who can think objectively about social and political issues and are able to avoid biases and
prejudices.
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There are a number of factors that can hinder one from becoming an efficient critical thinker,
which includes the following: Traditional beliefs and customs, Religious beliefs
So how do we enhance our critical thinking if it is so useful? Obviously, we are all able to think
critically to some extent, or we will not survive very long! But there is always room for
improvement. Even with a skill as natural as running, training with an expert can improve our
breathing and posture and help us run even better.
Good critical thinking is a cognitive skill. In general, developing a skill requires three conditions—
learning the theory, deliberate practice, and adopting the right attitudes.
3.6 Review Questions
❖ Critical thinking is a discipline that many people have a misconception of what the
concept is all about.
❖ Critical thinking is very relevant in our everyday lives as humans for several reasons.
State and explain some of these relevance.
❖ Every human being has the ability to become a critical thinker because we all have the
minds and brains required for this mental activity. With the aid of examples state and
explain the critical thinking skills.
❖ State and explain the barriers to critical thinking.
❖ What measures can be put in place to overcome the barriers to critical thinking.
3.7 References
❖ Epstein, R. (1999). Critical thinking. Wadsworth, Belmont, MA.
❖ Hurley, P. (2006). A Concise Introduction to Logic. Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.
❖ Michalko, M. (2006). Thinker toys: A Handbook of Creative-Thinking Techniques.
Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA.
❖ Nemeth, C. and Ormiston, M. (2006). Creative idea generation: Harmony versus
stimulation. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37(3):524-535.
3.8 Task
❖ Read the notes on unit 3.3.4 (Critical Thinking Skills) and make a brief summary of not
more than half a page.
3.9: Reading Assignment/Suggested Readings:
❖ Read this article by Rudinow, J. and Barry, V (2007). “Invitation to Critical Thinking.
Wadsworth, Belmon, CA. Accessed from https://epdf.pub/invitation-to-critical-thinking-
sixth-edition.html July 02, 2019
3.10 Reading Assignment Supplementary Source
❖ You Tube Video lecture: Critical Thinking
❖ Video Highlights: This video looks at some of the principles of critical thinking..
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❖ Note: To access the video, copy and paste this Playlist
❖ URL: https://youtu.be/6OLPL5p0fMg?t=312
❖ Source https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6OLPL5p0fMg&feature=youtu.be&t=311.
Retrieved 02 July 2019.
3.12Written Assignment
❖ Critical thinking is a discipline that many people have a misconception of what the concept
is all about.
3.12 Discussion Assignment
❖ Critical thinking is very relevant in our everyday lives as humans for several reasons.
State and explain some of these relevance.
3.13 Graded Quiz
❖
1. The mental ability to think is … Tick the most appropriate.
a. An art
b. A Craft
c. Science
d. A & C are correct
2. Critical thinking is not practically useful because people in real life do not listen to reason.
True or False? Tick the most appropriate.
a. True
b. False
c. True but it depends on what you are thinking
d. A & C are correct
3. Critical thinking opposes emotions and relationships in life. Do you agree? Tick the most
appropriate answer!
a. I agree
b. I don’t agree
c. I agree, but it confuses rational thinking
d. It depends on the situation
4. At birth, the human mind is like a tabula rasa (a black sheet of paper). Which school of
thought supports this theory? Tick the most appropriate
a. Rationalist school of thought
b. Innatism school of thought
c. Empiricist school of thought
d. Neo-rational school of thought
5. Is it true to say that Critical thinking is reflective thinking? Tick the most appropriate
answer!
a. Yes, it is
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b. No it isn’t
c. Yes, but not always
d. A & C are correct
6. Reasoning about what to do and how to do it, is called - - -. Tick the most appropriate
answer!
a. Reasonable thinking
b. Reflective thinking
c. Practical reasoning
d. Objective thinking
7. Within the context of critical thinking, skepticism gives us the ability to - - -. Tick the most
appropriate!
a. Apply doubt on important things
b. Apply doubt on everything
c. Apply doubt on certain things
d. Apply doubt on one thing
8. Good critical thinking is considered as the foundation for - - -. Tick the most appropriate!
a. Science
b. Culture
c. Democracy
d. A & C are correct