This document discusses the concept of "deep ecology" and Arne Naess's perspective on it. It begins by acknowledging the diversity of views among supporters of deep ecology. Naess proposes distinguishing between a common "platform" of deep ecology and the various underlying philosophies and religions that inform it. He presents the "Apron Diagram" as a way to visualize the relationship between these levels, with ultimate premises at the top informing broader principles, hypotheses, and specific decisions. The document uses examples to illustrate how the Apron Diagram can be applied to analyze and understand disagreements within deep ecology. It emphasizes allowing for diversity and flexibility in interpreting and applying deep ecology over time.
The document discusses the multi-level nature of science. It describes how science works at different scales, from individual scientists tackling specific problems to broad overarching theories that frame entire disciplines. Hypotheses aim to explain narrow phenomena, while theories provide broad explanations supported by evidence. Some theories, like evolution or plate tectonics, are so important that they establish frameworks for understanding the natural world. Even accepted theories may change over time with new evidence. The document uses examples like the discovery of ozone depletion by CFCs to illustrate how science is an iterative process dependent on evidence and the scientific community.
There is no_such_thing_as_a_social_science_introElsa von Licy
This document provides an introduction and overview of the arguments made in the book "There is No Such Thing as Social Science". It begins by stating the provocative title and questioning whether the authors will take it back or qualify their position.
It then outlines three ways the term "social science" could be used - referring to a scientific spirit of inquiry, a shared scientific method, or reducibility to natural sciences. The authors argue against the latter two, methodological and substantive reductionism.
The introduction discusses how opponents may accuse the authors of being a priori or anti-reductionist, but argues that those defending social science are actually being dogmatic by insisting it must follow a scientific model. It frames the debate as being
This document summarizes an article that argues the Naturalistic Fallacy does not prohibit evolutionary approaches to ethics as is commonly believed. It begins by outlining Stephen Jay Gould's view that science can describe factual realities but not make value judgments, which he reserves for religion. However, the authors argue a deeper understanding of the Naturalistic Fallacy shows it constrains all approaches to ethics, both religious and scientific. While it prohibits deriving values directly from facts, an evolutionary understanding of human psychology and social interactions can shed light on the development of moral values. Contrary to common beliefs, the Naturalistic Fallacy conceptually allows for evolutionary ethics rather than prohibiting it.
Here is a sample persuasive paragraph using logic to argue for a preferred breakfast food:
Dear Friend,
While I understand the appeal of pancakes for breakfast, I must insist that eggs are the superior choice. Let us examine the arguments logically:
Firstly, eggs provide more complete nutrition compared to pancakes. Eggs are packed with high-quality protein, vitamins, and minerals to fuel our bodies for the day. Pancakes are mainly carbohydrates and lack other essential nutrients.
Secondly, eggs are more versatile and accommodating of different dietary preferences. One can prepare eggs in many ways - scrambled, fried, boiled - to suit vegetarians, those watching calories or fat intake, etc. Pancakes
Knowledge and Life: What does it mean to be living?William Hall
Abstract:
Biology is the science of life, yet Biology still has not achieved generally acceptable answers to its foundation questions, “What is life?”, “What does it mean to be living?”, What is the meaning of life?
Dr Hall first confronted these questions teaching biology courses in 1966. The search for comprehensive and scientifically justifiable answers has guided his work since then. His answers unify key ideas from a number of quite disparate disciplines. The keystone unifies Karl Popper’s 1972 and later works on evolutionary theory of knowledge with Maturana and Varela’s ideas from the 1970s on autopoiesis and cognition that set out a collection of traits that defined life. The unification shows that knowledge is solutions to problems. Life is impossible without knowledge. Knowledge is a product of living. The unification is supported by an understanding of the heritability of objective and subjective knowledge (genetic, cultural) and the theory of hierarchically dynamic systems developed by Herbert Simon, Arthur Koestler, Stanley Salthe, and others. The structure rests on foundation theories of emergent complexity including physical dynamics and thermodynamics, Stuart Kauffman’s ideas on the origins of order and his concept of the “adjacent possible” together with the nature of time in George Ellis’s “block-” or “crystallizing block universes”.
----------
Dr Hall started life as an amateur naturalist. He started college in 1957 in physics but dyslexia with numbers led to him starting over in zoology. He completed his Harvard University PhD at the Museum of Comparative Zoology in 1973 on a study of chromosome variation, evolution and speciation in lizards. As a University of Melbourne Research Fellow in Genetics from mid 1977 to mid 1979, he studied the theory of knowledge as it applied to comparative biology and evolution.
Back in Australia in 1981, Dr Hall found the rapidly evolving technology of personal computing. After an excursion into computer literacy journalism, he worked as a technical communicator and documentation specialist in a computer software house and the original Bank of Melbourne. From 1990 through mid 2007, he served Tenix Defence as a documentation and knowledge management systems analyst, retiring in 2007. From 2001 Bill has combined his diverse experiences into a unified theory of organization and organizational knowledge as presented in several academic papers and a draft book on the co-evolution of and revolutions in human cognition and humanity’s cognitive tools. This talk presents one of the
threads from his book and publications.
--------------
Reading: Hall, W.P. 2011. Physical basis for the emergence of autopoiesis, cognition and knowledge. Kororoit Institute Working Papers No. 2: 1-63 -
A presentation, progress draft and other products of “Application Holy Wars or a New Reformation: A Fugue on the Theory of Knowledge” can be accessed on http://tinyurl
Learn How to Write a Truly Impressive Scholarship Essay!. How to Write a Scholarship Essay in 10 Easy Steps. FREE 7+ Sample Scholarship Essay Templates in PDF | MS Word. College Essay: Essay for scholarship sample. Sample Scholarship Essay | PDF. Sample Essay for Scholarship in 2020 (With images) | Scholarship essay .... How to Write a Winning Scholarship Essay | 17 Best Examples. Scholarship Essay Examples - 10+ in PDF | Examples. Scholarship Essay - 20+ Examples, Format, Pdf | Examples. How to Write a Scholarship Essay: Valuable Tips from Experts. 002 Scholarship Essay Format Example Examples Free Pdf Download How To .... Scholarship Essay Sample. Scholarship Essay Samples | Template Business. College Scholarship Essay Writing - 16 Scholarship Essay Examples For .... Scholarship Essay Examples That Won Money | Format And Steps. Impressive Sample Scholarship Essays Based Financial Need ~ Thatsnotus. 17 Best Scholarship Essay Templates. How to Write a Scholarship Essay: Complete Guide + Examples - What to .... EXAMPLE ESSAYS FOR COLLEGE SCHOLARSHIPS – Terncentva14 Blog. Scholarship Essay Writing Guide [+Examples] | Pro Essay Help. FREE 9+ Scholarship Essay Samples in MS Word | PDF. Sample Personal Scholarship Essay | Templates at allbusinesstemplates.com. Free Scholarship Essay Example - doc | 41KB | 6 Page(s). College Sample Scholarship Essays | Master of Template Document. Scholarship Essay Examples Check more at https://cleverhippo.org ... How To Write Scholarship Essay How To Write Scholarship Essay
This document discusses the relationship between philosophy and science, and the role of philosophy of science. It makes three main points:
1. Philosophy of science analyzes and comments on scientific processes and results, but cannot generate new knowledge or predict future scientific advances in the way that science can.
2. Philosophy of science can offer conceptual analysis of scientific methods and ontology, as well as "claim checking" of scientific approaches, but its contributions are limited.
3. If biology and other sciences require a metaphysical foundation, then metaphysics should be treated as an explicit branch of those sciences and approached scientifically rather than by amateur philosophers.
This document discusses the research methodology used in a study. It begins by introducing the key components of research methodology: philosophy, strategy, and instruments. It then discusses the two major research philosophies - positivism and interpretivism. The document considers both approaches and rationale for an interpretivist philosophy to understand group adoption of information systems. Both quantitative and qualitative methods are used, including a survey instrument and case studies. The purpose is to have a rigorous yet relevant approach to answering the research question.
The document discusses the multi-level nature of science. It describes how science works at different scales, from individual scientists tackling specific problems to broad overarching theories that frame entire disciplines. Hypotheses aim to explain narrow phenomena, while theories provide broad explanations supported by evidence. Some theories, like evolution or plate tectonics, are so important that they establish frameworks for understanding the natural world. Even accepted theories may change over time with new evidence. The document uses examples like the discovery of ozone depletion by CFCs to illustrate how science is an iterative process dependent on evidence and the scientific community.
There is no_such_thing_as_a_social_science_introElsa von Licy
This document provides an introduction and overview of the arguments made in the book "There is No Such Thing as Social Science". It begins by stating the provocative title and questioning whether the authors will take it back or qualify their position.
It then outlines three ways the term "social science" could be used - referring to a scientific spirit of inquiry, a shared scientific method, or reducibility to natural sciences. The authors argue against the latter two, methodological and substantive reductionism.
The introduction discusses how opponents may accuse the authors of being a priori or anti-reductionist, but argues that those defending social science are actually being dogmatic by insisting it must follow a scientific model. It frames the debate as being
This document summarizes an article that argues the Naturalistic Fallacy does not prohibit evolutionary approaches to ethics as is commonly believed. It begins by outlining Stephen Jay Gould's view that science can describe factual realities but not make value judgments, which he reserves for religion. However, the authors argue a deeper understanding of the Naturalistic Fallacy shows it constrains all approaches to ethics, both religious and scientific. While it prohibits deriving values directly from facts, an evolutionary understanding of human psychology and social interactions can shed light on the development of moral values. Contrary to common beliefs, the Naturalistic Fallacy conceptually allows for evolutionary ethics rather than prohibiting it.
Here is a sample persuasive paragraph using logic to argue for a preferred breakfast food:
Dear Friend,
While I understand the appeal of pancakes for breakfast, I must insist that eggs are the superior choice. Let us examine the arguments logically:
Firstly, eggs provide more complete nutrition compared to pancakes. Eggs are packed with high-quality protein, vitamins, and minerals to fuel our bodies for the day. Pancakes are mainly carbohydrates and lack other essential nutrients.
Secondly, eggs are more versatile and accommodating of different dietary preferences. One can prepare eggs in many ways - scrambled, fried, boiled - to suit vegetarians, those watching calories or fat intake, etc. Pancakes
Knowledge and Life: What does it mean to be living?William Hall
Abstract:
Biology is the science of life, yet Biology still has not achieved generally acceptable answers to its foundation questions, “What is life?”, “What does it mean to be living?”, What is the meaning of life?
Dr Hall first confronted these questions teaching biology courses in 1966. The search for comprehensive and scientifically justifiable answers has guided his work since then. His answers unify key ideas from a number of quite disparate disciplines. The keystone unifies Karl Popper’s 1972 and later works on evolutionary theory of knowledge with Maturana and Varela’s ideas from the 1970s on autopoiesis and cognition that set out a collection of traits that defined life. The unification shows that knowledge is solutions to problems. Life is impossible without knowledge. Knowledge is a product of living. The unification is supported by an understanding of the heritability of objective and subjective knowledge (genetic, cultural) and the theory of hierarchically dynamic systems developed by Herbert Simon, Arthur Koestler, Stanley Salthe, and others. The structure rests on foundation theories of emergent complexity including physical dynamics and thermodynamics, Stuart Kauffman’s ideas on the origins of order and his concept of the “adjacent possible” together with the nature of time in George Ellis’s “block-” or “crystallizing block universes”.
----------
Dr Hall started life as an amateur naturalist. He started college in 1957 in physics but dyslexia with numbers led to him starting over in zoology. He completed his Harvard University PhD at the Museum of Comparative Zoology in 1973 on a study of chromosome variation, evolution and speciation in lizards. As a University of Melbourne Research Fellow in Genetics from mid 1977 to mid 1979, he studied the theory of knowledge as it applied to comparative biology and evolution.
Back in Australia in 1981, Dr Hall found the rapidly evolving technology of personal computing. After an excursion into computer literacy journalism, he worked as a technical communicator and documentation specialist in a computer software house and the original Bank of Melbourne. From 1990 through mid 2007, he served Tenix Defence as a documentation and knowledge management systems analyst, retiring in 2007. From 2001 Bill has combined his diverse experiences into a unified theory of organization and organizational knowledge as presented in several academic papers and a draft book on the co-evolution of and revolutions in human cognition and humanity’s cognitive tools. This talk presents one of the
threads from his book and publications.
--------------
Reading: Hall, W.P. 2011. Physical basis for the emergence of autopoiesis, cognition and knowledge. Kororoit Institute Working Papers No. 2: 1-63 -
A presentation, progress draft and other products of “Application Holy Wars or a New Reformation: A Fugue on the Theory of Knowledge” can be accessed on http://tinyurl
Learn How to Write a Truly Impressive Scholarship Essay!. How to Write a Scholarship Essay in 10 Easy Steps. FREE 7+ Sample Scholarship Essay Templates in PDF | MS Word. College Essay: Essay for scholarship sample. Sample Scholarship Essay | PDF. Sample Essay for Scholarship in 2020 (With images) | Scholarship essay .... How to Write a Winning Scholarship Essay | 17 Best Examples. Scholarship Essay Examples - 10+ in PDF | Examples. Scholarship Essay - 20+ Examples, Format, Pdf | Examples. How to Write a Scholarship Essay: Valuable Tips from Experts. 002 Scholarship Essay Format Example Examples Free Pdf Download How To .... Scholarship Essay Sample. Scholarship Essay Samples | Template Business. College Scholarship Essay Writing - 16 Scholarship Essay Examples For .... Scholarship Essay Examples That Won Money | Format And Steps. Impressive Sample Scholarship Essays Based Financial Need ~ Thatsnotus. 17 Best Scholarship Essay Templates. How to Write a Scholarship Essay: Complete Guide + Examples - What to .... EXAMPLE ESSAYS FOR COLLEGE SCHOLARSHIPS – Terncentva14 Blog. Scholarship Essay Writing Guide [+Examples] | Pro Essay Help. FREE 9+ Scholarship Essay Samples in MS Word | PDF. Sample Personal Scholarship Essay | Templates at allbusinesstemplates.com. Free Scholarship Essay Example - doc | 41KB | 6 Page(s). College Sample Scholarship Essays | Master of Template Document. Scholarship Essay Examples Check more at https://cleverhippo.org ... How To Write Scholarship Essay How To Write Scholarship Essay
This document discusses the relationship between philosophy and science, and the role of philosophy of science. It makes three main points:
1. Philosophy of science analyzes and comments on scientific processes and results, but cannot generate new knowledge or predict future scientific advances in the way that science can.
2. Philosophy of science can offer conceptual analysis of scientific methods and ontology, as well as "claim checking" of scientific approaches, but its contributions are limited.
3. If biology and other sciences require a metaphysical foundation, then metaphysics should be treated as an explicit branch of those sciences and approached scientifically rather than by amateur philosophers.
This document discusses the research methodology used in a study. It begins by introducing the key components of research methodology: philosophy, strategy, and instruments. It then discusses the two major research philosophies - positivism and interpretivism. The document considers both approaches and rationale for an interpretivist philosophy to understand group adoption of information systems. Both quantitative and qualitative methods are used, including a survey instrument and case studies. The purpose is to have a rigorous yet relevant approach to answering the research question.
Radius Images/Photolibrary1
Introducing Philosophy
• Philosophy has a rich and fascinating history.
• Philosophers explore questions ranging from logic and
mathematics to morality and art.
• Philosophy helps us to better understand our beliefs and
those of others and to examine, defend, and criticize
those beliefs.
What We Will Discover
mos66103_01_ch01_001-030.indd 1 12/1/10 7:22 PM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 What Is Philosophy?
Philosophy is an unusual discipline, not just because it has an enormously long history, but
because it spends a good bit of time investigating what philosophy itself is. In this chap-
ter, we look at what philosophy is, how philosophers approach their subject, and what the
benefits of philosophical inquiry are. We will also include a brief overview of the rich and
fascinating history of the development of philosophy in the West.
1.1 What Is Philosophy?
Here we will explore what philosophy is, including some of its history. We will focus on Western philosophy, and the most important philosophers of that tradi-tion, but it is good to keep in mind that there are other important traditions in the
history of philosophy. One of the most important things philosophers do is ask questions,
and we will identify some of the questions that have engaged philosophers for thousands
of years.
What Do Philosophers Do?
Plato tells us that philosophy begins in wonder. Human beings wonder about themselves,
about other people, about where they came from, about where they are going, and about
what they should do while they are here. Human beings are naturally curious, and each
question one asks leads to another, then another, and then another. One way of think-
ing about philosophy, then, is that it is the sys-
tematic attempt to answer the general questions
human beings have always asked, and the debate
that naturally follows each proposed answer.
Philosophy combines curiosity—wonder about
the world and all that is in it, and even beyond
it—and criticism—objections to answers, sugges-
tions of new answers, and new objections to those
new answers. As should be clear, philosophical
inquiry has one other important feature: It never
ends. We do, on occasion, seem to discover solu-
tions to specific philosophical questions. But the
pursuit of philosophy will continue as long as
there are things we don’t understand, and as long
as we remain curious.
The word philosophy comes from two Greek
words. We see one of them, philein, or “to love,”
in the name of Philadelphia, “city of brotherly
love,” and in the word philanthropy, love for
human beings. We are familiar with the other
word, sophos, from such words as sophisticated
and sophomore: It means wisdom. Thus, philos-
ophy is, literally, the love of wisdom and refers
to the unending search for answers to questions.
To be successful, then, in philosophy, one must
Hilary Helton/81a/Photolibrary
As humans, we are naturally curi-
ous—something often q ...
This document discusses the need for a new scientific vision that incorporates both analysis and synthesis. It argues that mainstream science relies too heavily on analytic methods that fragment reality. Some entities like organisms cannot be fully understood through fragmentation alone as they lose essential properties. A properly developed method of synthesis is needed to study emergent phenomena and understand how parts relate within complex wholes. The document claims that adopting both analytic and synthetic approaches can lead to a more integrated understanding of the world.
A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF PAUL TAYLOR S BIOCENTRISM.pdfLuz Martinez
This document provides a summary and analysis of Paul Taylor's theory of biocentrism. It begins by outlining the environmental problems caused by anthropocentrism and the emergence of non-anthropocentric views like Taylor's. Taylor's biocentric egalitarianism holds that all living things have intrinsic worth, not based on their instrumental value to humans. He argues for an attitude of respect for nature in which all life forms are valued equally. The document evaluates the practical applicability of Taylor's theory using a pragmatic methodology, finding that it is applicable in areas like policy, law, and environmental remediation efforts. However, it also identifies some conceptual weaknesses in Taylor's biocentric egalitarian view. Overall
Can you describe defition of fuction according to rationalism,empiri.pdfAmansupan
Can you describe defition of fuction according to rationalism,empiricism and pragmatism ? and
what are their differences ??
Solution
SOME YEARS AGO, being with a camping party in the mountains, I returned from
a solitary ramble to find every one engaged in a ferocious metaphysical dispute. The corpus of
the dispute was a squirrel – a live squirrel supposed to be clinging to one side of a tree-trunk;
while over against the tree’s opposite side a human being was imagined to stand. This human
witness tries to get sight of the squirrel by moving rapidly round the tree, but no matter how fast
he goes, the squirrel moves as fast in the opposite direction, and always keeps the tree between
himself and the man, so that never a glimpse of him is caught. The resultant metaphysical
problem now is this: Does the man go round the squirrel or not? He goes round the tree, sure
enough, and the squirrel is on the tree; but does he go round the squirrel? In the unlimited leisure
of the wilderness, discussion had been worn threadbare. Every one had taken sides, and was
obstinate; and the numbers on both sides were even. Each side, when I appeared therefore
appealed to me to make it a majority. Mindful of the scholastic adage that whenever you meet a
contradiction you must make a distinction, I immediately sought and found one, as follows:
“Which party is right,” I said, “depends on what you practically mean by ‘going round’ the
squirrel. If you mean passing from the north of him to the east, then to the south, then to the
west, and then to the north of him again, obviously the man does go round him, for he occupies
these successive positions. But if on the contrary you mean being first in front of him, then on
the right of him, then behind him, then on his left, and finally in front again, it is quite as obvious
that the man fails to go round him, for by the compensating movements the squirrel makes, he
keeps his belly turned towards the man all the time, and his back turned away. Make the
distinction, and there is no occasion for any farther dispute. You are both right and both wrong
according as you conceive the verb ‘to go round’ in one practical fashion or the other.”
Although one or two of the hotter disputants called my speech a shuffling evasion, saying they
wanted no quibbling or scholastic hair-splitting, but meant just plain honest English ‘round’, the
majority seemed to think that the distinction had assuaged the dispute. I tell this trivial anecdote
because it is a peculiarly simple example of what I wish now to speak of as the pragmatic
method. The pragmatic method is primarily a method of settling metaphysical disputes that
otherwise might be interminable. Is the world one or many? – fated or free? – material or
spiritual? – here are notions either of which may or may not hold good of the world; and disputes
over such notions are unending. The pragmatic method in such cases is to try to interpret each
notion by tracing its respective practical con.
This document discusses how scientists gain knowledge and the epistemological approaches of scientific inquiry. It contrasts scientific ways of knowing with other approaches. Some key points made include:
- Scientific inquiry uses processes like induction, deduction, observation, experimentation, and testing of hypotheses and theories.
- Scientists know things by providing justification and evidence to support their claims, rather than just having faith. They must be able to explain how they know something.
- Knowledge is considered a justified true belief, meaning a belief that is actually true and for which the believer can provide evidence or justification.
- Different fields like history, sociology and theology have their own ways of knowing that are distinct from science. Scientists rely on
This document discusses the thesis that mental time travel, or the ability to mentally experience past and future events, was a key development in human evolution. The author argues that while other primates have memory and anticipation, they do not have the same advanced abilities to re-experience past events or imagine possible futures. The first half examines evidence that episodic memory depends on other cognitive capabilities like self-awareness. The second half contrasts flexible thinking about the future in humans versus other forms of anticipatory behavior in primates. The author proposes that mental time travel was an adaptive ability that contributed to humanity's dramatic impact on the planet.
This document discusses mental time travel and its role in human evolution. It argues that while other animals have memory and expectations, they do not possess the same ability to mentally travel into the past or future like humans can. The document reviews evidence that episodic memory, the memory of personal experiences associated with specific past times, may be uniquely human. It proposes that the development of mental time travel into the past and future was a major factor in human evolution and what sets humans apart from other species.
This document discusses the naturalness of religion and unnaturalness of science. It argues that while science studies nature, religion deals with supernatural concepts, cognitively religion is more natural than science. Religion stems from basic human cognitive tendencies like detecting agency and making causal explanations, while science requires extensive cultural learning. The document aims to clarify how religion and science differ as explanatory projects and why religion will persist despite scientific advances.
1
An Introduction to Philosophy
W. Russ Payne
Bellevue College
Copyright (cc by nc 4.0)
2015 W. Russ Payne
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document with attribution under the
terms of Creative Commons: Attribution Noncommercial 4.0 International or any later version of
this license. A copy of the license is found at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
2
Contents
Introduction ………………………………………………. 3
Chapter 1: What Philosophy Is ………………………….. 5
Chapter 2: How to do Philosophy ………………….……. 11
Chapter 3: Ancient Philosophy ………………….………. 23
Chapter 4: Rationalism ………….………………….……. 38
Chapter 5: Empiricism …………………………………… 50
Chapter 6: Philosophy of Science ………………….…..… 58
Chapter 7: Philosophy of Mind …………………….……. 72
Chapter 8: Love and Happiness …………………….……. 79
Chapter 9: Meta Ethics …………………………………… 94
Chapter 10: Right Action ……………………...…………. 108
Chapter 11: Social Justice …………………………...…… 120
3
Introduction
The goal of this text is to present philosophy to newcomers as a living discipline with historical
roots. While a few early chapters are historically organized, my goal in the historical chapters is
to trace a developmental progression of thought that introduces basic philosophical methods and
frames issues that remain relevant today. Later chapters are topically organized. These include
philosophy of science and philosophy of mind, areas where philosophy has shown dramatic
recent progress.
This text concludes with four chapters on ethics, broadly construed. I cover traditional theories of
right action in the third of these. Students are first invited first to think about what is good for
themselves and their relationships in a chapter of love and happiness. Next a few meta-ethical
issues are considered; namely, whether they are moral truths and if so what makes them so. The
end of the ethics sequence addresses social justice, what it is for one’s community to be good.
Our sphere of concern expands progressively through these chapters. Our inquiry recapitulates
the course of development into moral maturity.
Over the course of the text I’ve tried to outline the continuity of thought that leads from the
historical roots of philosophy to a few of the diverse areas of inquiry that continue to make
significant contributions to our understanding of ourselves and the world we live in.
As an undergraduate philosophy major, one of my favorite professors once told me that
philosophers really do have an influence on how people think. I was pleased to hear that the kind
of inquiry I found interesting and rewarding might also be relevant to people’s lives and make a
difference in the world. Then he completed his thought, “it only takes about 300 years.” Over the
course of my teaching career, it has struck me that the opinions many of my students come to
class with have jus ...
1
An Introduction to Philosophy
W. Russ Payne
Bellevue College
Copyright (cc by nc 4.0)
2015 W. Russ Payne
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document with attribution under the
terms of Creative Commons: Attribution Noncommercial 4.0 International or any later version of
this license. A copy of the license is found at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
2
Contents
Introduction ………………………………………………. 3
Chapter 1: What Philosophy Is ………………………….. 5
Chapter 2: How to do Philosophy ………………….……. 11
Chapter 3: Ancient Philosophy ………………….………. 23
Chapter 4: Rationalism ………….………………….……. 38
Chapter 5: Empiricism …………………………………… 50
Chapter 6: Philosophy of Science ………………….…..… 58
Chapter 7: Philosophy of Mind …………………….……. 72
Chapter 8: Love and Happiness …………………….……. 79
Chapter 9: Meta Ethics …………………………………… 94
Chapter 10: Right Action ……………………...…………. 108
Chapter 11: Social Justice …………………………...…… 120
3
Introduction
The goal of this text is to present philosophy to newcomers as a living discipline with historical
roots. While a few early chapters are historically organized, my goal in the historical chapters is
to trace a developmental progression of thought that introduces basic philosophical methods and
frames issues that remain relevant today. Later chapters are topically organized. These include
philosophy of science and philosophy of mind, areas where philosophy has shown dramatic
recent progress.
This text concludes with four chapters on ethics, broadly construed. I cover traditional theories of
right action in the third of these. Students are first invited first to think about what is good for
themselves and their relationships in a chapter of love and happiness. Next a few meta-ethical
issues are considered; namely, whether they are moral truths and if so what makes them so. The
end of the ethics sequence addresses social justice, what it is for one’s community to be good.
Our sphere of concern expands progressively through these chapters. Our inquiry recapitulates
the course of development into moral maturity.
Over the course of the text I’ve tried to outline the continuity of thought that leads from the
historical roots of philosophy to a few of the diverse areas of inquiry that continue to make
significant contributions to our understanding of ourselves and the world we live in.
As an undergraduate philosophy major, one of my favorite professors once told me that
philosophers really do have an influence on how people think. I was pleased to hear that the kind
of inquiry I found interesting and rewarding might also be relevant to people’s lives and make a
difference in the world. Then he completed his thought, “it only takes about 300 years.” Over the
course of my teaching career, it has struck me that the opinions many of my students come to
class with have jus ...
A Change Of Heart Essays In The Moral Philosophy Of ForgivenessMonica Franklin
This dissertation consists of three papers on issues in the moral philosophy of forgiveness. The first paper argues that there is a pro tanto duty to forgive repentant wrongdoers who apologize. It proposes a norm of forgiveness and examines three types of ethical considerations relevant to determining if there is an all-things-considered duty to forgive in a particular case. The second paper discusses whether forgiveness is supererogatory or can be a personal duty. The third paper considers whether there is something to forgive in cases where an action was excusable or justified, challenging the standard view that forgiveness requires blame or culpability.
A Change of Heart Essays in the Moral Philosophy of Forgiveness.pdfJill Brown
This dissertation consists of three papers on issues in the moral philosophy of forgiveness. The first paper argues that there is a pro tanto duty to forgive repentant wrongdoers who apologize. It proposes a norm of forgiveness and examines three types of ethical considerations relevant to determining if there is an all-things-considered duty to forgive in a particular case. The second paper discusses whether forgiveness is supererogatory or can be a personal duty. The third paper considers whether there is something to forgive in cases where an action was excusable or justified, challenging the standard view that forgiveness requires blame or culpability.
Essay on Health | Health Essay for Students and Children in English - A .... promoting good health - A-Level Healthcare - Marked by Teachers.com. Good health Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays ....
Investigation: How and Why Have People Misused Darwin's Ideas?Big History Project
Charles Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection provides an interesting case of how scientific ideas can get misapplied in society.
Register to explore the whole course here: https://school.bighistoryproject.com/bhplive?WT.mc_id=Slideshare12202017
This document is the winter 2011 edition of a new Bristol philosophy magazine called "Ad Absurdum". It includes articles on various philosophical topics such as what philosophy is, a review of the annual Hay-on-Wye philosophy festival, an article about the Innocence Project based in Bristol, and an interview with a philosophy lecturer. It also lists contact information for the magazine and biographies of the editorial team. The document provides an overview of the various philosophical discussions and debates contained in the winter issue of this new local philosophy magazine.
Invading the invisibles-ja_edgarton-1931-359pgs-phiRareBooksnRecords
This document provides an introduction to the work by outlining the relationship between philosophy and civilization. It argues that philosophies shape civilizations by expressing their fundamental character. It gives examples of how Confucianism influenced China's static development and how beliefs in reincarnation similarly affected India. The author contends that fixed concepts tend to retard progress. The discussion introduces how the work will explore the new philosophies emerging from recent scientific discoveries and changes in worldviews.
97% of climate scientists agree fact or fiction_issue 1_160925Gordon Hirst
The document discusses the claim that 97% of climate scientists agree that climate change poses risks from human activities. It notes that this figure comes from a 2013 scientific study but has since taken on an almost mythical status in public debates. The author aims to provide a clear, level-headed examination of where the 97% figure came from, how accurate it is, and why it has become so divisive. The document outlines the scientific process and how science is perceived differently by experts and the public through media coverage.
George Ellis gives a lecture on the science and religion dialogue. He discusses three key aspects - practical issues where the dialogue makes a real-world difference; theoretical issues regarding how we understand and make theories; and philosophical issues about our understanding of how things are. On non-essential issues like the origins of the universe and life, Ellis argues the dialogue can clarify each domain without conflict. However, on foundational issues like the nature of existence, potential conflicts remain regarding design, creation and fine-tuning of the universe.
Radius Images/Photolibrary1
Introducing Philosophy
• Philosophy has a rich and fascinating history.
• Philosophers explore questions ranging from logic and
mathematics to morality and art.
• Philosophy helps us to better understand our beliefs and
those of others and to examine, defend, and criticize
those beliefs.
What We Will Discover
mos66103_01_ch01_001-030.indd 1 12/1/10 7:22 PM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 What Is Philosophy?
Philosophy is an unusual discipline, not just because it has an enormously long history, but
because it spends a good bit of time investigating what philosophy itself is. In this chap-
ter, we look at what philosophy is, how philosophers approach their subject, and what the
benefits of philosophical inquiry are. We will also include a brief overview of the rich and
fascinating history of the development of philosophy in the West.
1.1 What Is Philosophy?
Here we will explore what philosophy is, including some of its history. We will focus on Western philosophy, and the most important philosophers of that tradi-tion, but it is good to keep in mind that there are other important traditions in the
history of philosophy. One of the most important things philosophers do is ask questions,
and we will identify some of the questions that have engaged philosophers for thousands
of years.
What Do Philosophers Do?
Plato tells us that philosophy begins in wonder. Human beings wonder about themselves,
about other people, about where they came from, about where they are going, and about
what they should do while they are here. Human beings are naturally curious, and each
question one asks leads to another, then another, and then another. One way of think-
ing about philosophy, then, is that it is the sys-
tematic attempt to answer the general questions
human beings have always asked, and the debate
that naturally follows each proposed answer.
Philosophy combines curiosity—wonder about
the world and all that is in it, and even beyond
it—and criticism—objections to answers, sugges-
tions of new answers, and new objections to those
new answers. As should be clear, philosophical
inquiry has one other important feature: It never
ends. We do, on occasion, seem to discover solu-
tions to specific philosophical questions. But the
pursuit of philosophy will continue as long as
there are things we don’t understand, and as long
as we remain curious.
The word philosophy comes from two Greek
words. We see one of them, philein, or “to love,”
in the name of Philadelphia, “city of brotherly
love,” and in the word philanthropy, love for
human beings. We are familiar with the other
word, sophos, from such words as sophisticated
and sophomore: It means wisdom. Thus, philos-
ophy is, literally, the love of wisdom and refers
to the unending search for answers to questions.
To be successful, then, in philosophy, one must
Hilary Helton/81a/Photolibrary
As humans, we are naturally curi-
ous—something often q ...
This document discusses the need for a new scientific vision that incorporates both analysis and synthesis. It argues that mainstream science relies too heavily on analytic methods that fragment reality. Some entities like organisms cannot be fully understood through fragmentation alone as they lose essential properties. A properly developed method of synthesis is needed to study emergent phenomena and understand how parts relate within complex wholes. The document claims that adopting both analytic and synthetic approaches can lead to a more integrated understanding of the world.
A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF PAUL TAYLOR S BIOCENTRISM.pdfLuz Martinez
This document provides a summary and analysis of Paul Taylor's theory of biocentrism. It begins by outlining the environmental problems caused by anthropocentrism and the emergence of non-anthropocentric views like Taylor's. Taylor's biocentric egalitarianism holds that all living things have intrinsic worth, not based on their instrumental value to humans. He argues for an attitude of respect for nature in which all life forms are valued equally. The document evaluates the practical applicability of Taylor's theory using a pragmatic methodology, finding that it is applicable in areas like policy, law, and environmental remediation efforts. However, it also identifies some conceptual weaknesses in Taylor's biocentric egalitarian view. Overall
Can you describe defition of fuction according to rationalism,empiri.pdfAmansupan
Can you describe defition of fuction according to rationalism,empiricism and pragmatism ? and
what are their differences ??
Solution
SOME YEARS AGO, being with a camping party in the mountains, I returned from
a solitary ramble to find every one engaged in a ferocious metaphysical dispute. The corpus of
the dispute was a squirrel – a live squirrel supposed to be clinging to one side of a tree-trunk;
while over against the tree’s opposite side a human being was imagined to stand. This human
witness tries to get sight of the squirrel by moving rapidly round the tree, but no matter how fast
he goes, the squirrel moves as fast in the opposite direction, and always keeps the tree between
himself and the man, so that never a glimpse of him is caught. The resultant metaphysical
problem now is this: Does the man go round the squirrel or not? He goes round the tree, sure
enough, and the squirrel is on the tree; but does he go round the squirrel? In the unlimited leisure
of the wilderness, discussion had been worn threadbare. Every one had taken sides, and was
obstinate; and the numbers on both sides were even. Each side, when I appeared therefore
appealed to me to make it a majority. Mindful of the scholastic adage that whenever you meet a
contradiction you must make a distinction, I immediately sought and found one, as follows:
“Which party is right,” I said, “depends on what you practically mean by ‘going round’ the
squirrel. If you mean passing from the north of him to the east, then to the south, then to the
west, and then to the north of him again, obviously the man does go round him, for he occupies
these successive positions. But if on the contrary you mean being first in front of him, then on
the right of him, then behind him, then on his left, and finally in front again, it is quite as obvious
that the man fails to go round him, for by the compensating movements the squirrel makes, he
keeps his belly turned towards the man all the time, and his back turned away. Make the
distinction, and there is no occasion for any farther dispute. You are both right and both wrong
according as you conceive the verb ‘to go round’ in one practical fashion or the other.”
Although one or two of the hotter disputants called my speech a shuffling evasion, saying they
wanted no quibbling or scholastic hair-splitting, but meant just plain honest English ‘round’, the
majority seemed to think that the distinction had assuaged the dispute. I tell this trivial anecdote
because it is a peculiarly simple example of what I wish now to speak of as the pragmatic
method. The pragmatic method is primarily a method of settling metaphysical disputes that
otherwise might be interminable. Is the world one or many? – fated or free? – material or
spiritual? – here are notions either of which may or may not hold good of the world; and disputes
over such notions are unending. The pragmatic method in such cases is to try to interpret each
notion by tracing its respective practical con.
This document discusses how scientists gain knowledge and the epistemological approaches of scientific inquiry. It contrasts scientific ways of knowing with other approaches. Some key points made include:
- Scientific inquiry uses processes like induction, deduction, observation, experimentation, and testing of hypotheses and theories.
- Scientists know things by providing justification and evidence to support their claims, rather than just having faith. They must be able to explain how they know something.
- Knowledge is considered a justified true belief, meaning a belief that is actually true and for which the believer can provide evidence or justification.
- Different fields like history, sociology and theology have their own ways of knowing that are distinct from science. Scientists rely on
This document discusses the thesis that mental time travel, or the ability to mentally experience past and future events, was a key development in human evolution. The author argues that while other primates have memory and anticipation, they do not have the same advanced abilities to re-experience past events or imagine possible futures. The first half examines evidence that episodic memory depends on other cognitive capabilities like self-awareness. The second half contrasts flexible thinking about the future in humans versus other forms of anticipatory behavior in primates. The author proposes that mental time travel was an adaptive ability that contributed to humanity's dramatic impact on the planet.
This document discusses mental time travel and its role in human evolution. It argues that while other animals have memory and expectations, they do not possess the same ability to mentally travel into the past or future like humans can. The document reviews evidence that episodic memory, the memory of personal experiences associated with specific past times, may be uniquely human. It proposes that the development of mental time travel into the past and future was a major factor in human evolution and what sets humans apart from other species.
This document discusses the naturalness of religion and unnaturalness of science. It argues that while science studies nature, religion deals with supernatural concepts, cognitively religion is more natural than science. Religion stems from basic human cognitive tendencies like detecting agency and making causal explanations, while science requires extensive cultural learning. The document aims to clarify how religion and science differ as explanatory projects and why religion will persist despite scientific advances.
1
An Introduction to Philosophy
W. Russ Payne
Bellevue College
Copyright (cc by nc 4.0)
2015 W. Russ Payne
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document with attribution under the
terms of Creative Commons: Attribution Noncommercial 4.0 International or any later version of
this license. A copy of the license is found at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
2
Contents
Introduction ………………………………………………. 3
Chapter 1: What Philosophy Is ………………………….. 5
Chapter 2: How to do Philosophy ………………….……. 11
Chapter 3: Ancient Philosophy ………………….………. 23
Chapter 4: Rationalism ………….………………….……. 38
Chapter 5: Empiricism …………………………………… 50
Chapter 6: Philosophy of Science ………………….…..… 58
Chapter 7: Philosophy of Mind …………………….……. 72
Chapter 8: Love and Happiness …………………….……. 79
Chapter 9: Meta Ethics …………………………………… 94
Chapter 10: Right Action ……………………...…………. 108
Chapter 11: Social Justice …………………………...…… 120
3
Introduction
The goal of this text is to present philosophy to newcomers as a living discipline with historical
roots. While a few early chapters are historically organized, my goal in the historical chapters is
to trace a developmental progression of thought that introduces basic philosophical methods and
frames issues that remain relevant today. Later chapters are topically organized. These include
philosophy of science and philosophy of mind, areas where philosophy has shown dramatic
recent progress.
This text concludes with four chapters on ethics, broadly construed. I cover traditional theories of
right action in the third of these. Students are first invited first to think about what is good for
themselves and their relationships in a chapter of love and happiness. Next a few meta-ethical
issues are considered; namely, whether they are moral truths and if so what makes them so. The
end of the ethics sequence addresses social justice, what it is for one’s community to be good.
Our sphere of concern expands progressively through these chapters. Our inquiry recapitulates
the course of development into moral maturity.
Over the course of the text I’ve tried to outline the continuity of thought that leads from the
historical roots of philosophy to a few of the diverse areas of inquiry that continue to make
significant contributions to our understanding of ourselves and the world we live in.
As an undergraduate philosophy major, one of my favorite professors once told me that
philosophers really do have an influence on how people think. I was pleased to hear that the kind
of inquiry I found interesting and rewarding might also be relevant to people’s lives and make a
difference in the world. Then he completed his thought, “it only takes about 300 years.” Over the
course of my teaching career, it has struck me that the opinions many of my students come to
class with have jus ...
1
An Introduction to Philosophy
W. Russ Payne
Bellevue College
Copyright (cc by nc 4.0)
2015 W. Russ Payne
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document with attribution under the
terms of Creative Commons: Attribution Noncommercial 4.0 International or any later version of
this license. A copy of the license is found at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
2
Contents
Introduction ………………………………………………. 3
Chapter 1: What Philosophy Is ………………………….. 5
Chapter 2: How to do Philosophy ………………….……. 11
Chapter 3: Ancient Philosophy ………………….………. 23
Chapter 4: Rationalism ………….………………….……. 38
Chapter 5: Empiricism …………………………………… 50
Chapter 6: Philosophy of Science ………………….…..… 58
Chapter 7: Philosophy of Mind …………………….……. 72
Chapter 8: Love and Happiness …………………….……. 79
Chapter 9: Meta Ethics …………………………………… 94
Chapter 10: Right Action ……………………...…………. 108
Chapter 11: Social Justice …………………………...…… 120
3
Introduction
The goal of this text is to present philosophy to newcomers as a living discipline with historical
roots. While a few early chapters are historically organized, my goal in the historical chapters is
to trace a developmental progression of thought that introduces basic philosophical methods and
frames issues that remain relevant today. Later chapters are topically organized. These include
philosophy of science and philosophy of mind, areas where philosophy has shown dramatic
recent progress.
This text concludes with four chapters on ethics, broadly construed. I cover traditional theories of
right action in the third of these. Students are first invited first to think about what is good for
themselves and their relationships in a chapter of love and happiness. Next a few meta-ethical
issues are considered; namely, whether they are moral truths and if so what makes them so. The
end of the ethics sequence addresses social justice, what it is for one’s community to be good.
Our sphere of concern expands progressively through these chapters. Our inquiry recapitulates
the course of development into moral maturity.
Over the course of the text I’ve tried to outline the continuity of thought that leads from the
historical roots of philosophy to a few of the diverse areas of inquiry that continue to make
significant contributions to our understanding of ourselves and the world we live in.
As an undergraduate philosophy major, one of my favorite professors once told me that
philosophers really do have an influence on how people think. I was pleased to hear that the kind
of inquiry I found interesting and rewarding might also be relevant to people’s lives and make a
difference in the world. Then he completed his thought, “it only takes about 300 years.” Over the
course of my teaching career, it has struck me that the opinions many of my students come to
class with have jus ...
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A Change of Heart Essays in the Moral Philosophy of Forgiveness.pdfJill Brown
This dissertation consists of three papers on issues in the moral philosophy of forgiveness. The first paper argues that there is a pro tanto duty to forgive repentant wrongdoers who apologize. It proposes a norm of forgiveness and examines three types of ethical considerations relevant to determining if there is an all-things-considered duty to forgive in a particular case. The second paper discusses whether forgiveness is supererogatory or can be a personal duty. The third paper considers whether there is something to forgive in cases where an action was excusable or justified, challenging the standard view that forgiveness requires blame or culpability.
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Water contamination is one of the major causes of water borne diseases worldwide. In Kenya, approximately 43% of people lack access to potable water due to human contamination. River Kuywa water is currently experiencing contamination due to human activities. Its water is widely used for domestic, agricultural, industrial and recreational purposes. This study aimed at characterizing bacteria and fungi in river Kuywa water. Water samples were randomly collected from four sites of the river: site A (Matisi), site B (Ngwelo), site C (Nzoia water pump) and site D (Chalicha), during the dry season (January-March 2018) and wet season (April-July 2018) and were transported to Maseno University Microbiology and plant pathology laboratory for analysis. The characterization and identification of bacteria and fungi were carried out using standard microbiological techniques. Nine bacterial genera and three fungi were identified from Kuywa river water. Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus spp., Enterobacter spp., Streptococcus spp., E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp., Proteus spp. and Salmonella spp. Fungi were Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus complex and Penicillium species. Wet season recorded highest bacterial and fungal counts (6.61-7.66 and 3.83-6.75cfu/ml) respectively. The results indicated that the river Kuywa water is polluted and therefore unsafe for human consumption before treatment. It is therefore recommended that the communities to ensure that they boil water especially for drinking.
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
Kinetic studies on malachite green dye adsorption from aqueous solutions by A...Open Access Research Paper
Water polluted by dyestuffs compounds is a global threat to health and the environment; accordingly, we prepared a green novel sorbent chemical and Physical system from an algae, chitosan and chitosan nanoparticle and impregnated with algae with chitosan nanocomposite for the sorption of Malachite green dye from water. The algae with chitosan nanocomposite by a simple method and used as a recyclable and effective adsorbent for the removal of malachite green dye from aqueous solutions. Algae, chitosan, chitosan nanoparticle and algae with chitosan nanocomposite were characterized using different physicochemical methods. The functional groups and chemical compounds found in algae, chitosan, chitosan algae, chitosan nanoparticle, and chitosan nanoparticle with algae were identified using FTIR, SEM, and TGADTA/DTG techniques. The optimal adsorption conditions, different dosages, pH and Temperature the amount of algae with chitosan nanocomposite were determined. At optimized conditions and the batch equilibrium studies more than 99% of the dye was removed. The adsorption process data matched well kinetics showed that the reaction order for dye varied with pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order. Furthermore, the maximum adsorption capacity of the algae with chitosan nanocomposite toward malachite green dye reached as high as 15.5mg/g, respectively. Finally, multiple times reusing of algae with chitosan nanocomposite and removing dye from a real wastewater has made it a promising and attractive option for further practical applications.
Recycling and Disposal on SWM Raymond Einyu pptxRayLetai1
Increasing urbanization, rural–urban migration, rising standards of living, and rapid development associated with population growth have resulted in increased solid waste generation by industrial, domestic and other activities in Nairobi City. It has been noted in other contexts too that increasing population, changing consumption patterns, economic development, changing income, urbanization and industrialization all contribute to the increased generation of waste.
With the increasing urban population in Kenya, which is estimated to be growing at a rate higher than that of the country’s general population, waste generation and management is already a major challenge. The industrialization and urbanization process in the country, dominated by one major city – Nairobi, which has around four times the population of the next largest urban centre (Mombasa) – has witnessed an exponential increase in the generation of solid waste. It is projected that by 2030, about 50 per cent of the Kenyan population will be urban.
Aim:
A healthy, safe, secure and sustainable solid waste management system fit for a world – class city.
Improve and protect the public health of Nairobi residents and visitors.
Ecological health, diversity and productivity and maximize resource recovery through the participatory approach.
Goals:
Build awareness and capacity for source separation as essential components of sustainable waste management.
Build new environmentally sound infrastructure and systems for safe disposal of residual waste and replacing current dumpsites which should be commissioned.
Current solid waste management situation:
The status.
Solid waste generation rate is at 2240 tones / day
collection efficiently is at about 50%.
Actors i.e. city authorities, CBO’s , private firms and self-disposal
Current SWM Situation in Nairobi City:
Solid waste generation – collection – dumping
Good Practices:
• Separation – recycling – marketing.
• Open dumpsite dandora dump site through public education on source separation of waste, of which the situation can be reversed.
• Nairobi is one of the C40 cities in this respect , various actors in the solid waste management space have adopted a variety of technologies to reduce short lived climate pollutants including source separation , recycling , marketing of the recycled products.
• Through the network, it should expect to benefit from expertise of the different actors in the network in terms of applicable technologies and practices in reducing the short-lived climate pollutants.
Good practices:
Despite the dismal collection of solid waste in Nairobi city, there are practices and activities of informal actors (CBOs, CBO-SACCOs and yard shop operators) and other formal industrial actors on solid waste collection, recycling and waste reduction.
Practices and activities of these actor groups are viewed as innovations with the potential to change the way solid waste is handled.
CHALLENGES:
• Resource Allocation.
Climate Change All over the World .pptxsairaanwer024
Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the average weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It encompasses both global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. While climate change is a natural phenomenon, human activities, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, have accelerated its pace and intensity
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...Joshua Orris
The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
Optimizing Post Remediation Groundwater Performance with Enhanced Microbiolog...Joshua Orris
Results of geophysics and pneumatic injection pilot tests during 2003 – 2007 yielded significant positive results for injection delivery design and contaminant mass treatment, resulting in permanent shut-down of an existing groundwater Pump & Treat system.
Accessible source areas were subsequently removed (2011) by soil excavation and treated with the placement of Emulsified Vegetable Oil EVO and zero-valent iron ZVI to accelerate treatment of impacted groundwater in overburden and weathered fractured bedrock. Post pilot test and post remediation groundwater monitoring has included analyses of CVOCs, organic fatty acids, dissolved gases and QuantArray® -Chlor to quantify key microorganisms (e.g., Dehalococcoides, Dehalobacter, etc.) and functional genes (e.g., vinyl chloride reductase, methane monooxygenase, etc.) to assess potential for reductive dechlorination and aerobic cometabolism of CVOCs.
In 2022, the first commercial application of MetaArray™ was performed at the site. MetaArray™ utilizes statistical analysis, such as principal component analysis and multivariate analysis to provide evidence that reductive dechlorination is active or even that it is slowing. This creates actionable data allowing users to save money by making important site management decisions earlier.
The results of the MetaArray™ analysis’ support vector machine (SVM) identified groundwater monitoring wells with a 80% confidence that were characterized as either Limited for Reductive Decholorination or had a High Reductive Reduction Dechlorination potential. The results of MetaArray™ will be used to further optimize the site’s post remediation monitoring program for monitored natural attenuation.
1. The Trumpeter
ISSN: 0832-6193
Volume 21, Number 1 (2005)
The Basics of Deep Ecology
1986H
Arne Naess
This paper is a revised version of one given in a lecture in Canberra, Australia,
in 1986.
The deep ecology movement will thrive whatever professional
philosophers like myself publish about their conception of it. Perhaps
what I say about it is expressed in a way that is not natural for many of
its warm supporters. But we cannot expect, or even wish, to have a
single way of expressing ourselves. I have mine.
Supporters of the deep ecology movement refer approvingly to a
diversity of philosophers, cultural traditions and religious trends. Some
authors ask for clarification: Where is the essence or core? Is there a
definite general philosophy of deep ecology, or at least a kind of
philosophy? Or is it essentially a movement with exasperatingly vague
outlines?
I do not think it is desirable to do more than tentatively suggest what
might be the essential ingredients of a deep ecology theoretical point of
view. In what follows I make some remarks which are formulated in a
way that might be considered dogmatic. They are, however, only meant
as proposals for people with a background similar to my own.
In order to facilitate discussion about deep ecology among
philosophers, it may be helpful to distinguish a common platform of
deep ecology from the fundamental features of philosophies and
religions from which that platform is derived, provided it is tentatively
formulated as a set of norms and hypotheses (factual assumptions). The
term platform is preferred to principle because the latter may be
misunderstood to refer to ultimate premises. Furthermore, the
formulations of a platform should be short and concise (as a synopsis),
whereas the fundamental premises are Buddhist, Taoist, Christian, or of
other religious kinds, or they are philosophical with affinities to the
Volume 21, Number 1 61
2. basic views of Spinoza, Whitehead, Heidegger, or others. Different sets
of fundamentals are normally more or less incompatible, or at least
difficult to compare in terms of cognitive contents. Supporters of deep
ecology may have great difficulties in understanding each other's
ultimate views, but not sets of penultimate ones as formulated as a kind
of platform they have largely in common.
The platform of the deep ecology movement can be grounded in
religion or philosophy, including ethics. It can also be said to be derived
from these fundaments. As used here, the term “derived” is open to a
variety of interpretations. If the validity of a norm or a hypothesis is
justified by reference to one definite set of assumptions of a
philosophical or religious kind, the norm or hypothesis is in a sense
derived from those assumptions. The set acquires a character of
premises for particular conclusions. But closely similar or even
identical conclusions may be drawn from divergent or even
incompatible premises. This explains in a natural way that diversity of
views at the deepest level can be felt by some to be bewildering and
makes deep ecology too vague to deserve analytical scrutiny.
One must avoid looking for one definite philosophy or religious view
among the supporters of the deep ecology movement. There is a rich
manifold of fundamental views compatible with the deep ecology
platform. And without this, the movement would lose its transcultural
character. The transcultural character of the movement makes it natural
that the wording of a version of the platform cannot be the same
everywhere. A term like “our planet,” for instance, is unsuitable where
people do not have any clear notion corresponding to the Western
concept of a planet.
The discussion has four levels to take into account: verbalized
fundamental philosophical and religious views; the deep ecology
platform; the more or less general consequences derived from the
platform—guidelines for life styles and for policies of every kind; and,
lastly, prescriptions related to concrete situations and dateable decisions
made in them. The term “dateable” refers to the trivial circumstance
that a decision is made at a definite time even if it has taken a year to
arrive at.
From the point of view of derivation one may use the following
diagram, usually called the Apron diagram. The direction of derivation
proceeds down the page, as is usual, and convenient. But some may
prefer the opposite: having the roots on the deepest level at the bottom
of the page and letting the other levels develop like the branches of a
The Trumpeter
62
3. tree. Still others would prefer a more holistic or artistic illustration
avoiding straight lines, preferring circles. The root may be conceived in
terms of the premise/conclusion relation or in terms of psychological or
social motivation, or in terms of some other relations. The Apron is a
premise/conclusion diagram.
The Apron Diagram
Level 1: Ultimate
premise, worldviews and
ecosophies
Level 2: Deep ecology
platform principles
The Apron diagram is of a rather abstract nature. Why not give an
example of a justification of a concrete action formulated in terms of
the apron? Let NN be a mythical person, a supporter of the deep
ecology movement, living somewhere near the unique old growth
forests of the Northwestern United States of America. He happens to
have fundamental beliefs of a Spinozistic kind, but has no knowledge of
Spinoza. One early Monday he spikes some trees, puts up some posters
clearly announcing that trees in the neighbourhood are spiked. I use NN
as an example of how he, in principle, not in practice, makes use of the
Apron diagram. The concrete action of spiking is chosen because of its
Level 3: Normative or
factual hypotheses and
policies
Level 4: Particular
decisions and actions
Deep Ecology Platform
Logical
Derivation
Questioning
Volume 21, Number 1 63
4. controversial character. Some supporters do not find the spiking
procedure justifiable. Exactly where is the disagreements to be located?
Example
Level 1 A set of ultimate Spinozist premises
Level 2 N & H The 8 point platform principles of DEM
H1 H N
N H
&
Level 3 H
H N N
Direct actions
should be non-
violent
All normal means
to stop it have
been tried but
have failed
Supporters of
DEM living near
P and considering
spiking should
participate
&
H
N
&
H
Level 4
H
N
Logging at P is
illegal
Treespiking, pro-
perly done, is non-
violent and may
contribute to stop
logging
Treespiking at P is
justifiable and
urgent
I, NN, satisfy the
above conditions.
I could start
Monday
It is now Monday
(NN:) Spike!
The logging at P
decreases
richness &
diversity & is not
necessary to
satisfy vital needs
Logging at P
should be stopped
now
Abbreviations: N – norm; H – hypothesis; DEM – deep ecology movement; NN – a person
The Trumpeter
64
5. In assessing constructive criticism of deep ecology as a form of
activism it is useful to try to find out which level is involved. An
example: In the introduction to his the Ethics of Environmental
Concern (Oxford: Blackwell 1983), Robin Attfield says:
I do not accept, with the so-called ‘deep, long-range ecology movement,’ the view
that our principal loyalty should be focussed not on fellow-humans or fellow
creatures but on the biosphere as an organic whole, . . .
I suppose there are some supporters of the deep ecology movement who
propose focussing loyalty on the biosphere as an organic whole in the
sense suggested by Attfield. The conception of the biosphere as an
organic whole and of such a kind of loyalty belongs to the realm of
metaphysics, that is level one, rather than to the other levels. Therefore,
the fact that Attfield does not accept the view he describes, is not
relevant in argumentation for or against the deep ecology movement.
You may or may not have your principal loyalty focussed on the
biosphere as an organic whole, you cannot even be sure what is meant
by the terms. One main point in deep ecology is the deep
argumentation, that is, argumentation from ultimate (philosophical,
religious) premises, but there is room for very different sets of such
premises.
If the view outlined by Attfield seemed to be implicit in deep ecology
views on level 2 platform principles, his non-acceptance would amount
to a non-acceptance of something basic in the deep ecology movement
(in so far as it is verbally articulated). If the view seemed to be implicit
in views belonging to level 3, this would also be relevant to acceptance
of deep ecology, and the same applies to level 4. Attfield could mean
that, on the whole, decisions made or advocated by supporters of deep
ecology platform seem to imply the view he does not accept. Perhaps,
perhaps not.
Conclusion: distinction of levels is useful when trying to pin down
exactly what a criticism is focussing on.
The Apron Diagram furnishes only a static model. A supporter of the
deep ecology movement will normally modify the sentences at the
different levels from time to time. New information may change any
hypotheses and therefore also change norms which, in part, have been
justified on the basis of the hypotheses being changed.
Volume 21, Number 1 65
6. New ethical or other intuitions may make the supporter change any
norm. If a norm is changed, new sets of hypotheses are normally
involved, and old ones are discarded. This again will cause
reverberations in a smaller or greater part of the field.
Example: Diprinzio, supporter of the deep ecology movement, reads the
Canberra Times: Melbourne:
Victoria's mountain people brought their own legend to Melbourne's
streets today to show their anger about the State Government's plan to
extend the Alpine National Parks.
The Alpine families arrived with their dogs, their drays
and their stockwhips.
They rode in wagons or horseback wearing moleskins,
bush hats and oilskins.
They provided one of the most colourful protests
Melbourne has seen and were cheered by hordes of
people lining the route to Parliament House.
The people of the high country say the Government's
plan threatens to destroy their heritage and the future of
the 120 families who have been grazing cattle in the
Alps for the past 150 years.
The article and a most touching picture make this staunch supporter of
deep ecology exclaim, “Yes, we cannot do this to the 120 families, the
plan must be fought, today! I join the demonstration!” His decision is of
a kind that belongs to level 4. But he soon realizes that it may go
against a lot of his own norms and hypotheses of level 2 and level 3.
The deep ecology platform clearly implies a “No!” if Diprinzio does not
start to make changes at level 3. He feels that his tentative “Yes” might
not touch the platform formulations if he makes proper changes to level
3 hypotheses. So he sees what can be done at level 3. There he finds
hypotheses about compensation to people in similar awkward situations
as the mountain people. He also tries to clarify and assess his position
in general. After some reflection he reverses his conclusion: The plan
should be upheld, but he decides to study it more carefully.
From a point of view of normative systematizations, what goes on when
changes are made at one or more levels is rather complicated. But part
of it is processes of derivation. The Apron Diagram pretends only to
illustrate important differences of the levels of derivation and the
specific character of level 2. It represents a condensed formulation of
the deepest level norms and hypotheses which most supporters of the
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66
7. deep ecology movement can agree upon. This level is illustrated as the
penultimate (next to ultimate) level of argumentation characteristic of
those supporters of deep ecology who try to articulate their very basic
views. At the third and fourth levels disagreements may arise. At the
first level supporters with entirely different backgrounds disagree, or
find each other's views more or less incomprehensible.
A direction of derivation is not a measure of value priorities or of
ethical priorities. And it does not imply that what is derived is a means
in relation to what it is derived from. A simple example is enough to
clarify this. From “Do not kill humans!” follows, if you concede “All
mothers are humans,” the conclusion “Do not kill your mother!” This
rather concrete norm is here derived from the more general and abstract
one. But this does not imply that humans in general have a higher value
or a kind of priority in relation to mothers. It does not say that in a norm
conflict you should be more careful not to kill humans than not to kill
your mother. An absurd position! And lastly, it is rather strange to
refrain from killing your mother as a means to a goal, namely not to kill
humans.
The formulations of level 2 have the character of proposals. It may turn
out that proposals will differ substantially or show a natural diversity of
terminological and conceptual idiosyncrasies. Unhappily, it is quite
common, in a broad sense, to mix the logical relation of derivation with
other relations. These are at least as important but, nevertheless, are
different.
Rather often the relation of justification, ethical or otherwise, coincides
with the relation of derivation. Thus a general, more or less intuitive
norm of “right to live and flourish” is adhered to by many people
without considering exactly what the norm, taken so-called literally, has
as consequences. Confronted with questions like “What about
poisonous snakes?” or, “What about beetles eating our vegetables?”
some will hesitate, but eventually take up a firm positive stand,
justifying this by reference to the general norm. In such cases, the
derivation relation coincides with the justification relation (for these
people). Schematically: generally premise: “There is a right which
every living being x has, in principle, to live and flourish.” Special
premise: “y is a living being.” Conclusion: “There is a right which y has
. . ..” The conclusion is ethically as well as syllogistically derived from
the general premise. In spite of the many cases of such coincidences,
the relations should be kept apart by people interested in philosophical
articulation of deep ecology principles.
Volume 21, Number 1 67
8. There is no point in trying to formulate a short (or long) version of level
2 that all supporters of deep ecology would like. The most remarkable
similarities of positions and attitudes belong to levels 3 and 4. There are
typical shallow and typical deep argumentation patterns, and there are
environmental policies and decisions in relation to which supporters of
deep ecology show an astonishingly high level of agreement.
Here is, slightly modified, an eight point proposal for level 2 published
in Ecophilosophy VI, May 1984, p 5:
1. The flourishing of human and non-human life on Earth has
inherent value. The value of non-human life-forms is
independent of the usefulness of the non-human world for
human purposes.
2. Richness and diversity of life forms are also values in
themselves and contribute to the flourishing of human and non-
human life on Earth.
3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity
except to satisfy vital needs.
4. The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a
substantial decrease of the human population. The flourishing of
non-human life requires such a decrease.
5. Present human interference with the non-human world is
excessive, and the situation is rapidly worsening.
6. In view of the foregoing points, policies must be changed. The
changes in policies affect basic economic, technological, and
ideological structures. The resulting state of affairs will be
deeply different from the present and make possible a more
joyful experience of the connectedness of all things.
7. The ideological change is mainly that of appreciating life quality
(dwelling in situations of inherent value) rather than adhering to
an increasingly higher standard of living. There will be a
profound awareness of the difference between big and great.
8. Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation
directly or indirectly to participate in the attempt to implement
the necessary changes.
The 8 formulations are of course in need of clarification, elaboration,
and comments. Some are offered on pp.5 – 7 in Ecophilosophy VI. Here
they are, slightly modified:
RE (1) Instead of biosphere we might use the term ecosphere in order to
stress that we of course do not limit our concern to the life-forms in a
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68
9. narrow sense. The term life is used here in a comprehensive non-
technical way to refer also to what biologists classify as non-living:
rivers (watersheds), landscapes, cultures, ecosystems, the living earth.
Slogans such as “Let the river live” illustrate the broader usage so
common in many different cultures. Only in our Western schools the
term living is firmly associated with science of biology.
RE (2) So-called simple, lower, or primitive species of plants and
animals contribute essentially to richness and diversity of life. They
have value-in-themselves and are not merely steps towards the so-called
higher or rational life forms.
Complexity, as referred to here, is different from complication. Urban
life may be more complicated than life in a natural setting without
being more complex in the sense of multi-faceted quality.
Why talk about diversity AND richness? Suppose humans interfere
with an ecosystem to such a degree that 1000 vertebrate species are
each reduced to a survival minimum. Clearly an unacceptable state of
affairs. We demand abundance of interconnected habitats through
“bridges.” The main point is that life on Earth may be excessively
interfered with even if diversity is upheld.
RE (3) This formulation is perhaps too strong. But considering the mass
of proclamations about what humans have the right to, it may be
sobering to announce a norm about what they have no right to. That is,
take into account situations in which they cannot evoke and appeal to a
right. The formulation is not intended to automatically condemn all
actions to which we cannot invoke a right as wrong.
The term "vital need" is left deliberately vague to allow for
considerable latitude in judgment. Differences in climate and related
factors, together with differences in the structures of societies as they
now exist, need to be considered. Also the difference between a means
to the satisfaction of the need and the need must be considered. If a
whaler quits whaling he may risk unemployment under the present
economic conditions. Whaling is for him an important means. But he
and his boat are urgently needed in the control of overfishing and the
use of barbarous methods. And the whaling nations are rich enough to
finance such inspection, especially along the coasts of Third World
countries. So there is not a question of vital need to kill whales.
RE (4) The stabilization and reduction of the human population will
take time. Interim strategies need to be developed. But this in no way
Volume 21, Number 1 69
10. excuses the present complacency, the extreme seriousness of our
current situation must first be realized. But the longer we wait, the more
drastic will be the measures needed. Until deep changes are made,
substantial decreases in richness and diversity are liable to occur: the
rate of extinction of species will be ten to one hundred times greater
than in any other period of earth history.
It may validly be objected that if the present billions of humans deeply
change their behaviour in the direction of ecological responsibility,
non-human life could flourish.
RE (5) People in the materially richest countries cannot be expected to
reduce their excessive interference with the non-human world to a
moderate level overnight. Less interference does not imply that humans
should not modify some ecosystems as do other species. Humans have
modified the earth and will probably continue to do so. At issue is the
nature and extent of such interference.
The fight to preserve and extend areas of wilderness or near-wilderness
should continue and focus on the general ecological functions of these
areas. Very large wilderness areas are required in the biosphere to allow
for continued evolutionary speciation of animals and plants. Present
designated wilderness areas are too small and too few.
RE (6) Economic growth as conceived and implemented today by the
industrial states is incompatible with (1) – (5). “Green” economists
have to be consulted.
Whereas “self-determination,” “decentralization,” “local community,”
and “think globally, act locally,” will remain key terms in the ecology
of human societies, nevertheless the implementation of deep changes
requires increasingly global action in the sense of action across every
border. And it often turns out that local communities or areas with
scattered population are uncritically in favour of so-called development
and must be forced to a more ecologically responsible policy by central
authorities. There are important limits to decentralization of
ecologically relevant decisions.
Support for global action through non-governmental organizations
becomes increasingly important. Many of these organizations are able
to act globally "from grass roots to grass roots," thus avoiding negative
government interference.
The Trumpeter
70
11. Cultural diversity today requires advanced technology, that is,
techniques that advance the basic goals of each culture. So-called soft,
intermediate, and alternative technologies are steps in this direction.
What is called “advanced” technology rarely fits the name.
RE (7) Some economists criticize the term “quality of life” because it is
supposed to be vague. But on closer inspection, what they consider to
be vague is actually the non-quantitative nature of the term. One cannot
quantify adequately what is important for the quality of life as discussed
here, and there is no need to do so.
RE (8) There is ample room for different opinions about priorities: what
should be done first, what next? What is more urgent? What is
necessary as opposed to what is highly desirable? Differences of
opinion do not exclude vigorous co-operation. “The frontier is long.”
What is gained from tentatively formulating basic views shared today
by most or all supporters of the deep ecology movement? Hopefully it
makes it a little easier to localize the movement among the many
alternative movements. Hopefully this does not lead to isolation but
rather to even better co-operation with many other alternative
movements. It might also make some of us more clear about where we
stand, and more clear about which disagreements might profitably be
reduced and which ones might profitably be sharpened.
Volume 21, Number 1 71