This document discusses traumatic brain injury (TBI), including its definition, severity classification, common causes, and pathophysiology involving primary and secondary injury. It describes various types of focal hemorrhages that can occur after TBI and outlines the spectrum of TBI from mild to severe forms involving coma and vegetative/minimally conscious states. Neuroimaging techniques like CT and MRI are discussed. Behavioral measures for assessing TBI patients and common cognitive, behavioral, and psychological complications are also summarized.
This document discusses cerebral swelling and edema that can occur after traumatic brain injury (TBI). It describes two main types of edema - vasogenic edema caused by blood-brain barrier disruption and cytotoxic edema caused by osmolar and cellular changes. Excitotoxicity from excessive glutamate release can also contribute to edema and neuronal injury through sodium and calcium-dependent mechanisms. Both necrosis and apoptosis can result from secondary injury processes. Animal studies show developing neurons are more susceptible to excitotoxic injury. Various spinal cord injury syndromes are also summarized.
This document discusses long term management of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It outlines the goals of TBI rehabilitation as returning patients to functional independence and community participation. It describes common post-traumatic sequelae including amnesia, post-concussion syndrome, neurobehavioral changes, and various medical complications. Treatment involves a multidisciplinary rehabilitation approach, with non-pharmacological therapies targeting cognitive impairment and behavioral issues, as well as potential pharmacologic interventions. The document stresses the importance of a personalized approach based on each individual's needs and injuries.
Neuropsychiatric consequences of traumatic brain injuryDikshya upreti
This document discusses the neuropsychiatric consequences of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It covers the epidemiology, pathology, clinical features, cognitive disorders, personality changes, and depressive disorders that can result from TBI. It describes how TBI causes both primary and secondary brain damage through mechanical forces. Common neuropsychiatric outcomes include delirium, neurocognitive disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, and psychosis. Cognitive deficits often involve memory, attention, and executive function. Personality changes like irritability and disinhibition are also frequent.
Emergency department neurosurgical admissionsSCGH ED CME
This document provides an overview of common emergency neurosurgical presentations and indications for surgical intervention. It discusses the assessment of comatose patients, including the Glasgow Coma Scale. It then covers various neurosurgical topics like cranial trauma, vascular neurosurgery including stroke and subarachnoid hemorrhage, neuro-oncology, hydrocephalus, and spinal surgery. For each topic, it outlines clinical criteria for determining if surgical intervention is required.
This document provides an overview of head injury management, including definitions of key terms like the Glasgow Coma Scale and intracranial pressure. It describes mechanisms of traumatic brain injury and the evaluation of head injuries through history, exam, and radiographic imaging. It outlines guidelines for both nonoperative management, which typically involves monitoring and treating intracranial pressure, and operative management when significant mass lesions are present like epidural or subdural hematomas. The guidelines provide recommendations for indications for intracranial pressure monitoring and therapies to reduce elevated intracranial pressure through medical, surgical, and in more severe cases, barbiturate-induced coma interventions.
This document discusses cerebral swelling and edema that can occur after traumatic brain injury (TBI). It describes two main types of edema - vasogenic edema caused by blood-brain barrier disruption and cytotoxic edema caused by osmolar and cellular changes. Excitotoxicity from excessive glutamate release can also contribute to edema and neuronal injury through sodium and calcium-dependent mechanisms. Both necrosis and apoptosis can result from secondary injury processes. Animal studies show developing neurons are more susceptible to excitotoxic injury. Various spinal cord injury syndromes are also summarized.
This document discusses long term management of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It outlines the goals of TBI rehabilitation as returning patients to functional independence and community participation. It describes common post-traumatic sequelae including amnesia, post-concussion syndrome, neurobehavioral changes, and various medical complications. Treatment involves a multidisciplinary rehabilitation approach, with non-pharmacological therapies targeting cognitive impairment and behavioral issues, as well as potential pharmacologic interventions. The document stresses the importance of a personalized approach based on each individual's needs and injuries.
Neuropsychiatric consequences of traumatic brain injuryDikshya upreti
This document discusses the neuropsychiatric consequences of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It covers the epidemiology, pathology, clinical features, cognitive disorders, personality changes, and depressive disorders that can result from TBI. It describes how TBI causes both primary and secondary brain damage through mechanical forces. Common neuropsychiatric outcomes include delirium, neurocognitive disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, and psychosis. Cognitive deficits often involve memory, attention, and executive function. Personality changes like irritability and disinhibition are also frequent.
Emergency department neurosurgical admissionsSCGH ED CME
This document provides an overview of common emergency neurosurgical presentations and indications for surgical intervention. It discusses the assessment of comatose patients, including the Glasgow Coma Scale. It then covers various neurosurgical topics like cranial trauma, vascular neurosurgery including stroke and subarachnoid hemorrhage, neuro-oncology, hydrocephalus, and spinal surgery. For each topic, it outlines clinical criteria for determining if surgical intervention is required.
This document provides an overview of head injury management, including definitions of key terms like the Glasgow Coma Scale and intracranial pressure. It describes mechanisms of traumatic brain injury and the evaluation of head injuries through history, exam, and radiographic imaging. It outlines guidelines for both nonoperative management, which typically involves monitoring and treating intracranial pressure, and operative management when significant mass lesions are present like epidural or subdural hematomas. The guidelines provide recommendations for indications for intracranial pressure monitoring and therapies to reduce elevated intracranial pressure through medical, surgical, and in more severe cases, barbiturate-induced coma interventions.
Stuart Lane on prognostication post out of hospital cardiac arrestSMACC Conference
Always controversial, always entertaining, the fearsome but loveable Geordie Stuart Lane gives an excellent summary of a core ICU topic: managing out of hospital cardiac arrests. Nearly at the end of the BCC3 series - and in only a month we're doing it all again, this time in tropical Cairns - come and join us.
This document discusses diffuse axonal injury (DAI) and concussion. It provides an overview of traumatic brain injury (TBI) classification, causes, mechanisms of injury, grading scales, and medicolegal importance. DAI results from acceleration/deceleration forces that cause shearing of axons throughout the brainstem, corpus callosum, and cerebral hemispheres. It is characterized by widespread damage rather than focal lesions. Concussion involves temporary dysfunction from brain impact or whipping, with risks including secondary impact syndrome. Both DAI and concussion are important forensically as they can cause death or long-term impairment without obvious anatomical signs.
This document outlines electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), including its indications, equipment, procedure, monitoring, side effects, and contraindications. ECT involves inducing a seizure through electrical stimulation of the brain to treat conditions like depression and bipolar disorder. Nurses are responsible for pre-procedure preparation and assessments, monitoring the patient during treatment and recovery, and ensuring discharge criteria are met before the patient leaves. Potential side effects include memory loss, nausea, and headaches, but ECT is considered a generally safe treatment.
Intracranial bleeding encompasses all bleeds that may occur within the cranial cavity including Epidural, Subdural, Sub arachnoid, intraparenchymal and Intraventricular haemorrhages. all are discussed in these slides and relevant references are provided for detailed information.
It is important to note that medicine is not learnt online but through series of organised events under specialised supervision in recognised institutions of learning.
This document summarizes the surgical management of various types of traumatic brain injuries. It discusses intracranial hematomas like extradural hematomas, subdural hematomas, and intracerebral hematomas. For each type, it covers clinical presentation, imaging characteristics, surgical techniques, and outcomes. It also reviews management of complications like diffuse intraoperative bleeding and brain swelling. The goal of surgery is to evacuate mass lesions and control intracranial pressure while managing risks.
This document provides an overview of neuromuscular junction disorders with a focus on Myasthenia Gravis. It discusses the anatomy and physiology of the neuromuscular junction. It then outlines the approach to evaluating and diagnosing neuromuscular junction disorders including medical history, examination findings, and diagnostic testing. Specific details are provided on the immunopathology, subtypes, clinical presentation, physical findings, and treatment of Myasthenia Gravis. Treatment options discussed include cholinesterase inhibitors, immunotherapy, steroids, immunosuppressants, thymectomy, and crisis management. Considerations for pregnancy are also summarized.
This document provides information on the management of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It defines TBI as an alteration in brain function caused by a blow or jolt to the head. The primary survey for a TBI patient involves assessing the airway, breathing, circulation, disability or neurological status, and exposure. Disability is evaluated using the Glasgow Coma Scale. Mild TBI is defined as a brief alteration in mental status or consciousness with a Glasgow Coma Scale score between 13-15. The document also discusses complications, guidelines for CT scans, and classifications of mild versus severe TBI.
1) Brain metastases are most commonly from lung cancer and breast cancer and occur when cancer cells spread to the brain from a primary tumor in another organ.
2) Patients typically present with new neurological symptoms and MRI is the standard imaging method to detect metastatic brain tumors.
3) Treatment options include corticosteroids to reduce edema, surgical resection for select cases, whole-brain radiotherapy, and radiosurgery as a boost to the tumor site. Adjuvant whole-brain radiotherapy after surgery or radiosurgery can help prevent future brain metastases.
This document summarizes information from an international consensus statement on concussion in sport from 2012. It discusses the definition of concussion, mechanisms of injury, signs and symptoms, assessment tools like SCAT3, management including removal from play and a graded return to play protocol, and special considerations for child and adolescent athletes. The key points are that concussion results in functional rather than structural brain injury, involves a complex set of pathophysiological processes, and is best managed with initial rest followed by a gradual return to activity once symptoms have resolved to prevent re-injury.
Spinal Cord Injuries are uncommon, but they are a leading cause of high cost disability, and with ageing population, the incidence is expected to increase. This presentation looks at the many facets of spinal cord injuries.
This document provides an overview of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It defines TBI and discusses its epidemiology. It then covers the pathophysiology of TBI, including primary and secondary brain injuries. It also classifies TBI based on clinical examination and imaging findings. The document outlines recommendations for monitoring TBI patients and discusses common complications. Finally, it summarizes guidelines for managing severe TBI, including treatments aimed at reducing intracranial pressure and optimizing cerebral perfusion.
Blast-related traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are common among veterans of recent military conflicts due to the use of improvised explosive devices. TBIs can cause damage through primary blast effects on brain tissue, or secondary and tertiary injuries from flying debris or being thrown. Common symptoms include cognitive issues, aggression, and apathy. Psychopharmacological treatments aim to address psychiatric comorbidities, somatic symptoms, and improve cognition, often by targeting neurotransmitter systems like dopamine, acetylcholine, and serotonin that are disrupted by TBI. Medications include stimulants, anticholinesterases, SSRIs, and beta blockers.
Lessons from the TTM trial and planning for the nexstscanFOAM
1) Detailed neurological examinations and blinded prognostication were conducted in the TTM trials to minimize bias in outcomes.
2) Follow-up assessments at 6 months in TTM1 found cognitive impairment, depression, and reduced quality of life in about one third of patients despite similar mortality between groups.
3) Extended cognitive testing in TTM1 at 6 months revealed memory, executive function, and processing speed impairments in about half of patients, more than in risk-factor matched controls, showing long-term cognitive consequences after cardiac arrest.
1) Pediatric head trauma is a leading cause of death and disability in children, with over 650,000 evaluated per year. The causes vary by age, from abuse and falls in infants/toddlers to motor vehicle crashes and assaults in adolescents.
2) Management involves stabilizing the ABCs, preventing secondary brain injury, and obtaining a CT scan if indicated based on decision rules. For severe injuries, intensive care is needed for ICP monitoring, seizure prophylaxis, and treating complications like hypo/hyperglycemia.
3) While outcomes have improved with specialized pediatric trauma care, severe traumatic brain injury continues to carry high mortality rates around 40% and most survivors have long-term impairments.
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is caused by an external force to the head that can lead to temporary or permanent impairment. It is a leading cause of death and disability, especially in young people. A TBI can be closed, without skull fracture, or open, with skull penetration. Initial management involves assessing severity with CT or MRI scans and monitoring for complications like increased intracranial pressure. Rehabilitation therapies like physiotherapy and occupational therapy aim to restore functions and prevent issues like spasticity or contractures. Outcomes depend on the severity of injury but long-term disabilities can impact cognition, movement, speech, and behavior.
This document provides an overview of head and neck trauma management. Key points include:
- Prevent secondary brain injury in head trauma by avoiding hypotension and hypoxia. Expedite surgery for epidural and subdural hematomas.
- Prevent secondary spinal cord injury by immediately immobilizing the cervical spine in patients with suspected spinal cord injury.
- Liberal use of CT for head injury evaluation. Immobilize the entire spine and image the full spine if spinal fracture is found.
- Timely neurosurgical consultation is crucial for managing certain brain injuries.
The document discusses approaches to assessing patients with altered consciousness. It begins with a taxonomy that defines states like coma, vegetative state, minimally conscious state, and akinetic mutism. It then discusses the anatomical and physiological considerations in disorders of consciousness, noting they can be due to diffuse brain injuries or more localized midline/basal forebrain injuries. The document outlines guidelines for clinically assessing patients, including testing brainstem reflexes, extraocular movements, and motor responses to help diagnose the patient's condition and form a prognosis.
Stuart Lane on prognostication post out of hospital cardiac arrestSMACC Conference
Always controversial, always entertaining, the fearsome but loveable Geordie Stuart Lane gives an excellent summary of a core ICU topic: managing out of hospital cardiac arrests. Nearly at the end of the BCC3 series - and in only a month we're doing it all again, this time in tropical Cairns - come and join us.
This document discusses diffuse axonal injury (DAI) and concussion. It provides an overview of traumatic brain injury (TBI) classification, causes, mechanisms of injury, grading scales, and medicolegal importance. DAI results from acceleration/deceleration forces that cause shearing of axons throughout the brainstem, corpus callosum, and cerebral hemispheres. It is characterized by widespread damage rather than focal lesions. Concussion involves temporary dysfunction from brain impact or whipping, with risks including secondary impact syndrome. Both DAI and concussion are important forensically as they can cause death or long-term impairment without obvious anatomical signs.
This document outlines electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), including its indications, equipment, procedure, monitoring, side effects, and contraindications. ECT involves inducing a seizure through electrical stimulation of the brain to treat conditions like depression and bipolar disorder. Nurses are responsible for pre-procedure preparation and assessments, monitoring the patient during treatment and recovery, and ensuring discharge criteria are met before the patient leaves. Potential side effects include memory loss, nausea, and headaches, but ECT is considered a generally safe treatment.
Intracranial bleeding encompasses all bleeds that may occur within the cranial cavity including Epidural, Subdural, Sub arachnoid, intraparenchymal and Intraventricular haemorrhages. all are discussed in these slides and relevant references are provided for detailed information.
It is important to note that medicine is not learnt online but through series of organised events under specialised supervision in recognised institutions of learning.
This document summarizes the surgical management of various types of traumatic brain injuries. It discusses intracranial hematomas like extradural hematomas, subdural hematomas, and intracerebral hematomas. For each type, it covers clinical presentation, imaging characteristics, surgical techniques, and outcomes. It also reviews management of complications like diffuse intraoperative bleeding and brain swelling. The goal of surgery is to evacuate mass lesions and control intracranial pressure while managing risks.
This document provides an overview of neuromuscular junction disorders with a focus on Myasthenia Gravis. It discusses the anatomy and physiology of the neuromuscular junction. It then outlines the approach to evaluating and diagnosing neuromuscular junction disorders including medical history, examination findings, and diagnostic testing. Specific details are provided on the immunopathology, subtypes, clinical presentation, physical findings, and treatment of Myasthenia Gravis. Treatment options discussed include cholinesterase inhibitors, immunotherapy, steroids, immunosuppressants, thymectomy, and crisis management. Considerations for pregnancy are also summarized.
This document provides information on the management of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It defines TBI as an alteration in brain function caused by a blow or jolt to the head. The primary survey for a TBI patient involves assessing the airway, breathing, circulation, disability or neurological status, and exposure. Disability is evaluated using the Glasgow Coma Scale. Mild TBI is defined as a brief alteration in mental status or consciousness with a Glasgow Coma Scale score between 13-15. The document also discusses complications, guidelines for CT scans, and classifications of mild versus severe TBI.
1) Brain metastases are most commonly from lung cancer and breast cancer and occur when cancer cells spread to the brain from a primary tumor in another organ.
2) Patients typically present with new neurological symptoms and MRI is the standard imaging method to detect metastatic brain tumors.
3) Treatment options include corticosteroids to reduce edema, surgical resection for select cases, whole-brain radiotherapy, and radiosurgery as a boost to the tumor site. Adjuvant whole-brain radiotherapy after surgery or radiosurgery can help prevent future brain metastases.
This document summarizes information from an international consensus statement on concussion in sport from 2012. It discusses the definition of concussion, mechanisms of injury, signs and symptoms, assessment tools like SCAT3, management including removal from play and a graded return to play protocol, and special considerations for child and adolescent athletes. The key points are that concussion results in functional rather than structural brain injury, involves a complex set of pathophysiological processes, and is best managed with initial rest followed by a gradual return to activity once symptoms have resolved to prevent re-injury.
Spinal Cord Injuries are uncommon, but they are a leading cause of high cost disability, and with ageing population, the incidence is expected to increase. This presentation looks at the many facets of spinal cord injuries.
This document provides an overview of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It defines TBI and discusses its epidemiology. It then covers the pathophysiology of TBI, including primary and secondary brain injuries. It also classifies TBI based on clinical examination and imaging findings. The document outlines recommendations for monitoring TBI patients and discusses common complications. Finally, it summarizes guidelines for managing severe TBI, including treatments aimed at reducing intracranial pressure and optimizing cerebral perfusion.
Blast-related traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are common among veterans of recent military conflicts due to the use of improvised explosive devices. TBIs can cause damage through primary blast effects on brain tissue, or secondary and tertiary injuries from flying debris or being thrown. Common symptoms include cognitive issues, aggression, and apathy. Psychopharmacological treatments aim to address psychiatric comorbidities, somatic symptoms, and improve cognition, often by targeting neurotransmitter systems like dopamine, acetylcholine, and serotonin that are disrupted by TBI. Medications include stimulants, anticholinesterases, SSRIs, and beta blockers.
Lessons from the TTM trial and planning for the nexstscanFOAM
1) Detailed neurological examinations and blinded prognostication were conducted in the TTM trials to minimize bias in outcomes.
2) Follow-up assessments at 6 months in TTM1 found cognitive impairment, depression, and reduced quality of life in about one third of patients despite similar mortality between groups.
3) Extended cognitive testing in TTM1 at 6 months revealed memory, executive function, and processing speed impairments in about half of patients, more than in risk-factor matched controls, showing long-term cognitive consequences after cardiac arrest.
1) Pediatric head trauma is a leading cause of death and disability in children, with over 650,000 evaluated per year. The causes vary by age, from abuse and falls in infants/toddlers to motor vehicle crashes and assaults in adolescents.
2) Management involves stabilizing the ABCs, preventing secondary brain injury, and obtaining a CT scan if indicated based on decision rules. For severe injuries, intensive care is needed for ICP monitoring, seizure prophylaxis, and treating complications like hypo/hyperglycemia.
3) While outcomes have improved with specialized pediatric trauma care, severe traumatic brain injury continues to carry high mortality rates around 40% and most survivors have long-term impairments.
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is caused by an external force to the head that can lead to temporary or permanent impairment. It is a leading cause of death and disability, especially in young people. A TBI can be closed, without skull fracture, or open, with skull penetration. Initial management involves assessing severity with CT or MRI scans and monitoring for complications like increased intracranial pressure. Rehabilitation therapies like physiotherapy and occupational therapy aim to restore functions and prevent issues like spasticity or contractures. Outcomes depend on the severity of injury but long-term disabilities can impact cognition, movement, speech, and behavior.
This document provides an overview of head and neck trauma management. Key points include:
- Prevent secondary brain injury in head trauma by avoiding hypotension and hypoxia. Expedite surgery for epidural and subdural hematomas.
- Prevent secondary spinal cord injury by immediately immobilizing the cervical spine in patients with suspected spinal cord injury.
- Liberal use of CT for head injury evaluation. Immobilize the entire spine and image the full spine if spinal fracture is found.
- Timely neurosurgical consultation is crucial for managing certain brain injuries.
The document discusses approaches to assessing patients with altered consciousness. It begins with a taxonomy that defines states like coma, vegetative state, minimally conscious state, and akinetic mutism. It then discusses the anatomical and physiological considerations in disorders of consciousness, noting they can be due to diffuse brain injuries or more localized midline/basal forebrain injuries. The document outlines guidelines for clinically assessing patients, including testing brainstem reflexes, extraocular movements, and motor responses to help diagnose the patient's condition and form a prognosis.
The biomechanics of running involves the study of the mechanical principles underlying running movements. It includes the analysis of the running gait cycle, which consists of the stance phase (foot contact to push-off) and the swing phase (foot lift-off to next contact). Key aspects include kinematics (joint angles and movements, stride length and frequency) and kinetics (forces involved in running, including ground reaction and muscle forces). Understanding these factors helps in improving running performance, optimizing technique, and preventing injuries.
This presentation gives information on the pharmacology of Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes and Leukotrienes i.e. Eicosanoids. Eicosanoids are signaling molecules derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids like arachidonic acid. They are involved in complex control over inflammation, immunity, and the central nervous system. Eicosanoids are synthesized through the enzymatic oxidation of fatty acids by cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzymes. They have short half-lives and act locally through autocrine and paracrine signaling.
Travel Clinic Cardiff: Health Advice for International TravelersNX Healthcare
Travel Clinic Cardiff offers comprehensive travel health services, including vaccinations, travel advice, and preventive care for international travelers. Our expert team ensures you are well-prepared and protected for your journey, providing personalized consultations tailored to your destination. Conveniently located in Cardiff, we help you travel with confidence and peace of mind. Visit us: www.nxhealthcare.co.uk
Gene therapy can be broadly defined as the transfer of genetic material to cure a disease or at least to improve the clinical status of a patient.
One of the basic concepts of gene therapy is to transform viruses into genetic shuttles, which will deliver the gene of interest into the target cells.
Safe methods have been devised to do this, using several viral and non-viral vectors.
In the future, this technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a patient's cells instead of using drugs or surgery.
The biggest hurdle faced by medical research in gene therapy is the availability of effective gene-carrying vectors that meet all of the following criteria:
Protection of transgene or genetic cargo from degradative action of systemic and endonucleases,
Delivery of genetic material to the target site, i.e., either cell cytoplasm or nucleus,
Low potential of triggering unwanted immune responses or genotoxicity,
Economical and feasible availability for patients .
Viruses are naturally evolved vehicles that efficiently transfer their genes into host cells.
Choice of viral vector is dependent on gene transfer efficiency, capacity to carry foreign genes, toxicity, stability, immune responses towards viral antigens and potential viral recombination.
There are a wide variety of vectors used to deliver DNA or oligo nucleotides into mammalian cells, either in vitro or in vivo.
The most common vector system based on retroviruses, adenoviruses, herpes simplex viruses, adeno associated viruses.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/Pt1nA32sdHQ
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/uFdc9F0rlP0
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Discover the benefits of homeopathic medicine for irregular periods with our guide on 5 common remedies. Learn how these natural treatments can help regulate menstrual cycles and improve overall menstrual health.
Visit Us: https://drdeepikashomeopathy.com/service/irregular-periods-treatment/
Pictorial and detailed description of patellar instability with sign and symptoms and how to diagnose , what investigations you should go with and how to approach with treatment options . I have presented this slide in my 2nd year junior residency in orthopedics at LLRM medical college Meerut and got good reviews for it
After getting it read you will definitely understand the topic.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/RvdYsTzgQq8
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/ECILGWtgZko
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Dr. Tan's Balance Method.pdf (From Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin)GeorgeKieling1
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Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin
Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin
Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin
About AOMA: The Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin offers a masters-level graduate program in acupuncture and Oriental medicine, preparing its students for careers as skilled, professional practitioners. AOMA is known for its internationally recognized faculty, award-winning student clinical internship program, and herbal medicine program. Since its founding in 1993, AOMA has grown rapidly in size and reputation, drawing students from around the nation and faculty from around the world. AOMA also conducts more than 20,000 patient visits annually in its student and professional clinics. AOMA collaborates with Western healthcare institutions including the Seton Family of Hospitals, and gives back to the community through partnerships with nonprofit organizations and by providing free and reduced price treatments to people who cannot afford them. The Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin is located at 2700 West Anderson Lane. AOMA also serves patients and retail customers at its south Austin location, 4701 West Gate Blvd. For more information see www.aoma.edu or call 512-492-303434.
5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT or Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that serves a range of roles in the human body. It is sometimes referred to as the happy chemical since it promotes overall well-being and happiness.
It is mostly found in the brain, intestines, and blood platelets.
5-HT is utilised to transport messages between nerve cells, is known to be involved in smooth muscle contraction, and adds to overall well-being and pleasure, among other benefits. 5-HT regulates the body's sleep-wake cycles and internal clock by acting as a precursor to melatonin.
It is hypothesised to regulate hunger, emotions, motor, cognitive, and autonomic processes.
6. Primary Injury
• Occurs in conjuction with
mechanical forces that cause
disruption to the brain tissue.
• It occurs immediately (minutes
to hours after the impact) and is
not amenable to medical
intervention
• Contusions
• Diffuse axonal injury
Contusions
• Bruising of cortical tissue
• coup- contrecoup injuries
7. Primary Injury
• Occurs in conjuction with
mechanical forces that cause
disruption to the brain tissue.
• It occurs immediately (minutes
to hours after the impact) and is
not amenable to medical
intervention
• Contusions
• Diffuse axonal injury
Diffuse Axonal Injury
• Immediate disruption of the axons
due to acceleration–deceleration and
rotational forces that cause shearing
upon impact.
8. Secondary Injury
• develops over the hours and
days after the initial impact
• associated with disruption of
cerebral blood flow and
metabolism, massive release of
neurochemicals, cerebral
edema, and disruption of ion
homeostasis
Excitotoxicity
• neuronal damage occurs as a result of
a massive surge in neurotransmitters
9. Secondary Injury
• develops over the hours and
days after the initial impact
• associated with disruption of
cerebral blood flow and
metabolism, massive release of
neurochemicals, cerebral
edema, and disruption of ion
homeostasis
Brain swelling
• Increase in cerebral blood volume
results to elevated intracranial
pressure
• Results to decreased cerebral
perfusion pressure
• May lead to herniation
10. Secondary Injury
• develops over the hours and
days after the initial impact
• associated with disruption of
cerebral blood flow and
metabolism, massive release of
neurochemicals, cerebral
edema, and disruption of ion
homeostasis
Brain edema
• Occurs later after head injury
• Vasogenic edema
• Due to outpouring of protein rich fluid
through damaged vessels
• Cytogenic Edema
• Hypoxic and ischemic brain
damage
11. Focal Hemorrhages
Epidural Hematoma
• Seen in skull fracture of temporal
bone
• Hematoma expansion is slowed by
the tight adherence of the
dura to the skull
• Clinically presents with a lucid
interval (50%) prior to rapid
deterioration.
12. Focal Hemorrhages
Subdural Hematoma
• 30% of severe head trauma
• Usually in the elderly
• Result from shearing of bridging
veins between pia-arachnoid
and the dura
13. Focal Hemorrhages
Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
• Closely associated with ruptured
cerebral aneurysms and AVM
• CT findings: demonstrate blood
within the cisterns and the
subarachnoid space within 24
hours
15. Mild TBI (Concussion)
• Key criterias:
• Confusion, disorientation, LOC of less
than 30 min
• PTA for less than 24 hours
• Transient focal neurologic abnormalities
• GCS 13-15
• Usually unremarkable CT scan findings
• Symptoms usually resolve over time
• A subset of patients will have
persistent symptoms classified
as postconcussion syndrome
17. Coma
• Lack of wakefulness as
evidenced by the lack of sleep
wake cycles on
electroencephalography (EEG)
• Eyes remain closed
• No spontaneous purposeful
movement or ability to discretely
localize noxious stimuli.
• Results damage to RAS
18. Vegetative State
• Characterized by the resumption of the sleep–wake cycle on EEG
• No awareness of self or environment
• No perceivable evidence of purposeful behavior
• Presence of a verbal or auditory startle but no localization or tracking
• Related to diffuse cortical injury
• Persistent vegetative state: if VS is persistent for more than 1 month
after initial brain injury
19. Minimally Conscious State
• Able to exhibit environmental awareness
• Shows evidence of inconsistent but purposeful behaviors
• Patient may also show:
• Visual fixation
• Smooth pursuit tracking
• Emotional or motor behaviors
• Often difficult to differentiate with VS
• Better prognosis than VS
21. CT scan
• Current standard neuroimaging modality for initial evaluation
• Allow for rapid, noninvasive three-dimensional imaging, which
accurately detects facial and skull fractures, as well as acute
hemorrhaging and mass effect
• Allows for optimal medical management of trauma patients who
may require immediate surgical intervention
• May be done serially to evaluate recovery or monitor complications
22. When to request CT scan?
• In mild TBI cases, less than 10%
have positive CT scan findings
• CTs should be obtained in cases
of mild head trauma, if specific
additional criteria suggesting the
possibility of more severe or
evolving neurologic injury are
met
23. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
• Second method of structural
neuroimaging that has demonstrated
clinical use in TBI
• Does have superior resolution vs CT
scan and provides much higher details
of soft tissue
• Important in:
• Evaluating frontal area and brainstem
• Detecting small hemorrhages
• Detecting non-hemorrhagic white matter
injury
• Not ideal for acute imaging
Useful MRI sequences
• T1 weighted
• Attain anatomic maps of the brain
• T2 sequences
• Sensitive to changes in water (edema)
and iron content (blood)
• FLAIR
• Improved visualization of cortical and
periventricular lesions
• Visualize non-hemorrhagic shear injury
associated with DAI
• GRE
• Additional sensitivity to blood breakdown
products useful in DAI
25. Post-traumatic Amnesia
• One of the most commonly used predictors of outcome
• Longer PTA leads to worse outcome
• Severe disability is unlikely when PTA lasts <2 months
• Good recovery is unlikely when PTA lasts >3 months
• PTA correlates strongly with the length of coma in patients with
DAI but poorly in patients with the primarily focal brain injuries (contusions).
• Galveston Orientation and Amnesia Test (GOAT)
• Standard technique for assessing PTA
• End of PTA: score of 75 or higher in GOAT for 2 consecutive days
29. Ranchos Level of Cognitive Functioning Scale
• Eight-level global scale that
focuses on cognitive recovery
and behavior after TBI
• Represents recovery as a
progression through 8 typical
stages
31. • Focus is to assist each patient in improving functional independence
• Multidisciplinary
• Physical therapist
• Occupational therapist
• Speech language pathologist
• Psychologist
• Medical issues and complications may occur
32. Post-traumatic Seizure
• Significant complication arising from TBI
• 86% of patients with one seizure after TBI will have a second within 2
years of injury
• Risk Factors: genetic, biparietal contusions, dural penetration
with bone and metal fragments, multiple intracranial operations,
cortical contusions, subdural hematoma, significant midline shift,
early PTS, and skull fractures
• Phenytoin is used as early prophylaxis
33. Heterotrophic Ossification
• Incidence: 11-28%
• Risk factors: TBI secondary to blast
injuries, more severe TBI,
dysautonomia
• HO is considered as a risk factor for
poorer outcomes and decreased
home discharge rates
• Bone scan is sensitive identifying
HO in early stages
• Management:
• Prophylaxis:NSAIDS, indomethacin,
Calcium binding chelating agents
• Treatment: Surgical excision
34. Other complications
Deep venous thrombosis
• 40% chance of having pulmonary
embolism
• Use of heparin or low molecular weight
heparin
• Risk factors:
• advanced
age
• severe injury
• prolonged immobilization
• significant
fractures
• presence of clotting disorder
Swallowing and Nutrition
• Increased caloric requirements
• Early institution of enteral nutritional
support may decrease morbidity and
mortality
• Clinical nutritionist is an integral part of
the team
• Assessment: bedside swallowing
assessment, video fluoroscopy
• Use of gastrostomy or jejunostomy tube
35. Other complications
• Bowel and bladder dysfunctions
• Spasticity
• Endocrine dysfunctions
• Post-traumatic headaches
37. Cognitive Deficits
• Among the most debilitating and complex aspects of TBI to manage
and treat
• Spans domains
• Arousal
• Attention
• Memory
• Executive control
38. Agitation
• Common in acute phase of TBI
• Prevalence: 11-42%
• “An excess of one or more
behaviors that occurs during an
altered state of consciousness.”
• Significant impact on patient’s
ability to actively participate in
therapies
• Generally lasts only 2-3 weeks
Management
• Pharmacologic: beta-blockers,
atypical antipsychotics,
benzodiazepenes
• Cognitive-behavioral techniques
• Medications should be chosen
carefully and used in conjunction
with other behavior management
techniques
for maximum effect
• Use of restraints
39. When a patient must be restrained
• Use of enclosure beds are
preferable to belts or other
restraints
• Rear-fastening wheelchair
seatblets
• Soft hand mitts
40. Sleep Disturbance
• Alterations in circadian rhythms,
sleep patterns, sleep quality
• Result of diffuse cerebral
dysfunction associated with
primary and secondary injury
• Sleep pattern: decreased REM
and slow wave sleep
• Total sleep time and sleep
efficiency are disturbed
Management
• Pharmacologic: SSRI (Trazodone)
• Cognitive behavioral therapies
• Sleep restriction
• Stimulus control
• Sleep hygiene
41. Psychological Complications
Depression
• Most common psychological
problem after TBI
• Prevalence: 6-77%
• Highest within 1st year after injury
• May result from biomechanical
changes following injury
• may
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
• More likely to occur in mild TBI
without amnesia or LOC
• Likely to be able to recall traumatic
event
• Express unconscious fear response
for the event
• May form a triad of
• TBI
• PTSD
• Chronic pain syndrome
“an alteration in brain function, or other evidence of brain pathology, caused by an external force.”375These types of injuries result from a jolt or blow to the head or are caused by an object penetrating the skull and injuring the brain. Examples include motor vehicle accidents, falls, assaults, or gunshot wounds. A TBI can be further defined as either open or closed. An open, or penetrating, TBI occurs when the head is hit by an object that breaksthe skull and enters the brain. A closed TBI occurs when the brain is injured but the skull remains intact.
The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is the gold standard for primary initial assessment of severity of injury based onlevel of consciousness.
The score is obtained by rating the best visual, verbal, and motor responses. The total score is simply a sum of these ratings, with scores ranging from 3 to 15. Generally accepted guidelines identify three levels of severity based on GCS scores: mild (GCS = 13 to 15), moderate (GCS = 9 to 12), and severe (GCS = 3 to 8). Severity of injury is also defined by the duration of loss of consciousness/coma and the severity of symptoms.
The two age groups most at risk for sustaining a TBI are 0- to 4-year-olds and 15- to 19-yearolds.316 Motor vehicle accidents result in the greatestnumber of TBI injuries for people age 15 to 19.316 Another group at risk for TBI is adults over the age of 75. Fall-related injuries are highest among adults over the age of 75
The pathophysiologic processes associated with TBI arecomplex and consist of (1) a primary injury that disruptsbrain tissue and function at moment of impact; (2) secondary injury through multiple biochemical cascades thatpropagate cellular dysfunction and lead to cell death; and(3) a chronic degeneration, repair, and regeneration processthat occurs over the long term after the injury has occurred
Direct disruption of the brain parenchyma from the shear forces of the impact. It occurs immediately (minutes to hours after the impact) and is not amenable to medical intervention. Primary injury includes the following: Contusions, DAIInertial forces associated with translational acceleration result in a head movement that is in line with the brain’s center of gravity. The resulting differential movement ofthe brain relative to the skull causes focal injuries such as contusions. Contusions may occur under the impact site (coup injury) and result from a rapid change in skull distortion during impact.189
Contusions remote from the injury site and opposite of the impact are contrecoup injuries and occur because of negative pressure generated from the impactassociated with translational acceleration.
Inertial forces associated with angular acceleration result in diffuse axonal injury (DAI), a process that causes tensile strains resulting in microscopic disruption of axons, cerebral edema, and neuron disconnection.
The severity of DAI depends on the duration, magnitude, direction of the angular acceleration, and associated impact.189 In severe cases of DAI, more than just superficial axons are affected and injuries affect deeper white matter structures. The gray-white matter junction is also particularly vulnerable to DAI. Midline brain structures, such as the corpus callosum, are often affected by DAI, which is also associated with loss of consciousness and coma. Recovery from DAI is gradual and can be linked to the duration of coma
Brain swelling
occurs early on after acute head injury (within 24 hours) due to an increase in cerebral blood volume (intravascular blood).
Brain swelling occurs in response to the initial injury and early events involved with secondary injury and results in elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) and decreased cerebralperfusion pressure (CPP). If severe enough, brain swelling can lead to herniation, which has potentially fatal consequences
Brain Edema
occurs later after head injury (in comparison to brain swelling) due to an increase in brain volume secondary to � brain water content Þ extravascular fluid.
Thereare two types of brain edema:
Vasogenic edema
Due to outpouring of protein rich fluid through damaged vessels
Extracellular edema
Related to cerebral contusion
Cytogenic Edema
Found in relation to hypoxic and ischemic brain damage.Due to failing of the cells’ energy supply system leading to increased cell-wall pumping system Þintracellular edema in the dying cells.
Occurs commonly (90%) with a skull fracture in the temporal bone crossing the vascular territory of the middle meningeal artery (60% to 90%) or veins (middle meningeal vein, diploic veins, or venous sinus; 10% to 40%)
Hematoma expansion is slowed by the tight adherence of the dura to the skull
Clinically presents with a lucid interval (50%) prior to rapid deterioration.
CT Scan: Biconvex acute hemorrhagic mass seen on head CT
Occurs in 30% of severe head trauma. They result from shearing of the bridging veins between the pia-arachnoid and the dura.
They are usually larger in the elderly due to generalized loss of brain parenchyma. CT scan:High density, crescentic, extracerebral masses seen on head CT
These are closely associated with ruptured cerebral aneurysms and arteriovenous malformations (AVMs).
CT findings: demonstrate blood within the cisterns and the subarachnoid space within 24 hours. CT sensitivity decreases to 30% 2 weeks after the initial bleed.
The World Health Organization (WHO) Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild TBI states that key criteria for identifying persons with a mild TBI include at least one of the following: confusion, disorientation, loss of consciousness for less than 30 minutes, PTA for less than 24 hours, or other transient focal neurologic abnormalities and a GCS score of 13 to 15 after 30 minutes or presentation to a health care facility. Patients with uncomplicated TBI typically do not have associated abnormalities on standard imaging tests like CT.
Concussion severity nomenclature has been developed for the purposes of injury characterization and injury management. Some examples of frequently used gradingsystems include the Cantu and Colorado concussion scales. For most with mild TBI, symptoms resolve over time. However, a subset of patients will have persistent symptoms classified as postconcussion syndrome and may require outpatient follow-up.
• Lack of wakefulness as evidenced by the lack of sleep wake cycles on electroencephalography(EEG).• Patient’s eyes remain closed.
There is no spontaneous purposeful movement or ability to discretely localize noxiousstimuli.• No evidence of language comprehension or expression.• It results from the damage to the RAS in the brainstem or its connections to the thalami orhemispheres.• It can last 2 to 4 weeks for people who do not emerge
Characterized by the resumption of the sleep–wake cycle on EEG.– No awareness of self or environment.– No perceivable evidence of purposeful behavior.– Presence of a verbal or auditory startle but no localization or tracking.– Patient opens eyes (either spontaneously or with noxious stimuli).• Neuropathology of vegetative state– Related to diffuse cortical injury.– Bilateral thalamic lesions are prominent findings in VS.• The term persistent vegetative state (redefined by the Multi-Society Task Force on PVS, 1994)is still currently used in the United States for VS that is present ³1 month after a traumatic ornon-traumatic brain injury.
Permanent VS: greater than 3 mos
Patient shows minimal but definite evidence of self or exhibits environmental awareness.• Patient shows evidence of inconsistent but reproducible (or sustained) purposeful behaviors:– Simple command following– Object manipulation– Intelligible verbalization– Gestural or verbal yes/no responses• Patient may also show:– Visual fixation– Smooth pursuit tracking– Emotional or motor behaviors that are contingent upon the presence of specific elicitingstimuli (e.g., patient will cry or get agitated [and behavior is reproducible] only after hearingvoices of family members but not with voices of hospital staff).• Often difficult to differentiate from VS.• Several evaluations may be required to differentiate MCS from VS.
MRI becomesincreasingly useful with time from trauma, when patients become more medically stable and additional diagnoses of DAI or other small areas of hemorrhage may be helpful for treatment and prognosis.
Decisions regarding readiness to transfer a patient from ICU to step-down units and to inpatient rehabilitation are generally based on medical stability and progress, as wellas the ability to respond to the environment and to actively participate in therapy. Several behavioral measures are useful in determining the status of a patient’s emergencefrom coma and progress through the acute phases of recovery from injury.
PTA is one of the most commonly used predictors of outcome.• A longer duration of PTA is associated with worse outcomes.• Resolution of PTA clinically corresponds to the period when incorporation of ongoing daily events occurs in the working memory. Threshold values:– Severe disability is unlikely when PTA lasts <2 months.– Good recovery is unlikely when PTA lasts >3 months.– PTA correlates strongly with the length of coma (and with GOS—see below) in patients withDAI but poorly in patients with the primarily focal brain injuries (contusions).
Galveston Orientation and Amnesia Test (GOAT)—developed by Harvey Levin and colleagues, it is a standard technique for assessing PTA. It is a brief, structured interview that quantifies the patient’s orientation and recall of recent events.
Assesses orientation to person, place, time; recall of the circumstances of the hospitalization;and the last pre-injury and first post-injury memories.
The end of PTA can be defined as the date when the patient scores 75 or higher in theGOAT for two consecutive days. The period of PTA is defined as the number of daysbeginning at the end of the coma to the time the patient attains the first of two successiveGOAT scores ³75
Galveston Orientation and Amnesia Test (GOAT)—developed by Harvey Levin and colleagues, it is a standard technique for assessing PTA. It is a brief, structured interview that quantifies the patient’s orientation and recall of recent events.
Assesses orientation to person, place, time; recall of the circumstances of the hospitalization;and the last pre-injury and first post-injury memories.
Duration of PTA is often used to categorize severity of injury according to the following criteria:
Eight-level global scale that focuses on cognitive recovery and behavior after TBI
Widely accepted to describe the process of cognitive recovery as an individual emerges from coma, then progresses towards emergence from posttraumatic amnesia/delirium, and emerges to near normal cognitive functioning Represents recovery as a progression through 8 typical stages and has been widely adopted to assess patient functioning purposes for rehabilitation planning and treatment and to explain patient progress to families.
Phenytoin is commonly used for early prophylaxis against PTS development and for treatment of PTS The Association of American Neurologists (AAN) still recommends early intervention with phenytoin (intravenously) given as a loading dose as soon as possible followed by a 7-day course in the asymptomatic moderate-to-severely brain-injured population.
DVT
In patients with severe TBI, pulmonary embolus secondary to DVT is an important cause of death, and the estimated incidence of DVT is 40%. Increasing evidence supports the safe use of either heparin or low-molecularweight heparin within 24 to 72 hours after severe TBI orintracranial bleed
Swallowing and Nutrition
Moderate-to-severe TBI is associated with specific nutritional needs. Patients demonstrate increased caloric requirements caused by hypermetabolism, increased energy expenditure, and increased protein loss. Early institution of enteral nutritional support may decrease morbidity and mortality, shorten hospital length of stay, and potentially improve immune function.
“True” clinical agitation occurring during an altered state of consciousness is therefore differentiated from the description of an individualwho is “irritable,” “angry,” or “aggressive” when not confused.
Among AAPs, quetiapine is frequently used for post-TBIrelated agitation because of its favorable side effect profileand relatively low actions as a D2 receptor antagonist.
Benzodiazepines are GABA-A receptor agonists that can reduce post-TBI agitation symptoms.
When a patient must be physically restrained, the use of enclosure beds, which allow for patient movement while in a safe environment, are preferable to belts or otherrestraints while in bed.
When out of bed, rear-fastening wheelchair seatbelts can be used for patients who may attempt to get up without assistance and who have poorsafety awareness.
Soft hand mitts are helpful at times to ensure patient safety, especially when patients are at risk for pulling out tracheostomy and/or gastrostomy tubes. Itis often preferable to have a one-to-one sitter with the patient if doing so allows for reduction of physical restraints .
Trazodone, a selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor and 5-HT2 receptor antagonist, is frequently used for its sedating effects in TBI.279 At lower doses its sedative properties likely result from its antagonistic effect of the 5-HT2 receptors.