The document discusses supporting children's development of initiative from ages 3 to 6 years old. It emphasizes the importance of providing opportunities for discovery, sensitive support when children experience frustration, and encouraging friendships. Specific suggestions are given, such as allowing children to explore their environment, providing help when children make plans and see them through, and limiting media exposure so children can learn through hands-on play. Play is discussed as an ideal way for children to develop initiative as it allows them to explore freely and master new skills.

1. Suggestions for Support
Learning About the World
Mastering New Skills
Making New Friends
In the classroom
In the outdoor environment
In the home
4.1 Supporting the Child's Development of Initiative
According to Erikson (1963), children progress from a sense of
autonomy and independence to a stage characterized by
initiative. The development of initiative typically occurs in
children ages 3 to 6 years old. Children this age try to initiate
all sorts of activities: new words, new combinations of words
(grammar), new friendships, and new uses of art, play, and
natural materials (water, sand, mud, stones, sticks, leaves, and
so on) to create, to make things happen, and to see the
relationship between what they do and the results of what they
do. This is also called cause and effect. They also want to know
why things are the way they are ("Grandpa, why don't you wear
shoes at home?" "Why is my friend Maia's skin darker than

2. mine?" "Why do flowers die?"). At this stage, children define
themselves by what they can do (Harter, 2006a).
While the desire for initiative in a child is developmental, for a
child to embrace initiative fully and be able to progress to the
next stage, the environment in which the child lives and learns
should actively support the child's sincere efforts. This is
accomplished largely by significant people in the child's life
engaging in important activities and behaviors and
demonstrating certain behaviors. They must provide the
following opportunities for the child:
Provide opportunities for discovery. Allow young children to
discover the world and master basic information and knowledge
about how the world works. This includes opportunities to play
in water (they love to "help" with the dishes and cleaning the
bathtub); help set the table; play in sand, dirt, and mud; garden;
pick flowers and berries; stack stones and blocks; or blow
dandelion and maple tree (helicopter) seeds.
Provide sensitive support. Provide sensitive support for the
natural frustrations that occur at this age. Children often
become extremely frustrated when they cannot accomplish what
they set out to achieve (Wittmer & Petersen, 2010). This might
be painting a picture, trying to make friends, putting a dress on
a doll, dressing themselves, or setting the table. This frustration
is caused by two realities: The child does not know the realistic
expectations for a task or activity (exactly how high can one
stack blocks; do dogs really not like their tails to be pulled?),
and immature skill development—social, physical, emotional,
linguistic, and cognitive. Also, children at this age often
overestimate their own skills and abilities (Harter, 1999).
Encourage friendships. Provide opportunities for children to
develop friends and play with peers. This can occur in many
places: home, local playgrounds, early care and education

3. centers. The best vehicle for developing friends at this age is
play, which is discussed in more detail later in this chapter. It is
critical, however, that children who attend early care and
education programs have many opportunities—both indoors and
outdoors—to engage in free play: play opportunities where
children pick how they play, with whom they play, and what
they play (Johnson, Christie, & Wardle, 2005). Children also
need enough time to play, and they should not be denied
opportunities to play due to misbehavior, schedules, or
programmatic reasons.
Provide opportunities to plan and implement their plans. This
includes inevitable changes and new planning. Planning gives
children a great sense of power and control. While they need
help in planning and implementing their plans, it is important
for children to begin to learn to pursue ideas and activities from
initiation to completion.
Provide opportunities to learn about their bodies and how to use
their bodies in different ways. Children love to master physical
challenges, which is why they learn to ride a tricycle and then a
bicycle. Dance, free movement, swinging, climbing, and
running all help children develop a sense of physical mastery.
Encourage all sorts of play. Because play is open-ended and low
in stress, due to few externally imposed expectations, it is an
ideal way for children to explore, investigate, master new
language and physical skills, gain all sorts of information, and
push their limits. (See the discussion on play later in this
chapter.)
Provide children with a variety of ways to learn and maintain
appropriate behaviors. Children at this age should be
encouraged to help develop classroom rules and be reminded of
the rules they have helped to make (e.g., "What do the rules say
about running in the classroom?"). They also need to be

4. reminded about consequences of their behaviors ("What do you
think will happen when you pour water in the sand?" "What will
happen when you mix the blue and yellow paint?").
Limit exposure to media. Limit children's exposure to TV and
other electronic media. According to Piaget, preschool children
learn by manipulating and playing with real objects, such as
blocks, sticks, sand and water, crayons, toys, and other items
(Piaget, 1962). Thus, to develop initiative, children need
opportunities to investigate, manipulate, and experiment with
real objects and with peers, rather than passively watching TV
or using other electronic media. Lev Vygotsky, a theorist who
lived in Russia during the beginning of the 20th century,
developed a sociocultural theory of learning, which focuses on
the influence of others (children and adults) and the importance
of language on learning (Vygotsky, 1962, 1978). One of his
ideas is that young children learn through meaningful dialogue
with adults and more advanced children. While children do hear
people talking on TV, they are not actively engaged in a
meaningful dialogue, and research suggests TV watching does
not increase children's language skills or cognitive development
(Anderson & Pempek, 2005; Krcmar, Grela, & Lin, 2007),
except for education programs such as "Sesame Street."
Children who have ample opportunities to explore, risk, master
new skills, and push limits—at home, in the community, and in
their early care and education programs—are more likely to
develop a strong sense of initiative, what Bandura calls self-
efficacy: "I can do it, I can make it, I can learn, and I can find
out about it" (Kostelnik et al., 2009). However, children whose
sincere efforts at initiative are thwarted by adult expectations
and behaviors develop a sense of guilt. According to Erikson,
"The danger of this stage is a sense of guilt over the goals
contemplated and the acts initiated in one's exuberant
enjoyment of new locomotion and mental powers" (1963, p.
255).

5. Adults who make children feel they are clumsy and
uncoordinated, tell them their play is silly and immature, accuse
them of lying when they engage in fantasy and wild
imagination, constantly correct their attempts to use new and
complex language, and belittle their attempts to recall newly
acquired facts and knowledge increase this sense of guilt
(Kostelnik et al., 2009). If these kinds of interactions between
the child and significant adults in the child's life are frequent
and pervasive, the child will become unsure of himself, his
abilities, and his sense of self-worth and self-efficacy.
Characteristics of Children Who Have Developed Initiative
A child who is actively progressing toward achieving initiative
experiences the pleasure of attacking and conquering new tasks.
The child is more ready than before to learn quickly and
enthusiastically, to work cooperatively with other children in
constructing and planning, and to achieve specific behaviors
(Erikson, 1963). At this stage, the child is open to learn from
peers and teachers and to learn from the modeling of others
(Bandura, 1965, 1977). Further, a child's motivation to learn
and succeed is being directed toward socially condoned roles of
adult life, such as parenthood and specific professions. This is
why children love to engage in dramatic play about parents,
heroes in books and movies, and other adult role models
(Erikson, 1963).
The typical behaviors of children at this age (3 to 6 years old)
that characterize this healthy development of initiative include
the following:
Love to create and invent
Want to take actions and assert themselves physically and
socially
Challenge limitations and adult control
Like to pretend
Enjoy using new language and developing their own words

6. Take physical, social, and intellectual risks
Enjoy reaching out to interact with adults and other children
Love to play with peers
Focus on the process of a task, activity, or idea, rather than on
the result or product
Exhibit tremendous pride in accomplishments and in attempts at
new tasks and behaviors
Enjoy demonstrating newly learned words, concepts, and skills
Demand to make choices and do things their own way, even if
they are incorrect
Find many ways for the world to notice and respond to them
Children at this age are in Piaget's preoperational stage, as
discussed in Chapter 3. This means that, while they can
remember past experiences and demonstrate what they
remembered through language, play, and artwork, these
reflections are not necessarily accurate or logical (Ormrod,
2008). This characteristic can be seen in the child's view of
himself or herself at this age, which is called self-concept.
Children who engage in initiative—who risk, attempt to play
with other children, explore, try out new things, and work hard
at all these efforts—view themselves as successful. They are not
concerned with the end product, acquiring specific skills, or
meeting the expectations set by adults; rather, their self-concept
is based on making an effort and enjoying the process, without
causing too much harm (through either accidents or upsetting
important adults in their lives). For example, a child who is
exploring all the things that can be done with felt markers on a
large pad of paper will be focused on how to attach the paper to
the easel, how to take the tops off the pens, and then how to
draw with them. Once she has achieved these tasks, she will set
her sights on determining the shapes, colors, images, and lines
created with colored pens. These attempts may develop into a
picture of some kind, but this is not the focus of the child's
endeavor.
Further, many preschool-age children have a very positive self-

7. concept, believing they can be successful even when they have
just failed at something (Stipek & Green, 2001; Stipek, Recchia,
& McClintic, 1992). Most children at this age are extremely
optimistic regarding their abilities and potential successes
(Harter, 1999). However, to be fully prepared to progress
through the stage of initiative versus guilt, a child needs to have
secure attachment and have developed a sense of autonomy
(Ainsworth, 1979; Erikson, 1963). Further, children who have
been abused or neglected have very negative self-concepts and
thus will struggle to achieve initiative at this age (Levine &
Munsch, 2011).
4.2 Initiative and Play
The preschool years are often called the play years. This is not
an accident. Children 3 to 5 years old absolutely love to play.
This is a result of their rapidly developing physical skills and
abilities, emerging cognitive development, and increasing
experience in the world. In fact, most child development
specialists and early childhood teachers believe that play is the
best vehicle for children at this age to explore and manifest
their drive toward initiative. For example, a child engaged in
fantasy play based on her recent visit to the emergency room of
a hospital will use new words that she heard the nurses and
doctor use, imitate the behaviors of the doctor and nurses
(probably by dressing up to represent these roles), and explore
medical procedures such as taking a patient's temperature,
weighing the patient, and giving the patient a shot. Another
child playing in the sandbox outside will experiment to
determine how big a pile of sand he can make, explore the result
of mixing water with the sand, and then determine whether he
can make a miniature fort using sticks, leaves, and stones that
he places in the wet sand. It is almost as if initiative and play
are a perfect fit (Berlyne, 1960; Bruner, 1972; Piaget, 1962;
Sutton-Smith, 1998). Play has been studied extensively by many
scholars and can be viewed from several different perspectives.
In this section, we will cover the characteristics of play,
Piaget's cognitive play stages, and Parten's social play stages.

8. Mildred Parten observed children playing, beginning with
onlooker play (watching other children playing), and
culminating in cooperative play (Parten, 1932, 1933). Based on
her observations, Parten developed the stages of development of
social play, which we will also explore. Finally, we will see
how these two scales can be combined to show a child's
cognitive and social play behaviors together at the same time.
While it is important to understand the value of play and how
children use play to acquire a vast array of skills, concepts,
attitudes, and abilities, it must be noted that in this age of
accountability and assessments, more and more preschools are
reducing the amount of play children experience. This is the
direct result of the federal law No Child Left Behind and a
national push toward the use of preschool academic standards
(Gronlund, 2006). Preschool programs are being asked to make
sure children achieve certain academic standards in preparation
for school entry and success (Scott-Little, Kagan, & Frelow,
2005). As a result, playtime in early care and education
programs is often reduced (Kagan, Carrol, Comer, & Scott-
Little, 2006).
Characteristics of Play
According to Johnson, Christie, and Wardle (2005), play can
best be described by examining five characteristics. When
young children play, they seem to exhibit all of these
characteristics in some form: positive affect, nonliterality,
intrinsic motivation, process orientation, and free choice.
Positive affect. Children engage in play because it is fun. Some
parts of play might involve fear or anxiety, such as attempting
to go down a slide for the first time, or climbing a tall tree, but
the activity is engaged in and repeated because the overall
experience is enjoyable. Positive affect describes the positive,
affirming feeling children have when engaging in play.

9. Nonliterality. Probably the best characteristic of play for the
preschool child is that it is not constrained by reality (use of
materials, time, facts, or experiences), which is called
nonliterality. A child can pretend that a small toy container is a
cup of tea, a Lego is a piece of candy, and a doll is a real baby.
A piece of material may be a doctor's smock, and the child
could be a father, mother, or football player. This characteristic
of play enables children to explore all sorts of new ideas,
experiences, languages, and emotions, without having to worry
about accuracy.
Intrinsic motivation. Children play because it is satisfying.
They stop playing when it no longer meets their needs. And
when the play activity becomes boring, they invent ways to
make it challenging and interesting again. It seems that children
have an internal drive to play; they feel good inside when they
play—what is termed intrinsic motivation. When children and
adults do something because it is rewarded externally—adult
praise, money, grades—we call this extrinsic motivation. Play is
rewarding in and of itself.
Process orientation. Have you ever watched young children
building a fort or similar structure? What do they do when it is
finished? In a very short time, they will destroy it to build
something else. This is because they enjoy the process of
building the fort together; this characteristic of play is called
process orientation. One of the great things about the process
nature of play is that it can change along the way, based on new
children joining the group, new ideas, and new discoveries.
Free choice. King (1979) conducted an experiment about work
and play and discovered that when children freely choose the
activity (called free choice), they view it as play, but when a
teacher or other adult requires them to engage in the same
activity, it is no longer considered play. Children, it seems,
must select when they wish to play, with whom they wish to

10. play, and how long they wish to play.
Central to all of these characteristics of play is the child. In
fact, play is the prototype of child-centered learning. Because
play is so responsive to the child's interests, moods,
experiences, and developmental levels, it is an ideal vehicle for
the child during the stage of initiative versus guilt.
Piaget's Cognitive Play Stages
In Chapter 2, we discussed the first two of Piaget's stages of
mental representation. Piaget was also interested in how
children use these new mental abilities to influence what he
called playing with things—object play. The cognitive play
stages describe how children progress from the simplest form of
play to what Piaget believes to be the most complex—games
with rules (Piaget, 1962).
Functional play. The simplest use of objects in play occurs in
functional play when objects are used for their own physical
characteristics, such as stacking blocks, digging in the sand, and
pouring water from one container to another. The 2-year-old
who bangs on pots and pans in the kitchen with a spoon is
engaged in functional play. When children use their own bodies
in direct physical activities—swinging, sliding, climbing, and
rolling—they are also engaged in functional play (Johnson,
Christie, & Wardle, 2005).
Constructive play. When children use play materials to
construct something, such as using blocks to build a house and
sticks to build a fort in the mud, they are enjoying constructive
play. Woodwork and most art activities are classic forms of
constructive play. Building forts on the playground and complex
structures in the block area are other examples. What is
particularly intriguing about constructive play is that it
combines basic knowledge of materials with very creative
thinking—it is deep problem solving (Bruner, 1990).

11. Furthermore, research suggests that, unsurprisingly,
constructive play is the favorite kind of play for preschool-age
children (Ihn, 1998).
Symbolic/dramatic/fantasy play. When children use materials in
a symbolic manner (e.g., a block becomes a phone and a hat
changes a boy into a woman), we have
symbolic/dramatic/fantasy play. This form of play is the most
open-ended kind of play, because children can divorce
themselves from the concrete reality of materials and construct
their own meaning, using objects as a way to do this. It is also
the beginning of abstract thought, which is central to higher
learning (Bruner, 1972).
Games with rules. Have you ever watched a group of 7- to 8-
year-olds playing baseball when the hitter has just struck out?
What does the hitter usually plead to the rest of the players?
"Give me one more chance!" This is because most children at
this age have not learned that when you give everyone more
chances, the game is ruined. Thus, the ability to suppress one's
own ego needs for the rules of the game is what Piaget (1962)
calls games with rules. There are very few 3- to 6-year-olds
who can play complex games with rules.
While Piaget's cognitive play theory is a stage theory—children
progress from functional play to games with rules—this does
not mean that once a child has reached games with rules that
they cannot still choose to play at other levels. But, as with
other developmental approaches, if a child is developmentally
unable to play at one level, for example, symbolic play, the
child needs to be encouraged to play at the level at which the
child is most comfortable, before progressing to the next level.
Social Play Stages
Like Piaget's cognitive play stages, Parten's social play stages
are also progressive. Thus, if a child is not capable of playing at
one level of the scale (for example, cooperative play), the child

12. needs to play at the level at which the child is most comfortable
playing. A child cannot be taught to play at a certain level
unless the child is developmentally ready to do so.
Solitary play. When children play alone, with no regard for
adults or peers next to them, they are engaged in solitary play.
A child might be focused on building with Legos or in setting
up a tea service in the dollhouse. As the term states, the play is
solitary.
Parallel play. Have you ever wondered why at certain times
nobody is using the playground swings, and then all of a sudden
they are all being used? Children enjoy playing side by side
with other children, while still focusing on themselves and their
own play activity. This is parallel play. When children dig in
the sand together, without communicating to each other, they
are engaged in parallel play.
Associative play. Children enjoy playing with other children,
but they often do not really know how to do so. You might see
children in the sandbox sharing each other's digging toys or
using each other's pails. A child might imitate something the
other child is doing. But sooner or later, these children will get
into arguments, because they are still focusing on their own
play and not on playing with others. This kind of social play is
known as associative play.
Cooperative play. Children will engage in play activities with
other children where everyone fully cooperates and negotiates
the play's roles and scripts. In the familiar doctor dramatic play
activity, everyone wants to be the doctor and no one wants to be
the baby, nurse, or mother. However, children in this activity
know that if they all insist on being the doctor, the play episode
will collapse. So they negotiate, deciding who will be the doctor
first, second, and so on, and who will take on the roles of the
other characters. This is called cooperative play. One reason

13. children need a prolonged time to play is that these negotiations
take time (Christie & Wardle, 1992).
Children with disabilities and other special needs may have
difficulty progressing through each of these stages. However,
teachers can use a variety of modifications and approaches to
help these children participate in play, benefit from the value of
play, and develop through the cognitive and social stages at
their own pace (Sandall, 2004).
The Play Matrix
As is readily apparent when considering Piaget's four cognitive
play stages and Parten's four social play stages, it is possible
for a child to play at different levels of each scale model. For
example, a person can play certain card games, such as solitaire
(games with rules) alone (solitary play), thus combining the
highest of Piaget's stage with the lowest of Parten's stage. Many
3- to 6-year-olds love to engage in complex dramatic play
(Piaget's third level) by themselves (Parten's first level). By
placing these two play stage models on a two-dimensional
matrix, it is possible to observe a child's play within both of
these models at the same time
Fantasy Play and Initiative
Children in Erikson's initiative versus guilt stage are
particularly fascinated with fantasy play. This is because it
allows them to explore newly discovered concepts, skills, and
emotions. A child who has just experienced an angry teacher
can role-play being the teacher. A child fascinated by
dragonflies flying through the warm summer air can pretend to
be a dragonfly and discover that he cannot fly. A child can
explore a variety of roles, situations, and feelings
simultaneously. He or she can pretend to be a baby, mother,
teacher, or the family dog. A preschool child can also explore
being a favorite character from a fairly tale, movie, book, or TV
show.

14. Another reason imaginative play is so popular at this age is that
between the ages of 3 and 5, most children make a huge shift in
the way they view the world. Initially, young children believe
everything they imagine in their mind is, in fact, true. They
believe that once they think of something, it exists in reality.
This is why young children are scared of monsters (they believe
they are real), and why clowns and people wearing masks often
frighten them—even when familiar people are wearing them.
The belief that everything one thinks of is true is called a false
belief (Moses & Flavell, 1990). Sometime between ages 3 and
5, children in most cultures can understand that they can think
about things that are not real—that they simply imagine. They
can separate fantasy from reality. This shift in thinking is
known as theory of mind (Flavell, 2000; Lillard, 1998).
Children love to explore the wide world of fantasy and discover
how wonderful it is to try out new characters, ideas, and
activities. They love the sense of power of being anything they
can imagine. It is easy to see how the desire for initiative finds
fertile soil in fantasy play.
4.3 Initiative and Aggression
At this age, children discover that not all of their dreams and
fantasies can be realized and that their energy and exuberance is
not always appreciated by others, especially adults. They then
struggle with ways to resolve this conflict between their desire
for initiative and society's expectations, rules, and constraints
(Erikson, 1963; Kostelnik et al., 2009). Sometimes they resort
to frustration and aggression. They turn to aggression rather
than other more socially appropriate responses for a variety of
reasons. Sometimes, they look to see how important people in
their lives solve their own problems and learn from others that
aggression is an appropriate response to frustration. They learn
from others that using aggression is acceptable, so they do it
also. These children may be from families in which aggression
is used to solve problems, or they may have had other
experiences in which aggression was an acceptable approach to
fear and frustration (Patterson, 2005). Children from homes

15. where strict punishment is used often learn to use aggression as
a solution to their problems.
Another explanation for the use of aggressive behavior to solve
problems is what is termed social cognitive theory. This theory
explains that children learn behaviors from observing real
models (parents, peers, and coaches) and symbolic models (TV
program heroes and video game heroes). Developed by Albert
Bandura (1965, 1977), the social cognitive theory is based on an
experiment in which young children observed a TV program in
which aggression was used by adults to attack Bobo dolls.
These children were then given their own Bobo dolls to play
with. Compared to a control group of children who had not seen
the TV program, the children who had observed the Bobo dolls
being hit exhibited more aggressive behavior toward the dolls.
Thus, children learn aggression by observing the aggressive
behaviors of others. Children imitate the behavior of important
people in their lives, such as teachers, parents, siblings, and
people in the community. These are called real models. They
also imitate characters in books, TV programs, movies, and so
on, which are called symbolic models. In both cases, a variety
of behaviors are imitated, both good and bad.
Further, stress contributes to aggression. Stress in infancy and
early childhood can lead to aggression, due to the poor brain
development that stress causes (Shore, 1997). Additionally,
young children who constantly experience stress at home or in
the early care and education program will exhibit more
aggressive responses to frustration. These children often are
unable to respond appropriately and calmly to typical childhood
frustrations, because of their immediate environment and
because constant stress negatively impacts brain functioning,
especially of the prefrontal cortex, which is the part of the brain
that controls emotional regulation (Caine & Caine, 2006).
And children of authoritarian parents struggle more with
aggression. Baumrind (1971, 1989) developed a theory of

16. parenting styles that details permissive, authoritative, and
authoritarian parenting. In permissive parenting, the parent is
warm and loving but provides no expectations, discipline, or
consequences to behavior. Authoritative parents have high
expectations and consistent rules and enforcement, but they are
also flexible and will negotiate with their children.
Authoritarian parents have high expectations (often too high),
inflexible rules, and often harsh discipline. The authoritarian
style is one of absolute authority with no flexibility,
understanding of the child's needs, or negotiation (Baumrind,
1967). The authoritarian parenting style is not responsive to the
various behaviors the preschool child engages in during this
stage. As a result, the child becomes frustrated and aggressive.
However, while aggression is a result of one or more of these
factors, it is very important to remember that children at this
age are naturally frustrated as they seek to fulfill their need for
initiative. They resort to aggression when they have not been
shown appropriate or socially acceptable ways to respond, or
because the adults in their lives do not understand their need for
initiative.
Adults Helping Children with Aggression
There are many things adults can do to help children cope with
aggression. These ideas can be used by parents, other caregivers
in the home, and teachers and caregivers in the early care and
education program. Some of them are general ideas for all
children, but there are some specific suggestions for aggressive
3- to 5-year-olds:
Provide opportunities for appropriate physical activities. This is
one of the reasons to emphasize outdoor play in the early care
and education program and in the community at this age.
Physical activity includes gardening, building, riding tricycles,
swinging, hiking, and climbing.

17. Provide activities in which children can express frustrations.
This can be done through drawing, painting, dance, and music.
Woodwork is also a great outlet for children at this age.
Provide opportunities for soothing activities. Examples include
playing in water, finger painting, and working in clay.
Focus on specific behaviors. When a child needs to be criticized
or punished, make sure to focus on a specific behavior. Children
at this age tend to take an all-or-nothing approach to self-
concept and self-esteem. They see themselves as all good or all
bad. They are not cognitively and emotionally able to separate
out acceptable and problematic behaviors (Harter, 1999).
Support the expression of feelings. As children's language
becomes more sophisticated, help them use it to express their
frustrations and anger. They need help to express their feelings
to other children who may cause them anger and to adults who
do not appear to understand their frustrations.
Support and assist children who tend to be excluded or
victimized by others. Help them protect themselves from others.
For example, boys who are expected by parents and child care
teachers and providers to "defend themselves and act like men"
should be supported in the development and expression of less
aggressive behavior. Any child who is bullied by peers should
receive support and protection, and should not be left to fend
for him or herself. Some children with special needs may need
support if ostracized by their peers. Help children to accept who
they are and to embrace their uniqueness. We will discuss this
issue in more detail in the next chapter, especially in
relationship to diversity of race, ethnicity, and language and to
the presence of special needs.
Support the development of problem-solving skills. As children
develop emotional regulation and cognitive abilities, help them
develop problem-solving skills. However, because of immature

18. brain development and lack of experience, children this age
have limited ability to solve their own problems (Piaget, 1962).
Provide opportunities for social dramatic play. This includes
dramatic and fantasy play with peers and the need for many
dramatic play props to encourage this kind of play. Children
this age are exposed to many experiences that they simply do
not understand fully. Dramatic play enables children to explore
their feelings around terrifying experiences. A child who is
scared of a doctor gains confidence by playing at being a
doctor; a child who has experienced a scary event can come to
terms with it through repeatedly acting out the event with her
peers.
Minimize exposure to TV and other technology (see Think
About It: Just Say No to TV). Early care and education
programs need to communicate to parents and other caregivers
at home the importance of understanding the child's need for
initiative at this age and effective ways to discipline their 3- to
5-year-old. In Chapter 3, we discussed some approaches that
work with the autonomous child, and these suggestions also
work with 3- to 5-year-olds. Further, in Chapter 7, we will
discuss a variety of approaches to disciplining young children.
An absolute, authoritarian, nonflexible approach to discipline is
not effective with an aggressive 3- to 5-year-old.
Exposure to TV and Other Media Teaches Aggression
Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory shows just how
powerful the modeling of behaviors can be. Remember, this
approach to modeling behaviors works both for teaching
positive as well as negative behaviors; further, it is far more
effective when modeled by someone whom the child respects
(for example, a friend, a parent, or a teacher) (Bandura, 1965,
1977). Bandura's work shows that TV, book, and movie heroes
are also powerful symbolic role models. Watching violence on
TV promotes aggression in young children, and media violence
promotes aggression and antisocial behaviors (Comstock &

19. Scharrer, 2003). One study shows that viewing violent
television at ages 2 to 5 is linked to greater aggression at ages 7
to 10 (Christakis & Zimmerman, 2007). Even educational
programs seem to model some aggressive behaviors (Levine &
Munsch, 2011). A child's exposure to TV programs, films, and
video games that include violence and aggression should be
carefully censored (see Think About It: Just Say No to TV).
When children and adults watch violent sports programs
together, such as boxing and football, the adult needs to explain
to the child the aggressive nature of some sports.
Portrayals of minority characters on television and movies tend
to show them in a negative light (Ward, 2004). This negatively
affects the self-concept of minority children, who are greater
consumers of television than are nonminorities (Rivadeneyra,
Ward, & Gordon, 2007). Further, because of the amount of
violent and sexual content, much of what children learn from
TV does not prepare them for academic success (Comstock &
Scharrer, 2003; Schmidt & Anderson, 2004).
4.4 Brain-Based Learning and Initiative
EEG (an electroencephalogram), Functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (fMRI), Positive Emission Tomography
(PET), and Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) enable
researchers to collect and present a vast amount of information
about how the brain develops and functions (Shore, 1997;
Willis, 2009). This information has revolutionized our
understanding of the development and functioning of the brains
of infants and young children. In turn, this knowledge has
fundamentally changed the way we care for and teach young
children.
Brain development is the result of a complex interaction
between the genes we are born with and individual experiences.
Early experiences—especially during the first 5 years—have a
profound impact on the development of the brain and our
cognitive capacities as adults. These early human interactions
not only provide a positive context for learning, but also

20. directly determine the way various parts of the brain are wired.
These experiences need to stimulate all parts of the brain
through the use of all the senses. A central role of this
stimulation is to develop both sides of the brain through a
variety of activities that involve rational and logical processes
and emotional, creative, and feeling activities. These
experiences should also use various senses simultaneously, such
as when a child hears, touches, and sees a baby duckling.
However, brain development is not linear: There are optimal
times to learn certain skills and knowledge. Finally, we know
that the brain of a 3-year-old is two-and-a-half times as active
as an adult's brain (Shore, 1997). Brain activity begins to
decline during adolescence. Based on this new knowledge, some
of the things we should be doing with infants and young
children—in the home, in the community, and in early care and
education programs—to simulate healthy brain development,
include the following (Caine & Caine, 2006; Shore, 1997):
Develop warm, caring relationships with children, express joy
and enthusiasm, and help children feel safe and secure.
Respond to children's cues—provide a goodness-of-fit for the
child's temperament and a synchrony for their activities. Let the
child lead in play and learning activities.
Recognize that each child is unique.
Surround children with language and provide them with all sorts
of reading and writing materials, including crayons, paper,
books, magazines, and toys.
Encourage lots of safe exploration and play. Encourage
exploration both of objects and materials and of other children.
Limit television watching.
Encourage health and good nutrition; encourage mothers of
infants to breast-feed.
Schiller (2010) adds that because music and language are
closely related in brain development, music should be included
in the daily schedule, teachers and children should sing
together, and parents and teachers should use a large variety of

21. language, preferably just above the level of language used by
each child. A variety of different learning styles should be used
when working with young children—visual, tactile, kinesthetic,
and auditory (Gardner, 1983). Further, because we know that
exercise and hands-on activities build brain connections that
enhance memory and learning, hands-on activities should be
encouraged at home and in the center, and daily exercise should
be provided. We should also encourage face-to-face interactions
with peers, and respond sincerely and with full concentration
when interacting with children.
Because stress limits brain growth and development (Shore,
1997; Willis, 2009), classroom experiences and activities need
to be meaningful to each student, enjoyable, challenging, novel,
and interesting. Many of these classroom activities—inside and
outside—should be directed by the child. Children at this age
need choices that not only give them a sense of power, but also
enable them to feel good about their need for control, their
desire to explore their initiative to its fullest extent, and their
need to learn about natural limitations and real cause and effect.
Play should be at the center of what children do at this age, both
to support the child's development of initiative and to develop
the child's brain maximally (Schiller, 2010; Shore, 1997; Willis,
2007).
In addition to music, young children should have many
opportunities for dance, free movement, and the visual arts. The
arts enable children to express their feelings of joy, frustration,
excitement, anger, and sadness. Engagement in the arts helps
children at this age to come to terms with their emotional
responses to the environment. This is critically important, as
children learn to express their need for power and their
disappointments in socially acceptable ways. Otherwise, guilt
may develop (Erikson, 1963).
Brain-Based Learning and the Media

22. We know that exercise, mastery of motor skills, and healthy
physical development are critical to the optimal brain
development of young children (Schiller, 2010; Shore, 2007).
There is a growing body of evidence that suggests watching
more television causes greater problems with weight as children
grow and develop (Epstein et al., 2009; Taveras et al., 2007).
Given increased concerns about childhood obesity, this is
clearly an issue. Further, with infants and toddlers there is no
evidence that TV of any kind is helpful in developing cognitive
and language abilities (Kirkorian, Wartella, & Anderson, 2008).
The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends pediatricians
discourage TV watching for children under age 2, while
promoting talking, playing, singing, and reading together
(2001). Research shows young children learn much more
effectively from real-life interactions (Krcmar, Grela, & Lin,
2007). Even when young children played with the TV on in the
background, their play was shorter and less focused than when
the TV was turned off (Schmidt, Pempek, Kirkorian, Lund, &
Anderson, 2008). Entertainment television appears to have a
negative effect on children's cognitive development and school
achievement. In the early years, when children are learning to
read and are gaining a vast amount of information about the real
world, school achievement declines as the amount of TV
viewing increases (Schmidt & Anderson, 2004), particularly
entertainment (not educational) TV. Children who watch more
television tend to have attention problems and are more
impulsive, which contributes to poor school performance (Shin,
2004).
Regardless of the program (including educational programs like
"Sesame Street"), a child who sits in front of a TV is not
engaged in these critically important activities that we know
stimulate and develop a young child's brain.
4.5 Supporting Initiative in the Early Care and Education
Environment
In Chapters 2 and 3, the concept of goodness-of-fit was

23. discussed. Goodness-of-fit is a match between a child's
temperament and the social environment and is necessary for
optimal development and learning (Chess & Thomas, 1999). In
a similar vein, environments that match a child's developmental
stage are optimal for their growth and development (The
Science of Early Childhood Development, 2007). Thus, at this
critical stage of initiative versus guilt, children need physical
and social environments that are responsive and support their
desire for initiative. Further, these social and physical
environments need to support what we now know about brain
development in young children (Shore, 1997; Willis, 2009).
Curricular Approaches That Empower Children to Develop
Initiative
Human interactions are at the heart of quality early care and
education programs. The staff and volunteers in early care and
education programs must genuinely support and encourage each
child's efforts at initiative. Guilt should be avoided, punishment
minimized. As with the autonomous child, staff should avoid
getting into power battles and should deeply understand the
child's need for control and power.
In Chapter 2, we discussed the variety of early care and
education programs that exists in most communities
(Neugebauer, 2008). Each of these has its own curriculum,
which focuses on implementing the program's unique
philosophy, to support brain-based learning and the
development of initiative in young children.
A whole child, integrated approach is best (The Science of
Early Childhood Development, 2007). Another name for this
type of curricular approach is developmentally appropriate
practice (DAP). In this approach, all domains of the child are
addressed equally—cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional,
affective, and physical—while content such as math, science,
music, art, and physical education is taught in an integrated
manner. An integrated approach to the curriculum is one in

24. which skills and academic concepts, such as literacy, math,
science, social skills, and art exploration, are not taught as
separate subjects, but rather are taught together as children
work on projects and other meaningful activities. For example,
children might create a Mother's Day card, which would involve
measuring and cutting the paper, drawing an image on the card,
and then writing a greeting. Or they might observe a bird's nest
on a nature walk, return to the classroom to hear a story about
birds and their nest read by a teacher, and then try to make nests
with sticks and other materials, using an old nest in the science
area as a model.
In providing learning opportunities that support the child's need
for initiative, it is very important to make sure children at this
age who are diagnosed with a developmental delay or special
need have many opportunities to risk, try out new ideas, push
limits, and experiment (Erikson, 1963). While it is important
that the child's disability is addressed directly in the program, it
is also important that these efforts do not prevent the child from
exploring the various ways he or she experiences initiative. This
is particularly important for children with ADHD and emotional
and behavioral struggles (Sandall, 2004).
Provide Indoor Environments That Support Initiative
Indoor environments that support initiative in children ages 3 to
5 years old need to address two central ideas: Empower children
to develop initiative in socially appropriate ways, and focus on
safety and active supervision (Martin, 2011). While the indoors
should be a rich environment of books, art materials, blocks,
plants, science equipment, musical instruments, and social
dramatic play props, it must not be isolated from the outdoors—
both the playground and community. The playground and
community offer wonderful ways to support initiative.
Designing the physical environment in such a way that children
can easily access and return toys and other materials, with
minimal adult assistance, encourages the child's development of

25. initiative. Children develop both a sense of control and an
ability to direct their own play and other activities, enabling
them to select the materials and toys required to accomplish
certain tasks and to achieve certain goals, all important
activities in brain development and initiative.
While the indoor environment must support initiative and brain-
based learning, actual early childhood environments depend on
many factors, including the amount of time a child spends in the
program, the sponsorship of the program (e.g., a college, public
school, Head Start, or community-based center), and the
program's curriculum (e.g., Reggio Emilia, Montessori, or
public school) (Greenman, 2005; Neugebauer, 2008).
Provide Outdoor Environments That Support Initiative
The outside environment is critical in supporting the preschool
child's need for initiative, because the outdoors allow children
to explore, experiment, take risks, make mistakes, and try again.
The space encourages large muscle activities and exploration;
the outdoor environment tolerates loud cries and lots of noise.
Children can be messy, they can create and draw and build, and
they can observe all the fantastic variety and changes in nature
(see Helping Children Develop: The Value of Outdoor Play for
3- to 5-Year-Olds).
Children should use the outdoors at home, in the community,
and in the center. Here, we examine the outdoor playground at
the early care and education program; the next section explores
the rich array of community resources, both indoors and
outdoors, that can be utilized by the program and home (Martin,
2011).
Overall Design of the Playground
Because children at this age are exploring their need for
initiative, and because they are progressing through Piaget's
cognitive play stages and Parten's social play stages, the overall

26. design of the playground must enable children to engage in
activities that enhance their development in each of these areas.
Direct academic activities and organized physical exercise
should not be the focus of playgrounds for 3- to 5-year-olds
(Louv, 2006).
Surfaces. Good playgrounds for young children usually have at
least four different surfaces: grass, concrete/asphalt, fall-zone
surfaces, and sand (Wardle, 2011a).
Grass. Grass is a wonderful surface for the active preschool
child. It provides support for games and physical activities,
while not being too abrasive when the child falls. It also does
not attract and store heat the way concrete and asphalt do. Grass
should not be sacrificed for fall-zone areas and hardtop.
Concrete/asphalt. Hardtop areas are critical for tricycles and
other wheeled vehicles, balls, unit blocks, art easels, and other
activities and equipment that require a stable, flat surface.
Pathways made of these surfaces are also an ideal way to
connect different areas of the playground. However, falls on
hardtop are painful and can be life-threatening, and the
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) guidelines for
playground safety do not allow climbing equipment, slides, and
swings to be on hard surfaces. Additionally, in hot climates
(and programs operating during the summer), both concrete and
asphalt attract and store heat from the sun. Shade can mitigate
the problem to some extent.
Fall-zone materials. CPSC guidelines require an absorbent
material be used under equipment that is raised off the ground.
Further, the ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990)
requires that a certain percentage of all equipment, including
swings and slides, be handicap accessible. Wood chips, rubber
tiles, and rubber pellets meet both the CPSC and ADA
requirements for fall-zone materials (Strickland, 2004); sand
does not. The CPSC publishes a free booklet of playground

27. safety guidelines; the U.S. Architecture and Transportation
Barriers Compliance Board publishes the ADA playground
requirements.
Sand. Traditionally, sand was used as a fall-zone material, but it
is less popular today because it does not meet ADA regulations.
However, all playgrounds should provide a sand area where
children can dig, construct, and play. Ideally, the sand area is
combined with a water source (Louv, 2006).
Additionally, water is a must in an outdoor playground,
especially during the summer months and in conjunction with
the use of sand. These two play materials offer unlimited
opportunities for the preschool child. Water, of course, must be
handled carefully so that it does not cause health hazards
(Martin, 2011).
All playgrounds must now meet the requirements of the
Americans with Disabilities Act, which are primarily designed
to make sure children in wheelchairs and those using other
assistive devices can have access to swings, slides, and
climbing equipment. The guidelines for playgrounds are covered
in the federal document Guide to ADA Accessibility Guidelines
for Play Areas (2001). Furthermore, the outdoor environment
may need to be modified for children with other disabilities, and
teachers need to make sure they can support the play of children
with special needs on the playground (Sandall, 2004).
Nature. There is an increasing trend to include many natural
elements in playgrounds (Keeler, 2011; Louv, 2006). These
natural elements include flower and vegetable gardens, stones
and rocks, streams, hills and valleys, soil and mud, and trees
and bushes. The trend has developed from two concerns: (1)
children in contemporary societies lack the kinds of exposure
and interaction with nature that was once viewed as "a right of
childhood" (Louv, 2006), and (2) brain research strongly
supports the view that children benefit from direct exposure to

28. nature (Schiller, 2010; Willis, 2007). While early care and
education programs should provide many of these natural
elements, communities offer a vast array of natural
opportunities for children, which should be visited by the early
care and education programs and used extensively by families.
HELPING CHILDREN DEVELOP:
The Value of Outdoor Play for 3- to 5-Year-Olds
There are many reasons why outdoor play is critically important
for 3- to 5-year-olds:
Risk-taking, exploring, fine and gross motor development, and a
vast amount of basic information about how the world works are
best learned outside; children do not have to be quiet, and they
can make a mess.
We are taking outdoor play away from our children with TV and
computers, unsafe neighborhoods, a focus on academics in early
childhood programs, and busy parents.
Children must push their physical limits to understand what
they can do: "Can I slide in the sand, roll in the grass, and
climb a tree?" "What can I do?"
Children learn a vast amount of foundational information about
the world: "How does ice feel and sound?" "Why does my
tricycle speed up when I go downhill?" "What does the
playground look like after it rains?" "Why is the shade from the
building cool?"
In today's world of increasing numbers of obese children, it is
critical that we provide our young children with physical
activities and exercise. It is also critical that we make these
activities enjoyable, so that children will continue them into old
age.
We need to help children learn to care for the environment. The
best place to start is in the child's own backyard—the program's
playground. Children should be expected to help care for the
playground by picking up trash, returning toys to bins and
boxes, and parking their tricycles in a designated area at the end

29. of the play period.
There are so many enjoyable things for adults to do outside,
such as hiking, bird watching, climbing, gardening, playing
various sports, and farming. If children learn to enjoy the
outdoors in their childhood, it will stay with them for the rest of
their lives.
All important learning does not occur indoors. Some of the most
important research today is conducted outside: ecology, study of
animal habitats and plants, anthropology, study of human
behavior, and how children learn in nature.
Wardle, F. (2003). Designing and remodeling outdoor play
environments. Early Childhood News, 15(2), 36–41.
Equipment. Equipment choices for playgrounds depend on the
philosophy of the program, the program's budget, and available
space. As mentioned, there is a move toward natural materials
and equipment. Different kinds of equipment encourage
different kinds of play. Thus, equipment should be provided to
stimulate each level of Piaget's and Parten's play stages.
Because constructive play is the favorite outdoor play of
preschool children (Ihn, 1998), constructive play materials
should be plentiful: clean pieces of wood, large hollow blocks,
sticks and branches, old milk crates, clean and non-steel-belted
tires, wagons to move dirt, and short pieces of rope.
4.6 Use of the Community to Support Initiative
There are many community resources that families and early
care and education programs can use to support children's need
for initiative (Wardle, 2007). According to Bronfenbrenner
(1979, 1995), the community is part of the microsystem.
Further, interactions and cooperation between various
components of the microsystem belong in his mesosystem. Not
only can community resources be used both by families and the
early care and education program, but each can inform the other
of existing resources and their value for young children. Use of
these resources depends on knowing they exist and having
access and transportation to them. Parents and caregivers need

30. to explore all the rich possibilities in their communities, and
discover the ways these resources can be used for the benefit of
children ages 3 to 5. The early care and education program
should develop strategies both to inform parents and other
caregivers of the resources they can use with their children
within their communities, and to allow the program to learn
about different community resources from parents and other
caregivers.
An adult or older child must always accompany children at this
age. When early care and education programs go on field trips,
parents and other caregivers from the home should be invited to
help with this supervision. For families, supervising children as
they explore these outdoor areas presents an opportunity for a
parent, grandparent, or other adult in the home to spend time
with one or more of their children. Not only will the adult
delight in learning what the child likes to do and how he or she
sees the world, but the adult can teach the child about nature
and wild things. Some adults know all about wildflowers, while
others are tree experts. Others know all about the birds and
animals in the area. This is a wonderful time to teach this
wisdom to a young child. Of course, this is also an important
time for adults to teach children important health and safety
information (Martin, 2011).
Museums
Most communities have a collection of museums, including
nature and history museums, art museums, regional museums,
state museums, and museums dedicated to a single concept,
such as the Black Cowboy Museum, the National Railway
Museum, and the Agricultural Hall of Fame. Many of these
museums have a section dedicated to families, and some provide
regular events to attract families. In some cities, these museums
even offer free admission on certain days . Many museums work
closely with early childhood programs and schools (some have
websites and additional curricular materials that can be used

31. when the children return to their programs and homes).
Many large cities also have children's museums, which have
exhibitions and activities that young children enjoy and provide
activities for children as young as toddlers. These museums
change their exhibits and activities on a regular basis and also
provide a variety of special activities such as children's authors
reading their books, cultural activities, magic acts, and
opportunities for children to engage in dramatic play and play
with unique toys.
Outdoor museums are favorite places for families with young
children. When children visit outdoor museums, they learn a
great deal about growing and caring for plants and animals and
how people used to live. Examples of outdoor museums include
farms from the 1800s that feature old buildings (homes, stores,
and one-room schoolhouses), a collection of farm animals, and
periodic historical activities in which children can participate,
such as making wallpaper using color dyes and vinegar and
making apple butter. These outdoor farms provide many
seasonal experiences for young children, from observing baby
pigs and lambs in the spring, to harvesting corn, pumpkins, and
potatoes in the fall.
Cars are kept off the premises of such museums, and there are
always staff members—often dressed in period costumes—on
hand, so they are very safe places for children to explore.
Outdoor museums are great places to visit on a regular schedule
throughout the year. On each successive visit, children can
revisit familiar sights and activities, while also learning about
new ones.
Learning About Nature
Nature is of immense interest to young children (Keeler, 2011;
Louv, 2006). Many cities have a series of public trails and
greenways that allow children without easy access to rural or

32. undeveloped areas to experience nature. Greenways are natural
areas set aside for birds, waterfowl, animals, and vegetation to
grow more naturally than in traditional city parks. While these
parks might have meadows and large grassy areas, they do not
have formal ball fields and carefully manicured grass. They
often contain wetlands for waterfowl and migrating birds. These
areas provide natural habitats for a vast variety of wildlife.
Children aged 3 to 5 are very curious about everything! They
love to take risks, and they need concrete materials to learn
about the world, such as water, stones, trees, flowers, insects,
and animals. Greenways and trails provide an ideal place for the
preschool child to explore. Many city parks and recreation
departments provide guided tours and educational field trips to
their greenways and trails. Early care and education programs
should become familiar with these opportunities, develop a
relationship with their city agency, and utilize free programs
with their children. Families can, of course, access these
greenways and trails whenever they choose.
Hiking trails and greenways provide wonderful environments
for children to engage in more complex and sophisticated forms
of play (Louv, 2006). As discussed earlier in this chapter, there
are different forms of both social and cognitive play. Play is not
just about swinging on a swing and climbing on a ladder.
Children also like to play with water, draw in the mud, build
constructions with sticks and stones, play together in a little
shelter they have just built, or pretend to be explorers. They are
exploring the world and trying to figure out where they fit in it.
City Parks and Playgrounds
Cities and towns throughout the United States have a variety of
parks that can be enjoyed by programs and families with young
children. Most city parks contain traditional playgrounds with
swings, slides, climbers, and sand. These playgrounds are
designed to match the physical development of children at this
age (Johnson, Christie, & Wardle, 2005). Because 3 to 5-year-

33. olds are fascinated with physical play and are developing their
gross and fine motor abilities, these playgrounds are great
places for them to play. Preschool children tend to enjoy
playing in the sand that surrounds most playgrounds and making
friends with other children their own age while playing.
Programs without access to their own playgrounds, or to
playgrounds that are age-appropriate, can opt instead to use city
park playgrounds. However, most city playgrounds provide only
equipment that matches the first level of cognitive play—
functional play. Parents and caregivers should be aware that
children soon become bored with basic functional play such as
swinging, sliding, and climbing. Thus, families and programs
should bring toys and other materials with them that encourage
constructive and symbolic play, and natural materials, such as
sticks, stones, pieces of wood, and leaves, that can be used by
the children in their play on these playgrounds.
City parks also have other play opportunities. Most have some
kind of water source—either streams that wander through the
park, or a pond or lake. Children in the initiative versus guilt
stage generally love playing in water. They throw stones, watch
sticks float under a bridge, play in the mud, observe tadpoles
and frogs, and watch the variety of wildlife that ponds and lakes
attract. While supervision is always critical with young
children, it is hypercritical when water is involved (Martin,
2011).
Libraries and Bookstores
Children at this age are fascinated by books, pictures, artwork,
and stories. They love predictable stories with highly repetitive
scripts, like The Three Billy Goats Gruff, the Three Little Pigs,
and fairy tales. They like stories about things they can relate to
in their own short lives. Finally, they want to exercise their
newly developed, and still developing, complex language skills.
Thus, the preschool age is an ideal time to expose children to

34. books and reading and to instill in them the love of books and
reading. Exposing children to books, stories, and print can be
accomplished through frequent, positive experiences to libraries
and bookstores, and through positive experiences with books
and reading at home and in the early care and education
program.
Staff members in local libraries are very good at working
closely with early care and education programs. They often have
programs designed specifically for young children and will
arrange reading activities for groups of children from various
programs. Programs should work closely with libraries to
provide program classrooms with books that they can use to
augment specific curricular themes and activities. Finally, many
libraries put on special events for young children.
Families can access libraries in their neighborhoods. Visits to
libraries with children aged 3 to 5 build a strong disposition in
children toward reading and learning. The exposure to books
can then be reinforced when children bring home books that
their parents read to them and that they can begin to learn how
to read themselves. Involving the entire family in these visits,
and not simply leaving library visits up to the early care and
education programs, is absolutely critical, because it shows
children that education and the use of books are supported and
modeled at home (Bandura, 1977, 1990).
Many bookstores cater to families with young children. These
bookstores not only stock children's classics and the newest
children's books, but they also have staff members who are
extremely knowledgeable about the different kinds of children's
books that are available. A parent who is looking for books to
match the specific interests of a child will find these books in
children's bookstores. When children visit bookstores, they
learn that people view books as important aspects of their lives,
so important in fact that they will go to a store, enjoy looking at

35. books in the store, and then actually pay for the books.
Wardle, F. (2013). Collaboration with families and
communities [Electronic version]. Retrieved from
https://content.ashford.edu/