strict man- lPer- )nger ,n Of raced rhfies s the rator, nore, L best e was eaker I was ctive utive lP99r df- rated ettle- tially iih a weie igz). Iow- I the the ies. rably )rm- :es as kers, :ived nore shed rda dren nent roth- lblic 967; hted rent, :articularly the importance of organization and :uldraising. In fact, in their early years, their appeal was enhanced by the application of cor- :orate and scientific methods to social reform, :articularly among the educated middle and :nper classes. Unlike the COS, however, settle- =ents lacked clarity on their basic organizational :i- rm and struggled with persistent contradic- :Lans between their democratic values and their ,-::iance on elites for funding and political sup- f,ort (Wenocur & Reisch, 1989). During World War I, most local nonprofits :egan to be coordinated by business-dominated -cmmunity Chests, the antecedents of today's lfited Way. The presence of business leaders qstlred the primary of corporate methods and r"r.-ues in the private human services field i,:illiant, 1990). As these agencies professional- -red during the 1920s, this federated structure xrtr&me the logical vehicle to rationalize philan- lrropv and help nonprofit human services orga- 'r'nv* tions survive fi nancially. -{t the same time, there was a shift in the over- iunc.t of public services, from volunte er organiza- tr:ns administered by boards to executive-based ,Ffl',ffi.rns of supervision. This reflected an increase m frate and local government involvement in and a'ntol of societal change. The emergence of the fdc of public administration led to increased um:ressionalism in government departments of lmu*::-l rr'elfare. These bureaucracies were receptive m 3e expertise social workers had acquired in umr'ersities and private charitable organizations. fhe appearance of "welfare capitalism" in the rrn= of company unions and other employee mm,edt packages during the 1920s, however, rum:e,rmined advocates of governmental inter- tmtron in the social welfare arena by promoting ffic rage of the socially responsible corporation urr,ru:se profits were linked to American progress mrc mell-being (Berkowitz & McQuaid, 1980). imer developments that shaped human services mnmrn rlistration in this era included the expansion m rrecialized organizations in such fields as mreadon, mental health, juvenile and criminal nuum=" child welfare, and occupational social General Themes in the Evolution of HSA 33 work; the formation of a professional infrastruc- ture through such organizations as the American Association for Organizing Family Social Work, the Child Welfare League of America, the National Social Work Council, the Community Chests and Councils of America, and a wide range of professional associations; the nearly 3O0o/o increase in the number of schools of social work between World War I and the Great Depression; the growth of professional journals; and the use of the medical model and corporate.

1. strict
man-
lPer-
)nger
,n Of
raced
rhfies
s the
rator,
nore,
L best
e was
eaker
I was
ctive
utive
lP99r
df-
rated
ettle-

2. tially
iih a
weie
igz).
Iow-
I the
the
ies.
rably
)rm-
:es as
kers,
:ived
nore
shed
rda
dren
nent
roth-
lblic
967;
hted
rent,

3. :articularly the importance of organization and
:uldraising. In fact, in their early years, their
appeal was enhanced by the application of cor-
:orate and scientific methods to social reform,
:articularly among the educated middle and
:nper classes. Unlike the COS, however, settle-
=ents lacked clarity on their basic organizational
:i- rm and struggled with persistent contradic-
:Lans between their democratic values and their
,-::iance on elites for funding and political sup-
f,ort (Wenocur & Reisch, 1989).
During World War I, most local nonprofits
:egan to be coordinated by business-dominated
-cmmunity Chests, the antecedents of today's
lfited Way. The presence of business leaders
qstlred the primary of corporate methods and
r"r.-ues in the private human services field
i,:illiant, 1990). As these agencies professional-
-red during the 1920s, this federated structure
xrtr&me the logical vehicle to rationalize philan-
lrropv and help nonprofit human services orga-
'r'nv* tions survive fi nancially.
-{t the same time, there was a shift in the over-
iunc.t of public services, from volunte er organiza-
tr:ns administered by boards to executive-based
,Ffl',ffi.rns of supervision. This reflected an increase
m frate and local government involvement in and
a'ntol of societal change. The emergence of the
fdc of public administration led to increased
um:ressionalism in government departments of

4. lmu*::-l rr'elfare. These bureaucracies were receptive
m 3e expertise social workers had acquired in
umr'ersities and private charitable organizations.
fhe appearance of "welfare capitalism" in the
rrn= of company unions and other employee
mm,edt packages during the 1920s, however,
rum:e,rmined advocates of governmental inter-
tmtron in the social welfare arena by promoting
ffic rage of the socially responsible corporation
urr,ru:se profits were linked to American progress
mrc mell-being (Berkowitz & McQuaid, 1980).
imer developments that shaped human services
mnmrn rlistration in this era included the expansion
m rrecialized organizations in such fields as
mreadon, mental health, juvenile and criminal
nuum=" child welfare, and occupational social
General Themes in the Evolution of HSA 33
work; the formation of a professional infrastruc-
ture through such organizations as the American
Association for Organizing Family Social Work,
the Child Welfare League of America, the
National Social Work Council, the Community
Chests and Councils of America, and a wide range
of professional associations; the nearly 3O0o/o
increase in the number of schools of social work
between World War I and the Great Depression;
the growth of professional journals; and the use
of the medical model and corporate manage-
ment by many human services agencies (Wenocur
& Reisch, 1989).
Consequently, the pattern of administration
in these organizations changed considerably

5. during this era (Mclean, ISZZ).4ggg_hggl&-.
recruited more individgeb primarily men, with
t i"'#A_
woffi ana exfrie199*rnSonp_pfi,t ;1g9p_c19s _as- .
aiffi ffitrato rila* es ffi1t s on,_ gqq,gal_scere;
tfrE,h.tle:..eh"-d' . Qr,rrit .fro-
[email protected](Waite,1960).
New executives, like |ackson, often brought
their own ideas about the most effective way to
organize services. To implement these ideas, they
needed to clari!. the executive-board relationship.
Agenry executives asserted that the boardb func-
tion was to ggtablishpqliry, while that of the exec-
utive was to manug. th. 4q4fqpra1jorr fE'*" _
agency, includi4€ the-*niri*ag* q{ pg*gg}S,1"
(Kirschner, 1986). In addition to redefining these
roles, nonprofits rationalized their procedures
through the rotation of board members and the
establishment of board nominating committees,
limited terms for board members, and annual elec-
tions of board officers (Waite, 1960). These devel-
opments were less visible in ethnic agencies, which
still contained many features of the self-help and
mutual aid traditions (Iglehart & Becerra, 1995).
I The growth of federated Communitv Chests,+
further strengthened the role of asency executivell-.
nyri"es t""4.rr rU
annual fundraisine caiirpaien to replace a contin-
uous, yeT-long proc
eacll comryqnltv 4genq, (q pJ965). In most
cities, the creation of a "council of social agencies"

6. You plan to create a new business, which you want to be
designated as minority and women owned (MWBD).Before you
can incorporate your company, you must research the following:
· How you can become certified as MWBD
· The standards you must uphold
· The percentage of women and/or minorities that you must
employ
· The benefits of operating such a business
officer (CEO) and playing a major role in organi-
zation management, including most personnel
decisions (Lerby, 1978; Waite, 1960)'
The Emergence of Management
in the 20th CenturY
By the early 20th century, virtually all non-
profit agencies had adopted "techniques of intra-
ug..r.y [and interagency] coordination and the
incorporation of ideas from business manage-
ment such as standardized forms, regular reports
to 'stockholders,' and the use of 'cost/benefit
analysis' to determine the allocation of agency
resources." This focus on standardization and
efficiency was not confined to the nonprofit sec-

7. tor. Public sector social welfare leaders, such as
Homer Folks in NewYork, "repeatedly stressed the
importance of sound administration, ' ' ' control'
cost efficiency, and [interorganizational] cooper-
atiod' (Wenocur & Reisch, 1989, pp' 49, 51)'
The fusion of charitable and corporate princi-
ples helped the COS win financial and political
,porrro., within the business community, as did
iis embrace of "technology" in its methods
of intervention, organizational structure, and
administrative procedures (Margolin, 1997)'
With this support, the COS sought to establish
some degree of order and coordination in the
human services field and made systematic efforts
to eliminate public poor-relief programs (Kaplan'
DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN SERVICES MANAGEMENT
cise control over relief rec
lacked specific training in these areas' district
agents were responsible fot otganizalional man-
alement, fundraising' recruitment, and super-

8. vision. Within a generation, most COS no 1o
used volunteers, although the application
business principles was not universally embr
(Reisch & Wenocur, 1982)'
The career of MarY Richmond
these trends' In many ways, Richmond was
first female career social welfare administr
known for her books on social casework' she
also a nation ally tecognized writer and
about human services administration who
and board (Pittman-Munke, 1985)'
particularly concerned about the respecti
responsibilities of the organization's executi
holding executive positions in the Baltin
Philadelphia, and NewYork COS' Although
$ Settlement houses, rvhich also began to 4[
inUfficonstitutedasi
during the Progressive Era, when its I
oriented goals, particularly around such i

9. pattern of nonprofit oJrcmzlle! Many set
*."tilG Hrtl H*r* in Chicago, ilere initi
.iil.rti"llv fundraising bodies (Carson, I
wh.;th. "ffi;l
f"under retired or died'
: .- * - , o F6?iri xfi-?;Tha?r n e:i6iii6A6;ard- domi
ever, the relationship befiveen the board and
new headworker often resembled that of
director and board in other nonprofit agenc
The Settlement Movement grew
child labor, the unionization of women
education, public health, and housing'
widespread support. By 1910, there were
than 400 settlements, including those
and women by advocating for the establi
by African Americans. The movement had
national impact on conditions affecting chil&
-"rcag1{,9fg|&Js, (Margolin' t 99]1 fv;n
a
cln*ard---. rs95). ln addition, many COS clients

10. regarded the "new charity" as alien and preferred
the systems of self-help and mutual aid their
communities established (Chan, 1991; Hine'
1990; Mandler, 1990; Rivera, 1987)'
In the 1890s, as the COS model became more
widespread, paid staff-usually called "district
agents"-replaced volunteers' Although they
of the juvenile court system, state-funded
ers' pensions, anti-child labor laws, and
health reforms (Chambers, 1963; Davis' 1
Lasch-Quinn, 1993).
Like the COS, settlement houses
many of the features of corporate ma
€d ee- :-
,llar- u-
rianC
:-- '--
rnor;-, '

11. Io:.ie::-
1999 .
,1.-',. :-
r dud::;
of ou;-
Ct-r11OLe :
!L] ieaoS-
I to mea:
SOSe PILr-
> or Pea-
- such a-'
:ons rvors-
:d insuft-
,t societie:
Itecedent!
rices agen-
:ia1 rqeliart
rations like
ent of the
rldren s Alc
e a"harmo-
ional values
Ld economic

12. rists consid-
tential deter-
government
n democrac-'
cf unPoPular
ur & Reisch'
izations, such
and the ReC
ar, it was onlv
;ociated with
States created
:o oversee the
Lons develoPed
rl illness, delin-
Stern,2007)'
General Themes in the Evolution
of HSA 31
***. Emergence
*,*rTan services
of Modern

13. Administration
In part, this private philanthropic
t"-*"'::
*n.".a the unwillingness of business
elites to
.;;;;;" ;rttem of public taxes and services
thev
il;, control' At the time' these services
con-
ilJ;;;;t of stute-fu"ded custodial
institu-
,t""t t"."*-ups of people viewed
as needing
special attention: individuals
who were mentally
iffi ili;;ntallv disabled' orPhans' people
*n" *... Uii"d o' deaf' criminals' and'
increas-
it*r, ,n. elderly poor (Katz' 1996)'
This concern
intensified as new rmmigrants,
became uo-:-t-lt'
and politically corrupt
"iard bosses" acquired

14. ;rilai ;iilul .ont'oi (Bruno' 1e57; LeibvJ
e78)'
---Eurli..
sectarian-human services
orgafilza'
,i";;;;;. ro'*ta tutgtlv as "charitaf'; itt::]'-
,#f *iii ilifi "it""!ioa-1q
tt'-eh legal status'
Thii reflected their underlying
philosophy :1"
.n.itf rnor''td be based on a personal
t"l::t^lo'
between benefactor and
recipient (Lowell'. 1 884)'
ii. t"i-U"ction of "scientific charity"
illus-
i.ut.a no* the nations changing
political econ-
omy influenced its social
institutions' Jus::,t::
ffi';; ;;;itiiv uo't corPoration".replaced
tra-
inJ"""f partnerships in the marketplace'

15. tne
;;;t* 'corporalion" became the
preferred
";*""rL.at"t.l
iorm for philanthropic and
civic
;.fffi':';'"'g1' tt'it' "'odel' trustees
colld
' rtions without incurrrngcontrol these organtza
l"oal liabilitv for their debts or activities
and
;;;; .;ncepts of administrative
efficiencv
;;;;; o"tiness world into the administration
of charity (Lubove, 1965)'
During the last half of
,fr. irrt'.*tury, this model spread
throughout
in. "."r-nt
sector in higher education'
*l::,t'
t"t,ti"ia"t, public health' and
youth-servlng

16. ;t;""*t*'' tt ftttpta create a form
of "wel-
iu.". .upitun'ml' a pragmatic
U'S' alternative to
iror.r-'r"o. capitalism and European
socrallsm
ur
ll, -
it
ll
I
I
DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN SERVICES MANAGEMENT
wages in order to assist capitalist development,
and reassert political authority in the face of
frequent popular protests (Piven & Cloward,
1995). The North American colonies established
by Great Britain modeled their social welfare sys-
tems after these laws, sometimes word for word.

17. Before the American Revolution, formal social
welfare systems had been established in North
America in which local religious and secular
authorities shared responsibility for assisting
dependent individuals. This reflected civil gov-
ernment's communal concerns and the "charity"
missions of religious organizations (Axinn &
Stern, 2007; |ansson, 2005).
Even before independence, Private benevolent
societies and self-help organizations emerged to
address the consequences of Poverty and immi-
gration because decentralized government
responses proved insufficient or ineffective (Axinn
& Stern, 2007). Upper class leaders of secular
groups and Protestant churches sought to assist
the poor through cash assistance, moral suasion,
and personal example. The constitutional separa-
tion of civil government from religious organiza-
tion enabled churches to develop their own
charitable activities, which often included reli-
gious proselytizing. One consequence was the
organization of these activities under. "lay"
rather than clerical leadership, particularly'in the

18. congregation-governed Protestant denominations
(Leiby, 1978). Another result during the 19th cen-
tury was the establishment of Protestant missions
in crowded urban slum neighborhoods' to serve
humanitarian ends and strengthen the role of
organized religion in society (Boyer, 1978; Day,
2005). Unlike today's churches, l9th-century
churches wanted to maintain, not break down, the
wall separating church and state.
While the provision of aid to people in their
own homes (called "outdoor relief") continued
the Poor Law tradition of categorizing and stig-
mati"Zing the needy, the number of state-funded
institutions tb serve the mentally ill, orphans, the
aged, and the able-bodied poor increased in the
19th centirry. Often called "indoor reliefi' these
"asylums" remoVed certain classes of persons and
their problems from public view, reinforced the
impression that societywas helping individuals in
need, and labeled those being helped as "deviant'"

19. They established a moral tone for the treatment
of those in need and a moral justification for
social policies. By the mid-century, these morally
based ideas acquired scientific and pseudoscien-
tific rationales (Rothman, 1971; Trattnet 1999)'
Spurred by reform movements, particularly in
the fields of mental health and child welfare,
states also began to assume responsibility during
this period for the limited distribution of out-
door relief formerly left to towns and counties'
By the late 1830s, government leaders also recog-
nized that indoor relief was inadequate to meet
the problems of the poor, particularly those pro-
duced by ryclical economic depressions or peri-
odic epidemics of infectious diseases' such as
cholera or tuberculosis. As social conditions wors-
ened and government responses proved insuffi-
cient or ineffective, private benevolent societies
and self-help organizations, the antecedents
of contemporary nonprofit human services agen-
cies, began to play a leading role in social welfare

20. provision (Mandler, 1990).
Secular reformers hoPed organizations like
the Association for the Improvement of the
Condition of the Poor and the Children's Aid
Society in New York City would create a "harmo-
ni<jus community" and protect traditional values
, i-g an environment of rapid social and economic
change. Both sectarians and secularists consid-
ered private social welfare to be a potential deter-
rent to the excessive accumulation of governmdnt
power, a tool to strengthen American democrac;,
and a means to resist the influence of unp6pular
or foreign political ideas (Wenocur-& Rei
19b9). Although large private organizations,
as the U.S. Sanitary Commission and the
Cross, emerged during the Civil War, it was
after the war that problems associated wi
poverty were seriously addressed. States c
boards of charity in the 1860s to oversee
management of charitable institutions
to address such problems as mental illness,

21. quency, and pauperism (Axinn & Stern,2007)'
Seneral Themes in the
E wolution of Human Services
&dministration
,.: 19th century' the administra-
' ,-,lcrlr services organizations in
i:ates has evolved in a unique
' -. several aspects of "American
i.:isch, 2005). Five major forces
:..'elopment: the changing Polit-
. ::.','1:onment, from the nation's
- .--.'-ior industrial power to today's
-. :'tion; the influence of organi-
- . - .-''.'' such as the advent of the
,:-.;k corporation" as the model
' :. --r:itions, the concePt of scien-
- :i. ;nd contemPorary manage-
- ., .=. slstems; the different forms
' : - --ilt organizations took in dif-
: - -. dnd religious communities
' - :s of the countrY; the Profes-

22. : --.r. rt-ork and the accomPanY-
- :, =.sional
training Programs;
and the changing role of the public sector in
social welfare. This chapter will discuss how these
developments shaped the nature of human ser-
vices administration in the United States'
The Roots of Human
Services Administration
By the 14th century, formal social welfare systems
based on law rather than custom, and with both
secular and religious roots, emerged throughout
Western Europe. Over the next several centuries'
these systems expanded as European society
struggled through the transition ftonr &Y19lI1t
to capitalism. In Great Britain, the government
t
"".t.d "
t*ies of Poor Laws between 1349 and
1664 ro establish social order in this chaotic and
rapidly changing environment, control or reduce

23. ut
,J
29
o
5
e
t-
rt
r-
re
e,
l-
l-
lp
r-
rl,
DN
he

24. on
nd
he
:d
ri,
ee
ul
)n
he
is-
s).
he
ng
sk
,e-
rcy
rP-
ric,
.cal
tu-

25. lPe
Management in the Human Services 11
" Organizer: devising agency
structures and While managerial roles (behaviors)
can be dis-
rr-ork processes that dlfine the distribution aggregatedfor
purposes of discussion, in practice
of authority and responsibility, enabling
co- ;;";^ are tFpically performing at least several
ordination of activities and accountability;
,o1., i", any particular context' so that
the perfor-
planningfor,resourcingandimplementingmanceofoneiscompleme
ntedbyothersina
programs to imptem#*or..rirrion urrd kind
of behavioral configuration' For example'
goals; and recruiting, t aiing, and evaluat- the role
of communica,or is essential to the effec-
ing staff to acquire/develop tht 'kill' "ttt'-
ti* pt'fot*u"ce of most other roles' The evalua-
Sary to comPetently implement services. to, una resource
administratorroles are organically

26. o ksource administrator:acquiring and man- related because
the decisions required to plan and
aging the human, fio*.iul, te-chnological, allocate
resources depend on the information
andphysicalresourcesnecessarytocarryoutgenerated'through'asse
ssmentandevaluation.
agency programs effectively and efficiently.
h" ,ro* builder role comes into play whenever
This role involves a wide array of task includ- actors
inside and/or outside the organization
with
ing marketing, fundraising, contracting, diverse
interests must be brought together to
pur-
financial planning, budgeting and reporting,
sue a common PurPose' so this role
is essential to
andaccountingforagencyperformance.
advocacy, bouidary spanning' and organizing'
tEvaluator:assessingcommunityneedforLikewise'itisinconceivabl
ethatamanagercould
agencyProgramsandmonitoringprogrameffectivelyperformhisorh
erroleasaladyocate
qualityandserviceoutcomeswithavarietyifheorshewasnotalsoprofi
cientatboundary

27. of research and information technologies'
spanningand policy practice'
o Policy practitioner: interpreting govern-
mental policies and regulations pertaining
to agency op.rurlo*iroviding feedback Variations
in Management
o.t ,h. effrcacy of poliry, and influencing
poliry decision makers' Management
roles become'""t:-t'^lt:t-,t:lt*'
o Adyocate:fostering an awareness of emerg- under different
circumstances or contlngen-
ingproblemsandunmetneeds;workingcies.oneimportantcontingen
cyistheorganiza-
toorganizecommunityactionsystemstotionallevelatwhichthemana
gerispracticing
present gri.ru.r.", o, f..r, ro, change; and (Thompson,
1967). organizations generally have
lobbying for new or aLended legislation. at least
three levels of management authority
and
t Supervisor: directing, advising' and evalu- responsibility:
executive or institutional' middle
ating immediate sulordinates to improve or
program management, and supervisory

28. man-
their performat'ce; assigtting work' Jevis- agement'
The division of labor between manage-
ing effrcient work processes, and creating
u ,i.nt l..r.ls tends to become more sharply defined
supportive *ork .li*ut. that is conducive as an organization
becomes larger and more com-
to staff learning and job satisfaction.
-
ft.*' In-a very small agency' for
example' a direc-
o Facilitator:enhancingcommitmenttoagency ior mightperform
rnost of the roles described
mission and values by promoting u, ur"nl "u"*,
*rril.1n a large one, managers at each level
culturethatencouragesparticipatio,',.oI-
arelikelytohaveamoredistinctandspecialized
laboration, *rltrrut"'oiport' individual role
profile (Menefee' 2001)'
development,andeffectiveperformance.Atlheexecutiveorinstituti
onal|eve|areper-
o Teom builder.leader: organizing commit- sons who
carry overall responsibility for directing

29. tees,coalitions,andworkgroupsbothinandcoordinatin's,ltreactiviti
esoftheentireorga-
and out of the agency and providing lead- nization
or a major portion thereof (e'g" a divi-
ership to enable effective group processes
sion, a regional office)' Typical titles
for managers
that will lead to task accomplishment. at this
level include chief executive officer
(cEo)'
1O DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN SERVICES MANAGEMENT
performance of the agency (Stein, 1970, p. 7;
Weinbach, 1998). This concept of management
stresses the notion of collective responsibility,
"wherein each person (i.e., role), every functional
entity, plays a vital part in the administrative
- process" (Patti, 1983, p.25).
Finally, management/administration refers
to a set of functions and roles that are largely
(though not exclusively) the province ofpersons
in middle and upper levels of organizations. In
this meaning, the manager or administrator
engages in a purposeful method of practice that
is aimed at helpingthe organization to

30. o develop a mission, goals, strategic and
operational plans aimed at meeting impor-
tant community needs;
o develop an administrative structure that
assigns responsibility, allows for account-
ability, enables communication both later-
ally and vertically, and defines decision-
making processes;
. acquire, allocate, and monitor resources
necessary for agency operations;
. represent and advocate for the agency
in the community and with external con-
stituencies that provide legitimacy and
resources;
o collaborate with other agencies serving a
common clientele;
o recruit, develop, train, and supervise a
skilled worKorce that is committed to the
achievement of the agency's goals;
o facilitate an agency enyironment that val-
ues staff and empowers them to give their
best effiorts in the provision of services to
clients;
o develop and implement information tech-
nologies that permit the agency to assess
the productivity and effectiveness of its
own programs and services in the interest
of continuously improving its services,

31. meeting the needs of consumers, and
accounting to community stakeholders.
Note that we use the word helping above to
conveythe idea that managers seldom accomplish
these things unilaterally. Their core function is to
lead, to catalyze action, to create circumstances
that empower other persons to perform these
functions effectively and efficiently.
Management Roles
Human services management or administra-
tion is a multi-faceted practice and process that
is, or should be, ultimately concerned with deliv-
ering services to consumers. The services are
aimed at a wide variety of goals but include,
prominently, changes in the statuses, social con-
ditions, behaviors, and capabilities of individu-
als, families, and/or community groups. To help
the agenry achieve these goals, managers per-
form a broad array of roles that require political,
analytic, interpersonal, and leadership skills.
Managerial roles have been variously defined
(Austin & Kruzich, 2004; Mintzberg, 1973;Patti,
1977),but the framework suggested by Menefee
and his colleagues (Menefee, 2001) is useful
because it grew out of an empirical examination
of what social work managers actually do in the
human services (see Chapter 5 for'a fuller dis-
cussion of management roles and tasks).
According to Menefee, managers perform the
following roles:

32. c Communicator: exchanging information
with stakeholders within and outside the
organization to keep them informed on
matters pertinent to common interests and
concerns. This role is instrumental in the
performance of all those that follow.
o Boundary spanner: creating and sustaining
relationships with stakeholders in the task
environment to build collaborative arrange-
ments and strategically position the agency
to be influential in key decision forums.
o Futurist-innovator: understanding and adap-
ting to changes in the social, economic,
political, demographic, and technological
environments that pose threats and opportu-
nities and planning to anticipate and shape
responses to new opportunities.
nan-
lrac-
r the
Pon-
non'
oyed
ment
hese

33. rvey
ocial
that
nofit
ncies
are
[eas,
ental
Elng
).5o/o;
OTTC-
nsed
ctice
ason
: also
ocial
,Pear
rage-
nsed
Iikely
ne in
ision

34. 1991
ier, a
-7Vo)
viob
ision
ecent
that
n the
their
ess &
: evi-
rn in
rg.A
tions
iemqn-ed that the percentage of women in "higher
n:=inistration" and women CEOs increased
ngxifrcantly over two decades. Women CEOs
:sresented 33.9o/o of all state agency CEOs in
l,lr:5 (williams & Gray, 2007). While this
;r,.Sress is noteworthy, it appears that there
s :nuch to do to achieve gender equality in the
-Jst of management.
There also appears to be a continuing discrep-
mff between the salaries of men and women
asss all types of jobs in social work, including
nrslragement. Data from the study of licensed
r.:*:iaL rvorkers indicate that men make substan-

35. :a"rr- more than women in all kinds of full-time
u,bs tritaker et a1.,2006b). In a study ofsocial
trcrlers in Pennsylvania, the authors found that
mm.'s salaries were, on average, $3,500 a year
n,sher than women's, with the discrepancy
s-ained largely by years of experience and
npragement positions (Koeske & Krowinski,
Itlr,4r. The reasons for gender disparities in the
:gresentation and income of men and women
-rE rranagement are complex, but they probably
:n-.oh-e some combination of early career choices,
Fder stereotyping, and hiring discrimination
-{,i-itirl, 1995). These disparities are persistent
md troublesome in a field that employs a dispro-
rur:ionate number of women.
The representation of ethnic and racial
,n-rorities in human services management is
rus.r a continuing concern, given that agencies
it:-l-e a large and growing number of people of
;ruor- Evidence from a multi-site study of public
'w.eiiare agencies with a sample of over 1,900
:c$pondents revealed that European (white)
}-erican men occupied 40o/o of all administra-
:se iobs and 2lo/o of all supervisory jobs, but
rrnprised only 15.7o/o of the sample. European
,r-:aerican men and women were more likely to
no,Ld high-status agency jobs than their minority
;:.Enterparts (McNeely, Sapp, & Dailey, 1998).
Lblic policies regarding equal opportunity and
ffi.rmative action, and a growing awareness that
rrnoriry leadership should more nearly reflect

36. ::e communities being served, seem to have inten-
s5ed effiorts to recruit and develop minority
Management in the Human Services
workers for management responsibilities.
However, the relatively small percentage of such
professionals in human services management is
a continuing challenge for the human services.
Additionally, as Mor Barak (2000) has pointed
out, efforts to increase the representation of
minorities in management must be paired with
increased attention to how agencies can fully
include such workers in the social and cultural
fabric ofthese organizations so their talents can
be fully developed and utilized.
Administration Defined:
Functions and Roles
The terms management and administration will
be used interchangeably in this chapter and
throughout this book. Although there have been
many attempts to distinguish these terms (e.g.,
level of responsibiliry external vs. internal orien-
tation, human services vs. business), there is no

37. widely accepted agreement regarding their usage
(Austin & Kruzich,2004). Indeed, judging from
titles of recent textbooks and job titles used in
agencies, it appears that the word management
and its variations (manager, managerial, man-
aging) may be the more popular term. While
administratior is more often used in public ser-
vices, this is not universally the case.
Whether management or administration, the
words are applied in several ways. Management/
administration is often employed to describe the
particular person or persons high in the organi-
zation's hierarchy whose policies and decisions
constitute a leadership regime, as in the phrase
"the management of this agency is fiscally con-
servative, or dynamic, or visionary."
Management/administration is also used to
address the totality of processes and functions
that are performed throughout the organization
in order to accomplish its goals. In this sense, the
administration of the agency is characterized as a

38. "system of coordinated and cooperative effort"
that extends beyond the responsibilities of man-
agers to include all those who have a stake in the
DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN SERVICES MANAGEMENT
Finally, there is a substantial for-profit sector
in the human services. It is difficult to estimate
how much is spent by these agencies, but the U.S.
Census Bureaut Survey of Businesses for 2002
provides data on revenues and operating
expenses of businesses in the "Health Care and
Social Assistance Sector" (U.S. Census Bureau,
2005). Revenues/receipts for businesses that cor-
respond most closely to our definition of human
services (e.g., mental health, substance abuse,
child care, individual and family services, reha-
bilitation, social assistance), which does not
include medical and health care fields, were
nearly $250 billion. These data include both for-
profit and nonprofit businesses, so it is not pos-
sible to estimate expenditures of the for-profit
sector only, but we know based on observation
that for-profit firms are substantially involved in
the mental health, substance abuse, and child
care and other human services fields and that
their presence in this sector is substantial and
growing (Schmid, 2004).
Even though the amount expended for
human services in the U.S. is quite large, it repre-
sents only a small percentage of total outlays in

39. the nonprofit, government, and for-profit sectors
as a whole. Still, expenditures for human services
represent a significant transfer of resources to the
poor and disabled populations in this county.
How well these services are managed to benefit
these groups is a matter of critical importance.
Another perspective on the scope and size of
the human services sector is provided by employ-
ment figures. In fields roughly corresponding
to our definition of human services, which the
U.S. Department of Labor refers to as "Social
Assistance," in 2006 there were 1.52 million
employees in the private sector, including man-
agerial, professional (social workers, marriage
and family therapists, psychologists, etc), service,
and administrative support workers. Thirty-five
percent of these workers, or approximately
530,000, were professional and paraprofessional
service providers (U.S. Department of Labor
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2007a). In the state
and local governments in 2006 there were
approximately 428,000 professionals and para-
professionals offering human services (e.g., pub-
lic assistance, child abuse and foster care services,
probation, home health services). These figures
do not reflect the human services program
employees in schools and medical institutions
(e.9., hospitals, health maintenance organiza-
tions). Based on these data, it is fair to estimate
that there are well over 1 million human services
workers in the public and private sectors.
Included in this workforce there were approxi-
mately 562,000 social workers (including

40. masters- and bachelor-level personnel), 352,000
social and human services assistants (usually per-
sons with no formal professional training), and
93,000 probation officers and correctional treat-
ment specialists (U.S. Department of Labor
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2007 a).
No discussion of the human services labor
force should exclude volunteers, who numbered
nearly 8 million in 2006 (in organizations
defined as "social and community service").
Median yearly hours worked for volunteers of all
types oforganizations was 50 hours ayear (yearly
hours for human services are not reported sepa-
rately), and there is no reason to believe this
would be less in social and community services
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2008b).
Given the thousands of human services orga-
nizations, the billions of dollars spent each year
to serve the poor and disadvantaged, and the
number of employees and volunteers who work
in this field, it is understandable that the perfor-
mance of this industry draws increasing scrutiny
by government officials, academics, and private
associations. Central to this concern is the qual-
ity of managerial leadership.
The Human Services
Managers in the Labor
Force: Demographics
Managers in the human seryices come from a
wide variety of educational backgrounds and
career paths (Hoefer, 2003). There appear to be

41. d local
magers
tability
L theml-
c learn
desired
vels of
[or see-
€essary
achieve
ll these
r high-
e chal-
rtion
a wide
mental
[ere, we
rns that
rices to
Llts, the
ally and

42. nd oth-
haviors,
I inter-
:sources
,es. The
services
rd ther-
on, and
a class,
rcluding
nancing,
e service
I SOVern-
her than
physical
ehavior,
Management in the Human Services
otheuseoftechnologiesthatdonothaveacrossthesocialspectrum.Am
oredetaileddis-
highlypredictableconsumeroutcomes;cussionofthestructureandfi
nancingofhuman
.theparticiPationofconsumerswithuniqueserviceswillbefoundinC
hapter4,butitmaybe

43. goals,personalcharacteristics,andlifeexpe.usefulheretobrieflytou
chonthescopeofthis
riences in the co-production of outcomes; enterprise
to underscore the critical importance
o a reliance on collaborating agencies to of *u"ugt*tnt
to the proper design and opera-
provide essential .ornplt*tl"tuty setvices
tion of human services'
to clients;
The ScoPe of Human Services
Human services organizations are found
in the
nonprofit, public, and for-profit sectors
of the
..orrorny. The nonprofit sector is a major
con-
veyor ofpersonal social services' In 2003'
100'800
nonprofit human services organizations
in the
United States filed returns with the government
(rh.r. ur. more such organizations; nonprofits
with less than $25,000 in yearly income

44. are not
required to file returns)' In addition' there.are
many religious, health, and education
al organiza-
tions with human services programs that
are not
reflected in this figure' The filing organizations
had revenues of $152 billion (rounded) derived
principally from program service revenues
($81 '4
Lnio") and from contributions' gifts' and
grants
($58.8 billion; U.S' Census Bureau' 2008b)'
Public human services organizations are
located at the federal level, in every state
and ter-
ritory, and in many local andior regional
juris-
dictions' The U.S. DePartment of Health and
Human Services in 2006 sPent aPproximately
$4S billion for discretionary and mandated
human services including substance abuse

45. and
mental health services, services to the aged'
ser-
vices to children and families (including foster
care and adoption assistance' child care'
and
public assistance), and the Social Services
Block
grant (U.S. Department of Health and Human
I.rri..r, n.d.). There are also numerous public
human services agencies at state and
local gov-
ernment levels. The amount spent by these
gov-
ernments for public welfare programs'
including
.urh puy*"rrts, vendor payments' and. social
..*i.ir,'*us approximately $335 billion in 2004
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2008a)'
o a reliance on the skill, personal commit-
ment, judgment, and discretion of front-
line professional personnel in service
deliveiy. (Austin, 2002; Hasenfeld' 1992)

46. Human services organizations vary in the
stent to which they possess all these characteris-
:;s. For example, many agencies derive some of
jreir income directly from client fees rather than
--:lird-party payers. In some agencies' such as
:ublic assistance, the technologies employed
are
:airly routine and the outcomes largely pre-
eictable. The qualifications of staff in these
,er-eral fields tend to vary from little or no pro-
:-e"sional training to extensive professional edu-
:adon. Despite these variations' the issues
;onfronting managers in these fields are suffi-
:iently similar to justifr thinking of human ser-
..ices management as a generic practice applicable
e-ross this diverse institution'
The performance of human services otganiza-
jons is a matter of considerable importance to
society. Collectively, the organizations in this

47. sec-
:or contribute to the social cohesion of society
lr- redistributing income and resources to
the less
-.orrunate, caring for persons whose circum-
stances fall below what the community has
Jefined as minimally desirable, giving voice
to
fre interests and needs of disenfranchised and
:ot'erless persons and groups, and rehabilitating
disabled or dysfunctional persons so they can
:ealize their potential and contribute to their
ramilies and communities'
The human services sector is also important
to society because it is responsible for the, man-
agement of tens of billions of dollars each year
that are used to serve many millions of distressed
and needy people of all races and ethnicities
from