PUB 611Seminar in Public Human Resources Administration Midterm Exa.docx

PUB 611Seminar in Public Human Resources Administration:
Midterm Exam
Exam Questions
1. Identify and describe the four public personnel management
functions (PADS).
2. What are the four competing values that have traditionally
affected the allocation of public jobs? Which three
nongovernment values that have emerged recently conflict with
them?
3. What are the pros and cons of contracting out? If you have
experience with contracting out, what challenges did you face in
writing the contract specifications and what challenges did you
face in administering the contract?
4. How does the historical development of job analysis relate to
the differing objectives of elected and appointed officials, merit
system advocates, HR directors and specialists, supervisors and
managers, and employees? How are these reflected in the
concepts of position management, human resource management,
and career development?
5. Describe the contemporary pay and benefits environment.
6. Identify the elements included in a total compensation
package.
7. Describe the comparative advantages and disadvantages of
competing systems used to determine pay—point-factor job
evaluation, rank-in person, and broad-banding.
8. Discuss how conflicts over the fairness of EEO, AA, and
diversity management programs have affected the role of the
public HR manager in achieving both productivity and fairness.
Social Equity and Diversity Management
Dr. James R. Welsh
Barry University

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Man is the most composite of all creatures....
“Well, as in the old burning of the Temple at Corinth, by the
melting and intermixture of silver and gold and other metals a
new compound more precious than any, called Corinthian brass,
was formed; so in this continent,--asylum of all nations,--the
energy of Irish, Germans, Swedes, Poles, and Cossacks, and all
the European tribes,--of the Africans, and of the Polynesians,--
will construct a new race, a new religion, a new state, a new
literature, which will be as vigorous as the new Europe which
came out of the smelting-pot of the Dark Ages, or that which
earlier emerged from the Pelagic and Etruscan barbarism.”
Ralph Waldo Emerson, journal entry, 1845,
The Metaphor of the Melting Pot…
Because of a continuous mass immigration that was a feature of
the United States economy and society since the first half of the
19th century, ethnic diversity is common in both rural and urban
areas.
The absorption of the stream of immigrants became, in itself, a
prominent feature of America's national myth.
The idea of the melting pot is a metaphor that implies that all
the immigrant cultures are mixed and amalgamated without state
intervention.
The melting pot theory implied that each individual immigrant,
and each group of immigrants, assimilated into American

society at their own pace.
Today the United States can easily be considered one of the
most diverse nations in the world.
Recent estimates show that one in three U.S. residents is a
member of an ethic minority.
The melting pot tradition co-exists with a belief in national
unity, dating from the American founding fathers:
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Social Equity… a Series of Different Opinions
Social equity is the orphaned element of sustainable
development.
In 1996 the United States President's Council on Sustainable
Development defined social equity as "equal opportunity, in a
safe and healthy environment."
Social equity is the least defined and least understood element
of the triad that is sustainable development yet is integral in
creating sustainability - balancing economic, environmental and
social equity
In terms of conservation,
"Social Equity implies fair access to livelihood, education, and
resources; full participation in the political and cultural life of
the Community; and self-determination in meeting Fundamental
Needs.
As Martin Luther King observed,
"where there is injustice for one, there is injustice for all."
Social Equity is the cornerstone of Social Capital, which cannot
be maintained for a few at the expense of the many. Increased
equity results in decreased spending on prisons, security
enforcement, welfare, and social services. It also creates new
potential markets.“
Because many colleges and universities consider the term social
equity as synonymous with social equality, it is perceived as the
value of the individual, organization, or brand of reputation.

The National Academy of Public Administration defines the
term as:
The fair, just and equitable management of all institutions
serving the public directly or by contract;
the fair, just and equitable distribution of public services and
implementation of public policy;
and the commitment to promote fairness, justice, and equity in
the formation of public policy.
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Equal Employment Opportunity …(EEO)
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was
established by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to assist
in the protection of US employees from discrimination.
The law was the first federal law designed to protect most US
employees from employment discrimination based upon that
employee's (or applicant's) race, color, religion, sex, or national
origin.
Equal employment opportunity was further enhanced when
President Lyndon B. Johnson signed an Executive Order on
September 24, 1965, created to prohibit federal contractors from
discriminating against employees on the basis of race, sex,
creed, religion, color, or national origin.
Along with those five protected classes, more recent statutes
have listed other traits as "protected classes," including the
following:
The Age Discrimination Act has protected those aged 40 and
over but does not protect those under the age of 40.
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 protects
individuals who possess, or are thought to possess, a wide range
of disabilities, ranging from paraplegia to Down Syndrome to
autism.
However, it does not force an employer to employ a worker
whose disability would create an "undue hardship" onto his

business (for example, a paraplegic cannot work on a
construction site, and a blind person cannot be a chauffeur).
The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 forbids
discrimination on the basis of family history and genetic
information.
The Vietnam Era Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974
forbids discrimination on the grounds of a worker's military
history, including any effects that the battlefield might have had
on the worker's psyche.
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Affirmative Action in the United States
Affirmative action in the United States tends to focus on issues
such as education and employment, specifically granting special
consideration to racial minorities and women who have been
historically excluded groups in America.
Affirmative action policies were developed in order to correct
decades of discrimination stemming from the Reconstruction era
by granting disadvantaged minorities opportunities.
Reports have shown that minorities and women have faced
discrimination in schools and businesses for many years and
this discrimination produced unfair advantages for white males
in education and employment.
The impetus toward affirmative action is redressing the
disadvantages[ associated with past and present discrimination.
Further impetus is a desire to ensure public institutions, such as
universities, hospitals, and police forces, are more
representative of the populations they serve.
Affirmative action is a subject of controversy. Some policies
adopted as affirmative action, such as racial quotas or gender
quotas for collegiate admission, have been criticized as a form
of reverse discrimination, and such implementation of
affirmative action has been ruled unconstitutional by the
majority opinion of Gratz v. Bollinger.

Many believe that the diversity of current American society
suggests that affirmative action policies succeeded and are no
longer required.
Opponents of affirmative action argue that these policies are
outdated and lead to reverse discrimination which entails
favoring one group over another based upon racial preference
rather than achievement
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Affirmative Action Compliance
Despite the rhetoric about “force” compliance and “mandatory
hiring quotas.” It is important to remember that most
affirmative action compliance is voluntary, and mandatory
measures are only used as a last resort when agencies will not
otherwise comply with the law.
Generally, a voluntary affirmative action program is permissible
if:
1. The purpose is to remedy old patterns of discrimination.
2. The program does not unnecessarily infringe upon the rights
of employees not included in the program (for example, it does
not require the termination of employees not covered by the
program to be replaced by covered employees).
3. The program does not prevent advancement by employees not
covered under the program.
4. The program is a temporary measure to remedy past
discrimination rather than designed to ensure a continuing
balance in the workforce.
Court-Ordered Plans
Courts may require employers to adopt affirmative action plans
as a remedy for discrimination under Title VII of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII). Court-ordered affirmative action
is an appropriate remedy in cases involving "foot-dragging,
egregious noncompliance, or widespread and persistent

discrimination."
The affirmative action order must be narrowly tailored to the
government's compelling interests. Accordingly, the court-
ordered plan generally:
1. May not be overly burdensome on third parties (for example
by requiring discharge or layoffs).
2. May not require the hiring or promotion of unqualified
individuals
3. Must be temporary, lasting only until the plan's goals are
achieve.
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The Road to Diversity Management …
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The Melting Pot
Equal Employment Opportunity
Cultural Diversity
Open Immigration Policy
Management of Diverse People
In the beginning: asylum of all nations

Social Equity
Affirmative Action
Organizational Culture
The Role of Diversity Management …
Diversity management requires changes in the organization’s
culture, to wit:
the values, assumptions, and communication patterns that
characterize interaction among employees.
These patterns are invented, discovered, developed by members
of the organization as responses to problems or sensitivity to
client needs;
they become part of the culture as they are taught to new
members as the way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to
these problems or needs.
Viewed from this perspective, diversity management represents
a change in the way organizations do business,
rather than just an adaptation of existing personnel policies and

programs to meet the specialized needs of minorities and
women.
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The Big Five that can Change Organizational Effectiveness…
Recruitment and Retention…
Job Design…
Education and Training…
Benefits and Rewards…
Performance measurement and Improvement…
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Rewarding Work
Pay and Benefits
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“All growth depends on activity . There is no development
Physically or Intellectually without effort, and effort means
work.”
“No person was ever honored for what he received. Honor has
been the reward for what he gave”….

Calvin Coolidge, 30th President of the United States of
American
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Employment: A Work in Process…
Employment is a relationship between two parties, usually
based on a contract where work is paid for, where one is the
employer and the other is the employee.
Employer and managerial control within an organization rests at
many levels and has important implications for staff and
productivity alike, with control forming the fundamental link
between desired outcomes and actual processes.
Employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage
constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to
achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship.
Traditionally, potential employees were attracted to the public
sector jobs because civil service jobs were thought to be stable
and secure when compared to jobs in the private sector.
However times are a changing…
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New Beginnings….Starts Here…
As public agencies move toward alternative mechanism and
flexible employment relationships typical of more market-based
models, both public agencies and their employees find that they
need to rethink their reward systems.
Questions:
Does the total compensation package [pay and benefits] meet
the needs of both the employee and employer under current
employment conditions?
Does the economic rewards measure the worth of the
employees?

How does the pay and benefits compare to other employees
within the agency and to others located in the existing job
market?
Can the economic rewards be competitive enough to attract and
retain employees with valued competencies?
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The Contemporary Pay and Benefits Environment….
The assumption that an individual’s civil service job was a
basically shielded and relativity stable, even in an environment
that promotes dynamism and change, no longer exist….Why?
Because of the negative image of the civil service system there
is
an increasing focus on public sector accountability,
and increased emphasis on flexibility and contract management.
Within the civil service system the following three elements as
characterizing the future of compensation….
Turn away from long-term (seniority) toward shorter-term
perpective
Performance orientation in compensation
Retrenchment in level and types of benefits.
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The Elements of a Total Compensation Package …
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Indirect Compensation (non-salary)
Protection Programs

Mandated
(Social Security, Medicare, workers’ compensation,
unemployment insurance)
Discretionary (health, life, pension, disability, long-term care)
Pay for Time Not Worked (sick leave, annual leave, disability,
holidays, personal days)
General
(RAP, tuition, cafeteria, recreational and social programs,
parking, credit union)
Extrinsic Rewards
Financial
Employee Services and Perquisite (“Perks”)
Limited
(car allowance, deterred compensation plans)
Direct Compensation (base and variable)
Nonfinancial

Intrinsic Rewards
What is the Compensation of Employees?
Compensation of employees (CE) is a statistical term used in
national accounts, balance of payments statistics and sometimes
in corporate accounts as well.
It refers basically to the total gross (pre-tax) wages paid by
employers to employees for work done in an accounting period,
such as a quarter or a year.
However, in reality, the aggregate includes more than just gross
wages, at least in national accounts and balance of payments
statistics.
The reason is that in these accounts, CE is defined as "the total
remuneration, in cash or in kind, payable by an enterprise to an
employee in return for work done by the latter during the
accounting period".
It represents effectively a total labor cost to an employer, paid
from the gross revenues or the capital of an enterprise.
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Laws Affecting Compensation Policy and Practice…
Pay setting in public agencies is governed by legal constraints,
historical practice, and the relative power of stakeholders.
Alone with various state statutes, four primary federal laws
apply:
Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938;
Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, (1985)
the Equal Pay of 1963;
the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Title VII);

and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1963.
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The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938…FLSA
The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938[ is a federal statute of the
United States. The FLSA introduced the forty-hour work week,
established a national minimum wage, guaranteed "time-and-a-
half" for overtime in certain jobs, and prohibited most
employment of minors in "oppressive child labor", a term that is
defined in the statute.
It applies to employees engaged in interstate commerce or
employed by an enterprise engaged in commerce or in the
production of goods for commerce, unless the employer can
claim an exemption from coverage.
Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 U.S.
528 (1985), is a United States Supreme Court decision that
holds that the Congress has the power under the Commerce
Clause of the Constitution to extend the Fair Labor Standards
Act, which requires that employers provide minimum wage and
overtime pay to their employees, to state and local governments.
When the Court confirmed Congress' power to regulate the wage
and hour standards applicable to employees of state and local
governments, a different, more conservative Congress than the
ones that had extended the FLSA to governmental employees in
the first place now confronted the complaints from local
governments that the Act was too inflexible and expensive to
comply with.
Congress responded by amending the Act in 1985, allowing
governments to offer compensatory time off rather than
overtime in some circumstances, creating an exemption for
volunteers and excluding certain legislative employees from
coverage under the Act.
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The Equal Pay Act of 1963
The Equal Pay Act of 1963 is a United States federal law
amending the Fair Labor Standards Act, aimed at abolishing
wage disparity based on sex (see Gender pay gap). It was signed
into law on June 10, 1963, by John F. Kennedy as part of his
New Frontier Program. In passing the bill, Congress stated that
sex discrimination:
depresses wages and living standards for employees necessary
for their health and efficiency;
prevents the maximum utilization of the available labor
resources;
tends to cause labor disputes, thereby burdening, affecting, and
obstructing commerce;
burdens commerce and the free flow of goods in commerce; and
constitutes an unfair method of competition.
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The 1964 Civil Rights Act (Title VII)
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is a landmark piece of civil rights
legislation in the United States that outlawed discrimination
based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It ended
unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial
segregation in schools, at the workplace and by facilities that
served the general public (known as "public accommodations").
Powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were
supplemented during later years.
Title VII of the Act, prohibits discrimination by covered
employers on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national
origin. Title VII applies to and covers an employer "who has
fifteen (15) or more employees for each working day in each of
twenty or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding
calendar year."
Title VII also prohibits discrimination against an individual

because of his or her association with another individual of a
particular race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, such as
by an interracial marriage.
The EEO Title VII has also been supplemented with legislation
prohibiting pregnancy, age, and disability discrimination.
(i.e. Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, Age
Discrimination in Employment Act, Americans with Disabilities
Act of 1990).
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Age Discrimination in Employment Act
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 The
ADEA, forbids employment discrimination against anyone at
least 40 years of age in the United States. The ADEA includes a
broad ban against age discrimination and also specifically
prohibits:
Discrimination in hiring, promotions, wages, or termination of
employment and layoffs.
Statements or specifications in job notices or advertisements of
age preference and limitations.
Denial of benefits to older employees. An employer may reduce
benefits based on age only if the cost of providing the reduced
benefits to older workers is the same as the cost of providing
full benefits to younger workers.
Since 1986 it has prohibited mandatory retirement in most
sectors, with phased elimination of mandatory retirement for
tenured workers, such as college professors, in 1993.
Defenses
Employers may enforce waivers of age discrimination claims
made without EEOC or court approval if the waiver is "knowing
or voluntary."
Valid arbitration agreements between employers and employees
covering the dispute are subject to compulsory arbitration and
no court action can be brought.
Employers can discharge or discipline an employee for "good

cause," regardless of the employee's age.
Employers can take an action based on "reasonable factors other
than age."
Bona fide occupational qualifications, seniority systems,
employee benefit or early retirement plans.
Voluntary early retirement incentives.
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Alternative Ways of Setting Pay in Public Agencies…
Setting pay in the public sector has traditionally focused on:
maintaining internal fairness within organizations;
and ensuring external equity with alternate employment sectors.
A long standing norm used in setting public sector pay is the
point-factor job evaluation system.
Its primarily focused on ensuring internal equity between jobs
within an organization but has been characterized as highly
standardized, inflexible, slow to respond to changing market
conditions, and inadequately linked to employee performance.
Several public sector organizations have implement more
flexible systems such as:
rank-in-person,
broad-banding,
and pay-for-performance.
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The Point-factor Job Evaluation System… or PFA
Point factor analysis (PFA) is a systemic bureaucratic method
for determining a relative score for a job. Jobs can then be
banded into grades, and the grades used to determine pay.
PFA is a type of Job Evaluation. The main advantage of PFA is
that it is systemic and analytical.
Jobs are broken down into factors such as “knowledge
required”. A set of closed questions in each factor break down

to detail such as “level of education”.
The responses to these questions are given a score, and totaled
for each factor. Each factor is given a weight, and this effects
the contribution made to the overall total score by that factor.
Factors can be weighted according to their significance to the
organization, and this allows the pay scheme to be linked to the
organization's strategy.
A critical factor in job evaluation is that it is the role that is
assessed, not the person doing it.
A criticism often made against PFA in isolation is that it fails to
take account of external factors.
Skills in high demand in the market can create a premium as
organizations have to compete for the people who have them.
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Rank-in-Person
Rank-in-Person system differ from traditional job classification
and evaluation (rank-in-job system) because their focus is not
on the duties of a particular position, but on the competencies
of the employee.
Under a rank-in-job system, all employees are classified by type
of occupation and level of responsibility, and these factors are
tied to a job analysis, classification, and evaluation system.
In others words, the employee accepts a job and the rank is in
the job, not the person who occupies it.
Under the rank-in-person system employees qualify for
promotion from one rank to another based on competences and
education.
And the rank is carried with the employee who moves from one
job to another.
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Broad-Banding …
Broad banding is a job grading structure that falls between

using spot salaries vs. many job grades to determine what to pay
particular positions and incumbents within those positions.
While broad banding gives the organization using it some broad
job classifications, it does not have as many distinct job grades
as traditional salary structures do.
Thus, broad banding reduces the emphasis on ‘status’ or
hierarchy and places more of an emphasis on lateral job
movement within the company.
In a broad banding structure an employee can be more easily
rewarded for lateral movement or skills development, whereas
in
traditional multiple grade salary structures pay progression
happens primarily via job promotion.
In this way, broad banding is a more flexible pay system.
This flexibility, however, can lead to internal pay relativity
problems as there isn’t as much control over salary progression
as there would be within a traditional multi-level grading
structure
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And Pay-for-Performance
The high performing organizations always introduce the concept
of the pay for performance. It is closely connected with the high
performance corporate culture and it is not just a compensation
and benefits area.
The pay for performance is a complex of different HR Processes
aimed to build the environment, which encourages employees
and managers to stretch the goals and to pay the best employees
more than the others.
The “pay for performance” has to be included in the corporate
culture and cannot be used as separated HR initiatives and HR
processes as the separated usage would miss the main goal -
paying the employees for the performance reached.
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What is “pay for performance”?
Pay for performance is not just a pure compensation and
benefits concept. The pay for performance is a right mix of the
HR Processes, which supports the optimal performance of the
organization and it pays the most performing employees
significantly differently, includes special compensation schemes
for the selected groups of employees and gives career
opportunities to the best talents in the organization
.
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Pay for Performance
Seniority Pay
Flexible, performance-based Incentives
Merit pay (gain sharing)
Cost-of-Living Allowance (COLA)
Demands that Agency becomes more Business Like
Variable Pay (a motivator)
Problems and Prospect in Implementing Pay for Performance…

Why have performance-based compensation systems’
expectations not have been realized?
Not all work lends itself to pay for performance….
Some organizational cultures and structures do not lend
themselves to performance-based compensation.
As in the case with the system proposed for the Department of
Homeland Security, external factors like the presence of a union
or legal constraints or political forces may block successful
implementations.
In some cases not enough money has been set aside to establish
an extrinsic motivating effect.
In the end some folk’s believe that this type of program
contributes to the inflation of performance appraisals while
pushing some employees to suspect the equitable distribution of
the monetary rewards.
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Setting Pay in Alternative Personnel Systems
The manner in which pay is set under alternative public
personnel systems reflects the conflict among the values of
efficiency and equity,
and the historical practice within which these values and
systems have evolved.
Privatization, contracting out, exempt appointments, and the use
of temporary workers to reduce full-time equivalent staffing
levels, which are now increasing,
have proven powerful alternatives to union’ political influence
over the contract negotiation and ratification process.
Note: Most contract workers (without sought after technical
skills) have lower salaries because they are set by market
models rather than legislative deliberations and collective
bargaining programs.
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Required Employee Benefits….Social Security
In the United States, Social Security is primarily the Old-Age,
Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI) federal program.
The original Social Security Act (1935) and the current version
of the Act, as amended, encompass several social welfare and
social insurance programs. Social Security is funded through
payroll taxes called Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax
(FICA) or Self Employed Contributions Act Tax (SECA).
Tax deposits are collected by the Internal Revenue Service
(IRS) and are formally entrusted to the Federal Old-Age and
Survivors Insurance Trust Fund, the Federal Disability
Insurance Trust Fund, the Federal Hospital Insurance Trust
Fund, or the Federal Supplementary Medical Insurance Trust
Fund which make up the Social Security Trust Funds.
With a few exceptions, all salaried income, up to an amount
specifically determined by law (see tax rate table below) has an
FICA or SECA tax collected on it.
All income over said amount is not taxed, for 2014 the
maximum amount of taxable earnings is $117,000.
With few exceptions, all legal residents working in the United
States now have an individual Social Security number.
Indeed, nearly all working (and many non-working) residents
since Social Security's 1935 inception have had a Social
Security number, because it is required to do a wide range of
things including paying the IRS and getting a job.
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Required Employee Benefits….Worker’ Compensation ….
Workers' compensation is a form of insurance providing wage
replacement and medical benefits to employees injured in the
course of employment in exchange for mandatory
relinquishment of the employee's right to sue his or her
employer for the tort of negligence.
The tradeoff between assured, limited coverage and lack of
recourse outside the worker compensation system is known as

"the compensation bargain".
While plans differ among jurisdictions, provision can be made
for weekly payments in place of
wages (functioning in this case as a form of disability
insurance),
compensation for economic loss (past and future),
reimbursement or payment of medical and like expenses
(functioning in this case as a form of health insurance),
and benefits payable to the dependents of workers killed during
employment (functioning in this case as a form of life
insurance).
General damage for pain and suffering, and punitive damages
for employer negligence, are generally not available in workers'
compensation plans, and negligence is generally not an issue in
the case.
22
Required Employee Benefits….Unemployment Compensation …
Unemployment benefits also called unemployment
compensation) are social welfare payments made by the state or
other authorized bodies to unemployed people.
Benefits may be based on a compulsory para-governmental
insurance system.
Depending on the jurisdiction and the status of the person, those
sums may be small, covering only basic needs, or may
compensate the lost time proportionally to the previous earned
salary.
Unemployment benefits are generally given only to those
registering as unemployed, and often on conditions ensuring
that they seek work and do not currently have a job.
In the United States unemployment benefits generally pay
eligible workers between 40-50% of their previous pay.
Benefits are generally paid by state governments, funded in
large part by state and federal payroll taxes levied against
employers, to workers who have become unemployed through

no fault of their own.
This compensation is classified as a type of social welfare
benefit.
According to the Internal Revenue Code, these types of benefits
are to be included in a taxpayer's gross income.
The standard time-length of unemployment compensation is six
months, although extensions are possible during economic
downturns.
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Unemployment Benefits….
In the United States unemployment benefits generally pay
eligible workers between 40-50% of their previous pay.
Benefits are generally paid by state governments, funded in
large part by state and federal payroll taxes levied against
employers, to workers who have become unemployed through
no fault of their own.
This compensation is classified as a type of social welfare
benefit.
According to the Internal Revenue Code, these types of benefits
are to be included in a taxpayer's gross income.
The standard time-length of unemployment compensation is six
months, although extensions are possible during economic
downturns.
Once this six-month time period elapses and payment ceases, an
individual who remains unemployed is left with little means of
a social safety net other than through help from charities, family
or friends.
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24

Optional Employee Benefits
Pensions
Health Insurance
Sick Leave, Vacations, Holiday Pay, and Discretionary Days…
25
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Public employee pension plans in the United States
A pension is a fixed sum to be paid regularly to a person,
typically following retirement from service.
There are many different types of pensions, including defined
benefit plans, defined contribution plans, as well as several
others.
Pensions should not be confused with severance pay; the former
is paid in regular installments, while the latter is paid in one
lump sum.
In the United States, public sector pensions are offered by
federal, state and local levels of government.
They are available to most, but not all, public sector employees.
These employer contributions to these plans typically vest after
some period of time.
These plans may be defined-benefit or defined-contribution
pension plans, but the former have been most widely used by
public agencies in the U.S. throughout the late twentieth
century.
Some local governments do not offer defined-benefit pensions
but may offer a defined contribution plan.

In many states, public employee pension plans are known as
Public Employee Retirement Systems (PERS).
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Health Insurance
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996
(HIPAA;
Was enacted August 21, 1996) was enacted by the United States
Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton in 1996.
It has been known as the Kennedy–Kassebaum Act or
Kassebaum-Kennedy Act after two of its leading sponsors.
Title I of HIPAA protects health insurance coverage for workers
and their families when they change or lose their jobs.
Title II of HIPAA, known as the Administrative Simplification
(AS) provisions, requires the establishment of national
standards for electronic health care transactions and national
identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers
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Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA),
commonly called the Affordable Care Act (ACA) or colloquially
Obamacare, is a United States federal statute signed into law by
President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010.
Together with the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act
amendment, it represents the most significant regulatory
overhaul of the U.S. healthcare system since the passage of
Medicare and Medicaid in 1965.
The ACA was enacted to increase the quality and affordability
of health insurance, lower the uninsured rate by expanding
public and private insurance coverage, and reduce the costs of
healthcare for individuals and the government. It introduced

mechanisms like mandates, subsidies, and insurance exchanges.
The law requires insurance companies to cover all applicants
within new minimum standards and offer the same rates
regardless of pre-existing conditions or sex.[ In 2011 the
Congressional Budget Office projected that the ACA would
lower both future deficits[ and Medicare spending.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordabl
e_Care_Act#See_also
In March 2015, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
reported that the average number of uninsured during the period
from January to September 2014 was 11.4 million fewer than
the average in 2010.[ In April 2015, Gallup reported that the
percentage of adults who were uninsured dropped from 18% in
the third quarter of 2013 to 11.4% in the second quarter of 2015
28
Sick Leave, Vacations, Holiday Pay, and Discretionary Days…
Sick leave (or paid sick days or sick pay) is time off from work
that workers can use to stay home to address their health and
safety needs without losing pay. Paid sick leave is a statutory
requirement in many nations around the world. Most European,
many Latin American, a few African and a few Asian countries
have legal requirements for paid sick leave.
Paid sick leave advocates assert that providing paid sick time
can reduce turnover, increase productivity, and reduce the
spread of contamination in the workplace.[
Some studies show that the cost of losing an employee (which
can include advertising for, interviewing, and training a
replacement) is often greater than the cost of providing sick
days to retain existing employees.
Opponents of a workplace mandate assert that employers should
offer paid sick days at their own discretion.
They say employers best understand the benefit preferences of
their employees and must maintain flexibility to meet the
unique needs of their workforce

The United States does not currently require that employees
have access to paid sick days to address their own short-term
illnesses or the short-term illness of a family member.
The U.S. does guarantee unpaid leave for serious illnesses
through the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA).
This law requires employers with 50 workers working within a
75 mile radius to comply and, within those businesses, covers
employees who have worked for their employer for at least 12
months prior to taking the leave.
In January 2015, President Barack Obama asked Congress to
pass the Healthy Families act under which employees could earn
one hour of paid sick time for every 30 hours they work up to
seven days or 56 hours of paid sick leave annually.
The bill as proposed, would apply to employers with 15 or more
employees, for employees as defined in the Fair Labor
Standards Act.[
29
Emergent Employee Benefit Issues
Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA)
Child Care, Elder Care, and Long-Term Care
Educational Benefits
Flexible Benefit Programs
30
Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA)
The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA) is a United
States federal law requiring covered employers to provide
employees job-protected and unpaid leave for qualified medical
and family reasons.
Qualified medical and family reasons include: personal or
family illness, family military leave, pregnancy, adoption, or
the foster care placement of a child.
The FMLA was intended "to balance the demands of the

workplace with the needs of families.“
The Act allows eligible employees to take up to 12 work weeks
of unpaid leave during any 12-month period to attend to the
serious health condition of the employee, parent, spouse or
child, or for pregnancy or care of a newborn child, or for
adoption or foster care of a child.
In order to be eligible for FMLA leave, an employee must have
been at the business at least 12 months, and worked at least
1,250 hours over the past 12 months, and work at a location
where the company employs 50 or more employees within 75
miles.
The FMLA covers both public- and private-sector employees,
but certain categories of employees are excluded, including
elected officials and their personal staff members.
31
Pay, Benefits, and Conflict Among Personnel Systems…
Conflicts emerges between individual rights (pay and benefits
for employees) and agency efficiency (reduced pay and benefit
cost).
And the outcome of this issue directly affects the conflict
among competing personnel systems.
Note: Despite their relatively short expected tenure in office,
political appointees have frequently have been able to include
themselves in the benefit provision offered to public
employees..
32
Defining and Organizing Work

1
1
The ways in which work is defined and organized tend to
separate those responsible for public HRM into two camps—HR
specialists and everybody else.
In that respect, these functions generate responses such as those
that accompany topics including rotating your car’s tires or
flossing your teeth.
Experts consider them essential, but many of us do not spend
enough time on them, and certainly
do not want to spend more time talking about them.
For HR specialists, writing a job description—a position’s
duties and the minimum qualifications required to perform
them—
is the key to position management.
And position management (classifying positions by job type and
level of responsibility, and limiting total agency payroll to the
sum of the salaries authorized for all classified positions) is
the cornerstone of personnel management from which all other
activities derive.
It all Begins with Work…
Work is the amount of effort applied to produce a deliverable or
to accomplish a task (a terminal element) or a group of related
tasks. As defined by different types of jobs or processes.
Manual labor is the physical work done by people, most
especially in contrast to that done by machines, and also to that
done by working animals.
A job is an activity, often regular, and often performed in

exchange for payment.
A person usually begins a job by becoming an employee,
volunteering, or starting a business.
The duration of a job may range from an hour to a lifetime.
The activity that requires a person's mental or physical effort is
work.
If a person is trained for a certain type of job, they may have a
profession. The series of jobs a person holds in their life is their
career.
3
Job Design
Job design is the specification of contents, methods and
relationship of jobs in order to satisfy technological and
organizational requirements as well as the social and personal
requirements of the job holder.
Or in other words, its how a job is positioned and designed in
relation to the job holder and more specifically an
organization’s goals.
Its principle characteristics are geared towards how the nature
of a person's job affects their attitudes and behavior at work,
particularly relating to characteristics such as skill variety and
autonomy.
The aim of a job design is to improve job satisfaction, to
improve through-put, to improve quality and to reduce
employee problems (e.g., grievances, absenteeism).
4
Five Core Job Characteristic…

Work should be designed to have five core job characteristics,
which engender three critical psychological states in
individuals—
experiencing meaning,
feeling responsible for outcomes,
and understanding the results of their efforts.
In turn, these psychological states were proposed to enhance
employees’ intrinsic motivation,
job satisfaction,
quality of work and performance,
while reducing turnover.[4]
5
Core job dimensions
Skill variety —
This refers to the range of skills and activities necessary to
complete the job.
The more a person is required to use a wide variety of skills, the
more satisfying the job is likely to be.
Task identity —
This dimension measures the degree to which the job requires
completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.
Employees who are involved in an activity from start to finish
are usually more satisfied.
Task significance —
This looks at the impact and influence of a job.
Jobs are more satisfying if people believe that they make a
difference, and are adding real value to colleagues, the
organization, or the larger community.
Autonomy —
This describes the amount of individual choice and discretion
involved in a job.
More autonomy leads to more satisfaction. For instance, a job is
likely to be more satisfying if people are involved in making
decisions, instead of simply being told what to do.

Feedback —
This dimension measures the amount of information an
employee receives about his or her performance, and the extent
to which he or she can see the impact of the work.
The more people are told about their performance, the more
interested they will be in doing a good job. So, sharing
production figures, customer satisfaction scores etc. can
increase the feedback levels.
6
Critical psychological states
Experienced meaningfulness of the work:
The extent to which people believe that their job is meaningful,
and that their work is valued and appreciated.
Experienced responsibility for the outcomes of work:
The extent to which people feel accountable for the results of
their work, and for the outcomes they have produced.
Knowledge of the actual results of the work activity:
The extent to which people know how well they are doing.
7
Job Descriptions…..
A job description is a list that a person might use for general
tasks, or functions, and responsibilities of a position.
It may often include to whom the position reports,
specifications such as the qualifications or skills needed by the
person in the job, or a salary range.
Job descriptions are usually narrative, but some may instead
comprise a simple list of competencies;
for instance, strategic human resource planning methodologies
may be used to develop a competency architecture for an
organization, from which job descriptions are built as a shortlist
of competencies.

8
Limitations of Job Descriptions
Prescriptive job descriptions may be seen as a hindrance in
certain circumstances:
Job descriptions may not be suitable for some senior managers
as they should have the freedom to take the initiative and find
fruitful new directions;
Job descriptions may be too inflexible in a rapidly changing
organization, for instance in an area subject to rapid
technological change;
Other changes in job content may lead to the job description
being out of date;
The process that an organization uses to create job descriptions
may not be optimal.
Having up-to-date, accurate and professionally written job
descriptions is critical to an organization’s ability to attract
qualified candidates, orient & train employees, establish job
performance standards, develop compensation programs,
conduct performance reviews, set goals and meet legal
requirements.
9
How to improve traditional Job Descriptions…
Job descriptions would be more useful if they clarified the
following:
Tasks. What work duties are important to the job?
Conditions. What things make the job easy (such as close
supervision or written guidelines explaining how to do the
work) or hard (such as angry clients or difficult physical
conditions)?
Standards. What objective performance levels (related to

organization objectives) can reasonably be set for each task,
measured in terms of objectives such as quantity, quality, or
timeliness of service?
Competencies. What knowledge, skills, and abilities are
required to perform each task at the minimum standard under
the above conditions?
Qualifications. What education, experience, and other
qualifications are needed to ensure that employees have the
necessary competencies?
10
Job Analysis
A job description is usually developed by conducting a job
analysis, which includes examining the tasks and sequences of
tasks necessary to perform the job.
The analysis considers the areas of knowledge and skills needed
for the job.
A job usually includes several roles.
The job description might be broadened to form a person
specification or may be known as Terms Of Reference.
The person/job specification can be presented as a stand alone
document though in practice, it is usually included within the
job description.
A job description is often used in employment (a new position
that needs to be filled).
11
Different Groups have different Perspectives
Elected and appointed officials: have contradictory attitudes
because they feel they are in charge (not HR);
Merit system reformers: they feel that analyzing and classifying
positions as the key to getting away from the evils of the spoils
system.
Public HRM specialists: they consider job descriptions and

classification systems as the key to effective position
management, which includes compliance with legislatively
mandated controls as well as a major input of the budgetary
process.
Management and supervisors: they used them for recruitment,
performance evaluations, setting pay scales. And or disciplinary
actions.
Employees: helps identify the goals and objectives needed to
accomplish their job--maybe.
12
Elected and Appointed Officials
Focus on politically Appointed (patronage) positions
Jobs are not defined, analyzed, or classified at all under
political patronage systems.
‘No public job should be so complicated that any citizen could
not complete it.”
The proliferation of independent contractors and electronic
communication…. Make political patronage even easier.
13
Merit System Reformers
Focus on Civil Service Systems:
for merit systems reformers fighting to increase government
effectiveness in the face of patronage politics,
job analysis epitomizes the principles of scientific management
and budget transparency that enable them to control the spoils
system.
The Classification Act of 1923 formalized job analysis and
classification in the federal government, allowed merit system
reformers to support a job analysis which is:
the first step to ensure that employees are hired and promoted
based on ability and performance,
and that jobs of equivalent difficulty are paid the same salaries.

14
Evils of the Patronage Systems are Legendary..
Under the patronage systems it is difficult to determine how
many employees actually work for an agency because there are
three possible answers (all different):
(1) all persons are on the payroll (whether or not they are
expected to show up);
(2)all persons who actually show up for work on a regular basis,
and
(3) the authorized positions in an agency (whether or not they
are filled and whether or not those individuals actually show up
for work).
Each of these answers is the result of different pressures on the
patronage systems.
First option a payroll “padded” with people who get paid but
never show up. Boss gets a pocket kickback.
Second option, a valid payroll with actual employees.
Third option, a payroll inflated by showing as filled positions
those that are actually vacant (allowing senior managers to
pocket the salaries of ghost employees).
15
HR Specialist and Position Management
Good position management can be defined as a carefully
designed position structure which blends the skills and
assignments of employees with the goal of successfully carrying
out the organization’s mission or program.
Sound position management reflects a logical balance between
employees needed to carry out the major functions of the
organization and those needed to provide adequate support;
between professional employees and technicians;
between fully trained employees and trainees;

and between supervisors and subordinates.
Good position management also requires consideration of grade
levels for the positions involved.
Grades should be commensurate with the work performed to
accomplish the public mission and should not exceed those
grades needed to perform the work of the organizational
segment.
A carefully designed position structure will result in reasonable
and supportable grade levels.
The underlying assumption of a position management is that
public agencies, left unprotected , will be unable to resist
pressure from elected officials to add patronage positions or to
fill vacant civil service positions with patronage employees.
As a result most public classification systems clearly places
upon public manager the authority and responsibility to
establish, classify, and manage their positions.
The need to achieve an economical and effective position
structure is critical to the proper and responsible use of limited
financial and human capital resources.
16
Position Management & Position Classification
Example for NASA
http://ohcm.gsfc.nasa.gov/sup_info/toolbox/Position/PositionMa
nagement.htm
17
Managers and Supervisors
Since supervisors and managers play major roles in the
management and classification of subordinate positions, they
are responsible for assuring a sound position structure in the
organizations they lead.

A quality classification system allows considerable freedom and
flexibility for a position managers and HR specialist to
establish an organizational structure that is not only efficient
and cost conscious, but also helps ensure the public agencies
limit pressure by elected officials to create patronage positions.
18
Employees Focus on Career Management
Employees have a different perspective than either managers or
elected and appointed officials.
They want to be treated as individuals, though a continual
process of supervision, feedback, and reward.
They want to know what their job duties are and how
performance will be measured.
They want to be paid fairly, based on their contributions to
productivity and compared with the salaries of other employees.
They want their individual skills and abilities to be fully
utilized in ways that contribute to productive agency and to
their own personal career development.
19
Discussion Questions
How does the historical development of job analysis relate to
the differing objectives of elected and appointed officials, merit
system advocates, HR directors and specialists, supervisors and
managers, and employees? How are these reflected in the
concepts of position management, human resource management,
and career development?
Why are traditional job descriptions unsuitable for supporting
personnel management as its focus has changed to human
resource management and career management?
How do performance-oriented descriptions differ from
traditional job descriptions? Why are they more effective from

the supervisor’s viewpoint? From the employee’s viewpoint?
How can performance-oriented job descriptions be combined
with traditional (position management-based) job analysis and
classification systems?
Key Terms
Career development
Career ladders
Job analysis
Job (position) description
Performance-oriented job descriptions
Position management
Staffing (manning) table
Work management
21
22
The HR Role in Policy, Budget, Performance Management,
Program Evaluation
1
1

Policy making, budgeting, performance management, and
program evaluation are the sequential processes (or links) that
by which ideas become programs.
These core managerial functions are how organizations develop
programs, allocate resources to them, and benchmark their
effectiveness.
Human Resource Planning (HRP)
That aspect of public HRM that mediates between the political
environment and managerial implementation of public programs
through core HRM activities such as:
workplace planning,
job analysis,
job classification,
job evaluation,
and compensation…
HRM matches agency manager’s wish list with political realities
generated by
projected revenues and political philosophies and goals within a
much broader context of factors like the supply and demand for
labor…
Most of these requests are preceded by some type of strategic
planning process that establishes priorities and goals…maybe
Policy Making….
The American democratic system of government has a
constitutional structure that guides and constrains policy design.
Therefore policy making (as a system) is the process by which
all levels of government make and implement policies to resolve
the problems of their constituency and satisfy their needs.

Many experts utilize a Six Stage rational, linear model of policy
making:
initiation, estimation, selection, implementation, evaluation,
and termination.
This type of model doesn’t show all the imponderable pressures
and events that enable issues to advance to the top of the
politicians’ agendas, or to become important to voters.
Note: Sometimes we have a solution in search of a problem:
i.e. with todays technology we look for community based
programs as an alternative to the high cost of the imprison of
nonviolent offenders.
Budgeting…
A budget is a document that attempts to reconcile program
priorities with projected revenues….
Budget helps to aid the planning of actual operations by
forcing managers to consider how the conditions might change
and what steps should be taken now
and by encouraging managers to consider problems before they
arise.
It also helps co-ordinate the activities of the organization by
compelling managers to examine relationships between their
own operation and those of other departments. Other essentials
of budget include:
To control resources
To communicate plans to various responsibility center
managers.
To motivate managers to strive to achieve budget goals.
To evaluate the performance of managers
To provide visibility into the company's performance
For accountability
Historically, the most important purpose has been external
control…
i.e. ceiling budget; line-item budget; and performance and
program budgets (MBO).

Performance Management….
Performance management (PM) includes activities which ensure
that goals are consistently being met in an effective and
efficient manner.
Performance management can focus on the performance of an
organization, a department, employee, or even the processes to
build a product or service, as well as many other areas.
PM is also known as a process by which organizations align
their resources, systems and employees to strategic objectives
and priorities.
Because decisions on future funding for programs and agencies
are likely to involve an evaluation of past performance,
performance management becomes a critical part of the
planning process….
Program Evaluation….
Program evaluation is a systematic method for collecting,
analyzing, and using information to answer questions about
projects, policies and programs, particularly about their
effectiveness and efficiency.
In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want
to know whether the programs they are funding, implementing,
voting for, receiving or objecting to are producing the intended
effect.
While program evaluation first focuses around this definition,
important considerations often include
how much the program costs per participant,
how the program could be improved,
whether the program is worthwhile,
whether there are better alternatives, if there are unintended
outcomes,
and whether the program goals are appropriate and useful.

Evaluators help to answer these questions, but the best way to
answer the questions is for the evaluation to be a joint project
between evaluators and stakeholders.
Questions for the Public Administrators...
In light of the planning process, the money spent in accordance
with the appropriations law, or whether (or not) the program
itself has achieved it’s predicted results…. Did the process
resolved the policy issued at hand?
Are we getting the most for our money?
Are we accomplishing the goal we set out to do?
Is the goal we set out to accomplish worthwhile in light of the
other goals we might have chosen?
When do we try to implement a policy that, on the surface, is
not acceptable in light of a current political environment?
(i.e. giving out condoms in prisons; and providing intravenous
(IV) drug users with clean needles, etc.)
Cost-Benefic Analysis (CBA)
Cost–benefit analysis (CBA), sometimes called benefit–cost
analysis (BCA), is a systematic approach to estimating the
strengths and weaknesses of alternatives that satisfy
transactions, activities or functional requirements for a
business.
It is a technique that is used to determine options that provide
the best approach for the adoption and practice in terms of
benefits in labor, time and cost savings etc.
The CBA is also defined as a systematic process for calculating
and comparing benefits and costs of a project, decision or
government policy (hereafter, "project").
Broadly, CBA has two purposes:
To determine if it is a sound investment/decision
(justification/feasibility),
To provide a basis for comparing projects. It involves

comparing the total expected cost of each option against the
total expected benefits, to see whether the benefits outweigh the
costs, and by how much.
Cost-Benefic Analysis (CBA)
CBA is related to, but distinct from cost-effectiveness analysis.
In CBA, benefits and costs are expressed in monetary terms, and
are adjusted for the time value of money, so that all flows of
benefits and flows of project costs over time (which tend to
occur at different points in time) are expressed on a common
basis in terms of their "net present value."
Closely related, but slightly different, formal techniques include
cost-effectiveness analysis,
cost–utility analysis,
risk–benefit analysis,
economic impact analysis,
fiscal impact analysis,
and Social return on investment (SROI) analysis.
How HR Managers Supports Policy-Making Process
Policy-making process
HR staff’s responsibility is to assist other department heads and
their line responsibility of directing their own departments.
Department heads need the ability to predict human resource
needs base on various program options.
Their second role in the policy-making process is to provide
input on the positive and negative consequences of alternative
policy options for staffing needs in their own departments.
How HR Managers Supports the Budget Process …
Budget process

Again HR staff’s responsibility is work with department heads
so they can realistically predict the pay and benefit cost
associated with alternative program delivery options.
In addition, HR have to ensure that any request will conform to
personnel policy and practices reflecting the hiring or
downsizing needs of the agency.
This includes but not limited to additional costs incurred due to
uniform allowances, recruitment, training, and equipment.
The HR director’s second budget preparation function is to
develop and defend the budget needed to provide personnel
support services for all departments such as:
recruitment and selection;
job analysis and classification;
operation of the payroll and benefits system,
training and orientation,
performance evaluation,
grievances and disciplinary action,
and collective bargaining
How HR Manager Supports the Performance Management
Processes
Performance management process
Because of HR’s role in the budgetary process, they play a
critical role in productivity improvement by monitoring the
efficiency or effectiveness of program outputs compared with
personnel cost, or departmental compliance with legal
requirements.
Because program managers and their supervisors are directly
responsible for the actions of their assigned personnel, HR’s
oversight role of performance management is indirect.
This keeps HR directors from being drawn into departmental
personnel issues (i.e. competing values, objectives, and
demands).
Because of direct request from agency directors or other elected
and appointed officials,

HR managers have a tendency to react immediately and
concretely to those demands and resolve any operational
problems that may occur.
How HR Managers Supports Program Evaluation Process
Program Evaluation Process
HR collects data through a HRMIS to evaluate all public
personnel management activities.
Human Resources Management Information System (HRMIS)
refers to the systems and processes at the intersection between
human resource management (HRM) and information
technology.
Because the function of human resources (HR) departments is
administrative and common to all organizations, they can
formalized the selection, evaluation, and payroll processes. The
management of "human capital" has now progressed to an
imperative and complex process.
With this type of information technology HR can now
automatically track and evaluate electronically existing
employee data which traditionally includes personal histories,
skills, capabilities, accomplishments and salary which will play
an important role in the overall operation and planning of the
organization.
Doing Public HRM in the USA

1
1
Leadership vs Management of Public HMR
What is leadership?
What is management?
How does leadership and management of HMR compliment each
other
and how do they conflict with each other?
2
All
Solution
s are tomorrow’s problem,
Redefine the problem as a challenge,
then look for opportunities.
3

Problems that impact Public HRM in the USA
How many public employees are there?
Is it really cheaper to use third-party government and contingent
workers than a public worker?
How many others share in the responsibilities with personnel
managers and their technical specialist in the supervision of
HRM?
How do they work in practice?
How do these shared HRM roles and functions translate into
structures and administrative in a given organization?
How do the evolving values and systems affect the roles and
competencies of public HRM?
4
Myths and Realities of Public Employment
All federal employees symbolize government bureaucracy!
In reality they only constitute about 13 percent of all public
workers.
The primary federal functions are national defense, postal
service, and financial management.

The primary state and local functions are education, police
protection, highways, corrections, welfare, and utilities.
Education comprising more than half of state and local public
employment.
Question: Is a public computer a dictator or a servant of the
people?
5
Shared Responsibility for Public HRM
Elected and Appointed Officials.
They are responsible for creating agencies, establishing their
program priorities, and authorizing their funding levels.
Personnel directors and specialists:
Once a personnel system is authorized, these folks design and
implement the with help from key specialists when needed.
Administrators and supervisors:
they are responsible for the managerial activities most directly
connected with goal accomplishment.
Question: How does Organizational Culture impact on how
Public HRM is done?
6

HRM under a Patronage System
HRM emphasizes recruitment and selection applicant based on
personal or political loyalty.
Once hired political appointees are subject to the decisions of
the effected official.
Few rules govern their job duties, pay, or no rights; they serve
at the pleasure of the appointing authority.
The HRM specialist is not a personnel director but s political
advisor (or a political party official).
They identifies those individuals that deserve or require a
political position, vets them and gets them approved.
Note: Affirmative Action laws do not apply to judicial,
legislative, or other patronage position (exempt appointments).
They served at the pleasure of the appointing authority.
7
HRM in a Civil Service System
In a civil service system, Human resource management (HRM,
or simply HR) is a function that supports the city manager,
school superintendent, hospital director, or other chief
administrator.
It’s designed to maximize employee performance in service of
their employer’s strategic objectives.

HR is primarily concerned with how people are managed within
organizations, focusing on policies and systems.
HR departments and units in organizations are typically
responsible for a number of activities, including:
employee recruitment,
training and development,
performance appraisal,
and rewarding (e.g., managing pay and benefit systems).
HR is also concerned with industrial relations, that is, the
balancing of organizational practices with regulations arising
from collective bargaining and governmental laws
8
Planning is the process of thinking about and organizing the
activities required to achieve a desired goal. An important
aspect of planning is the relationship it holds with forecasting.
Forecasting can be described as predicting what the future will
look like, whereas planning predicts what the future should look
like.
Traditionally HR maintains the system of position management.
The total number of positions, the types of jobs, and their pay
levels are established and restricted legislatively by pay and
personnel ceilings.

Pay is usually tied to a type of classification system, with jobs
involving similar degrees of difficulty being compensated
equally.
9
10
Moving forward into the Unknown
In order to prepare for the future public HR must go beyond
position management to productivity measurement and
improvement through strategic alignment of human resources
with organizational mission and programs.
For this to occur, the HR department must focus less on control
of personnel inputs and more on measurement and management
of HR outputs and outcomes.
11
Acquisition: Manpower and Personnel
Manpower and personnel involves identification and acquisition

of personnel with skills and grades required to operate and
maintain a system needed by the organization.
Once identified, HR schedules periodic test for frequently
available jobs (i.e. secretary / maintenance worker).
It advertises vacant or new positions, reviews job applications
for basic eligibility, and gives written tests.
Once a list is compiled the HR unit will be maintained until a
new test is requested by the organization.
HR is responsible for establishing and maintaining the
databases that enable online posting of positions and hosting of
applications.
12
Maintaining a High-Performance Workforce
The organization’s mission should determine important
performance goals.
Evaluation techniques must fit performance goals.
Performance evaluation techniques must be valid and reliable.
Cooperation between management and rank-and-file employees
is an important as the evaluation technique selected.
Performance evaluations should report both strength and
weakness.

13
Training & Development
As HR orients new (and existing) employees to the
organization, its work rules and benefits, it tracks and
distributes notices of training opportunities.
It also uses, in some organization, competencies to establish
training programs and to work with agency managers to help
design an annual training menu.
It may train supervisors and employees concerning newly
developed or mandated HR policies and programs.
HR also tracks and processes all personnel actions, to wit:
changes in employee status such as hiring, transfer, promotion,
retirement, or dismissal.
14
Sanction
HR establishes and staffs an employee grievance and appeals
procedure.
It tells supervisors the rules of employee conduct, establishes
the steps used to discipline an employee for violations,
and makes sure the organization follows its own procedures if

an employee appeals this disciplinary action or files a
grievance.
Importantly, HR staff frequently serve as advisors to managers
and supervisors considering disciplinary actions.
15
What is Collective Bargaining?
Collective bargaining is a process of negotiations between
employers and a group of employees aimed at reaching
agreements to regulate working conditions.
The interests of the employees are commonly presented by
representatives of a trade union to which the employees belong.
The collective agreements reached by these negotiations usually
set out wage scales, working hours, training, health and safety,
overtime, grievance mechanisms, and rights to participate in
workplace or company affairs.
A collective agreement functions as a labor contract between an
employer and one or more unions.
Collective bargaining consists of the process of negotiation
between representatives of a union and employers in respect of
the terms and conditions of employment of employees, such as:
wages, hours of work, working conditions, grievance-
procedures, and about the rights and responsibilities of trade

unions.
The parties often refer to the result of the negotiation as a
collective bargaining agreement (CBA) or as a collective
employment agreement (CEA).
16
What is Affirmative Action?
The concept of affirmative action was introduced in the early
1960s in the United States, as a way to
combat racial discrimination in the hiring process and, in 1967,
the concept was expanded to include sex.
Affirmative action was first created from Executive Order
10925, which was signed by President John F. Kennedy on 6
March 1961 and required that government employers
"not discriminate against any employee or applicant for
employment because of race, creed, color, or national origin"
and "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are
employed, and that employees are treated during employment,
without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin."
17

The Purpose of Affirmative Action Systems
Affirmative action is intended to promote the opportunities of
defined minority groups within a society to give them equal
access to that of the majority population.
It is often instituted for government and educational settings to
ensure that certain designated "minority groups" within a
society are included "in all programs".
The stated justification for affirmative action by its proponents
is that it helps to compensate for past discrimination,
persecution or exploitation by the ruling class of a culture, and
to address existing discrimination
18
Public HRM under Third-Party Government
Reliance on privatization and contractors reduces public
employment reduces public HR’s direct workload…..
But it can also increase HR’s indirect work needed to develop,
tender, and evaluate
contracts;
citizens volunteers;
and community-based organizations (i.e. recreation programs,
hospitals, and schools).
In order for this to work, HR managers, directors, and staff

must become more skilled in recruiting, selecting, and
motivating temporary, volunteer, part-time, and / or seasonal
workers.
19
Hybrid Systems: The Real World of Public HRM
In the real world, political leaders often disagree about which
personnel system should predominate. Different designs can
create dilemmas (i.e. bumping rights) in HRM systems.
Civil service
Civil service / political patronage appointment
Civil service / affirmative action appointment
Civil service / collective bargaining appointment
Civil service / contract appointment
Civil service / contract professional appointment
20
Role Expectations for HR Managers
Elected and Appointed Officials:
Reduce taxes by reducing the size of government through the

reduction of permanent number of public employees.
Elected officials decisions need to reflect public attitudes
towards supporting public services
or allowing taxpayers to keep their own money and make their
own choices as individuals in the private market.
Note: They want the public administrator (at all levels of
government) to do more at less cost to the taxpayer.
21
Role Expectations for HRM Directors and Specialist
Watchdogs (to guard against the misuse of the systems)
Collaboration ( to work with others to accomplish the mission)
Consultation ( to help folks to work together within accepted
guidelines)
Consultation and Contract Compliance; over the years the
operational definition of “a good manager” is narrow by
pervious standards:
First, legislative and public mandate HRM for cost control;
Second, their skills will increasing be define as minimizing
maximum loss through risk management and contract
compliance rather than training and development.
Third, pressured to develop an employment relationship
characterized by commitment, teamwork, and innovation.
Paradox: HR needs to develop a variable pay systems that can

reward individual and group performances for both the Core (or
essential) Employee and the Contingent (or replaceable)
Worker.
22
Role Expectations for Managers and Supervisors
Individual managers and supervisors must often choose between
short-term productivity and long-term organizational
effectiveness,
between spending time with employee issues and letting
employees fend for themselves,
While the manager focuses on planning, budget management, or
crisis control.
23
Key HRM Roles
Technical Expert:
Entry level or technical HR experts are responsible for HR
planning, acquiring, developing, and sanctioning.
Professional:
are administrative workers that focus their behavior around an
identifiable body of competencies that defines the occupation

and an accepted process of education and training for acquiring
these capabilities.
Management Educator:
the one that trains others formally ( an informally) to think
about human resources strategically.
Organizational Entrepreneurs:
those that view the field of public HRM as emergent and
dynamic.
24
Building a Career in HRM
By performing effectively in a climate of change and
uncertainty HR managers assert a central role in agency
management, developing not only their own professional status
but also that of their profession.
Because of this conflict and instability, there is a high demand
for HRM professionals in public and private organizations,
whether they work as HR directors or as managers with specific
HRM competencies.
What competencies do HR professionals need?
How can they get them?
How can they maintain their skills in a complex and changing
environment?
25

What are HRM Competencies?
Traditional public HRM requires technical competencies.
They must be competent in the techniques need for:
the recruitment, selection, training , evaluation, and motivation
of employees under a wide range of personnel systems. Working
within the limits of the law and policy; to reward good
employees and get rid of the bad ones; writing and or rewriting
job descriptions; reaching quality applicants on a list of
eligible; conducting performance evaluations.
The list goes on…
That focuses on professional and ethical standards
26
The Society for Human Resource Management [SHRM]
The Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) is a
professional human resources membership association
headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia.
The largest association in its field, SHRM promotes
the role of HR as a profession and provides education,
certification, and networking to its members,
while lobbying Congress on issues pertinent to labor

management.
27
Key Terms
Contingent workers
Core employees
Exempt appointments
Internship
Loose-leaf services
Watchdogs
SHRM
AMA
ASPA
ICMA
28
Questions:
What are the six stages in the development of the role of the
public HR manager?
What different expectations have people had for them in each
stage?

29
Public Human Resources Administration
1
1
To Resolve a Problem and Satisfy a Need
The Problem:
State and local governments are facing unprecedented
challenges as the baby boomers begin to retire, taking years of
knowledge and experience with them.
The Need:
Attracting, retaining, and developing the talent that
governments need is a major undertaking.
The Challenge:
Doing so in a time of fiscal constraints makes it even more
important to understand the rapidly changing world of human

resources.
2
What is Public Human Resource Administration?
It’s a System
It’s Power
It’s a Business
3
What’s a System?
Systems thinking is the process of understanding how things,
regarded as systems, influence one another within a whole.
In nature, systems thinking examples include ecosystems in
which various elements such as air, water, movement, plants,
and animals work together to survive or perish.
In organizations, systems consist of people, structures, and
processes that work together to make an organization "healthy"
or "unhealthy".
Systems thinking has been defined as an approach to problem
solving, by viewing "problems" as parts of an overall system,
rather than reacting to specific part, outcomes or events and
potentially contributing to further development of unintended

consequences.
4
5
Systems thinking is not just one thing but
a set of habits or practices within a framework that is based on
the belief that the component parts of a system can best be
understood
in the context of relationships with each other and with other
systems, rather than in isolation.
Systems thinking focuses on cyclical rather than linear cause
and effect.
The several ways to think of and define a system include:
A system is composed of parts.
All the parts of a system must be related (directly or indirectly),
else there are really two or more distinct systems
A system is encapsulated, has a boundary.

The boundary of a system is a decision made by an observer, or
a group of observers.
A system can be nested inside another system.
A system can overlap with another system.
A system is bounded in time.
A system is bounded in space, though the parts are not
necessarily co-located.
A system receives input from, and sends output into, the wider
environment.
A system consists of processes that transform inputs into
outputs.
A system is autonomous in fulfilling its purpose.
6
What’s Power?
Can do….
The ability to accomplish a goal…
A series of interacting systems that enable’s one with the ability
to accomplish a goal…
Power is the Key factor that allows:
the follower to accomplish their task,
the leader to influence others,
and the manager to accomplish organizational goals.
7

What’s a Business?
A business is a System that’s called an Enterprise that provides
a product [ goods or services] for a consumer that resolves a
problem and or satisfy a need.
As rumor has it, Abraham Lincoln said the purpose of
government is to provide those services that the individual is
unable to provide for themselves.
Types of Businesses‘
Volunteer
Non-profit
For-profit
8
Question: What is SWOT analysis?
How can a public administrator utilize it when examining the
strength and weaknesses of existing programs?
https://images.search.yahoo.com/search/images;_ylt=A0SO81P

mTLVUk7sAtCRXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB0NWppOGo5BHNlYw
NzYwRjb2xvA2dxMQR2dGlkA1ZJUDU0Ml8x?_adv_prop=ima
ge&fr=mcafee&va=swot+analysis+template
9
Question: What is a Force Field Analysis?
Force Field Analysis was created by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s.
Lewin originally used the tool in his work as a social
psychologist.
Today, however, Force Field Analysis is also used in business,
for making and communicating go/no-go decisions.
You use the tool by listing all of the factors (forces) for and
against your decision or change.
You then score each factor based on its influence, and add up
the scores for and against change to find out which of these
wins.
You can then look at strengthening the forces that support the
change and managing the forces against the change, so that it's
more successful
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_06.htm

10
11
Force Field Analysis Template
https://www.bing.com/search?q=Force+Field+Analysis+Templat
e++&form=EDGSPH&mkt=en-
us&httpsmsn=1&plvar=0&refig=cc6da181e27042a8869b7719d6
60991a&PC=DCTE
12
What is Public Administration?
Public administration is the implementation of government
policy and also an academic discipline that studies this
implementation and prepares civil servants for working in the
public service.
It is "centrally concerned with the organization of government
policies and programs as well as the behavior of officials
(usually non-elected) formally responsible for their conduct"
Many unelected public servants can be considered to be public
administrators, including heads of city, county, regional, state

and federal departments such as:
municipal budget directors,
human resources (H.R.) administrators,
city managers,
census managers,
state mental health directors, and cabinet secretaries.
Public administrators are public servants working in public
departments and agencies, at all levels of government
13
Public Personnel Management
Also known as human resource management is essential for
effective governmental “governance” type of networks,
especially when sharing a governance role that involve private
corporations, public operations and international interest and
their organizations.
What are the PADS or functions needed to manage Human
resources?
14

Human Resources Management Functions
Planning:
Budget preparation, workforce planning;
performance management, job analysis, and pay and benefits
Acquisition:
Recruitment and selection of employees
Development:
Training, evaluation, and leading employees to increase their
willingness and ability to preform well.
Sanction:
Maintaining expectations and obligations that employees, and
the employer have toward one another through discipline, health
and safety, and employee rights.
15
Discussion Questions
What are public jobs?
And why are they scarce resources?
What is the significance of this observation?
Why are the following four competing values traditionally
influence the allocation of public jobs?
Political responsiveness and representation;
efficiency;
employee rights;

and social equity.
How do the following three emergent nongovernmental values
impact on public jobs?
Personal accountability;
Limited and decentralized government;
Community responsibility for social services.
16
To Be Feared or Loved?
Proponents of limited and decentralized government believe that
people should fear government for its power to arbitrarily or
capriciously deprive them of their rights.
They also believe that public policy, service delivery, and
revenue generation can be controlled more efficiently in a
smaller unit of government.
The most significant consequence of this belief was the delivery
of local governments’ social services through “nongovernmental
organizations' (NGOs).
Why?
17

Key Programs that impact Public Personnel Systems
Faith-based organizations [FBO’s]
Third-party government
Nonstandard work arrangement [NSWA]
Purchase-of-service agreements
Franchise agreements
Subsidy arrangements
vouchers,; Volunteers, Regulatory and Tax incentives
Nonstandard Work Arrangements
Irreversible Rise of Information Technology
18
The Four Traditional Public HRM Systems
Political Patronage System
is the use of state resources to reward individuals for their
electoral support
Civil Service (Merit) System
The term civil service can refer to either a branch of
governmental service in which individuals are employed (hired)
on the basis of professional merit as proven by competitive
examinations; or the body of employees in any government
agency apart from the military, which is a separate extension of
any national government

Collective Bargaining
is a process of negotiations between employers and a group of
employees aimed at reaching agreements to regulate working
conditions
Affirmative Action System
is intended to promote the opportunities of defined minority
groups within a society to give them equal access to that of the
majority population
19
Political Patronage System
Is a way of rewarding jobs to loyal party members (and
campaign workers) by the elected candidate. (aka the spoils
system)
This enables the elected official to achieve their political
objectives (including reelection) by legally placing key people
in positions where the stakeholders can have access to
administrative agencies during the policy-making process. For
example
the General Accounting Office (GAO) publishes the Plum Book
… a listing of U.S. government policy and supporting
positions… immediately following each presidential election.

Unfortunately, the political patronage system is also a way for
the party (in power) to reward groups, families, and ethnicities
for their electoral support by
using illegal gifts or fraudulently awarded appointments or
government contracts.
20
“Wicked Problems”: Culture, Circumstance, and Power
Favorable Political Culture In the United States, the public
HRM system developed through successive (and successful)
fights against the excesses of patronage,
and against social pressures to be the “employer of last resort”
in a well-developed economy that provides ample jobs outside
government.
Although our conflicts with corruption, cronyism, and nepotism
are not completely resolved, we do expect that government will
provide services efficiently, using honest and qualified
employees.
Exceptions generate cynicism or indignation precisely because
they are exceptions.
Favorable Historical Circumstances The development of U.S.
public personnel management has occurred within a context
under a single Constitution and within a civil society widely

considered controlled by laws rather than by individuals.
Although our policymaking process is costly, complex, and
tortuous, it results in outcomes that are generally considered to
be transparent, effective at maintaining government authority,
and politically responsive to the will of the electorate.
Whereas our society is deeply affected by conflicts based on
race, ethnicity, and class, it provides great opportunity for
personal growth and economic advancement
21
22
Culture
Circumstance
Power
Wicked Problems

Civil Service (Merit) System
The term civil service can refer to either a branch of
governmental service in which individuals are employed (hired)
on the basis of professional merit as proven by competitive
examinations;
or the body of employees in any government agency apart from
the military, which is a separate extension of any national
government.
A civil servant or public servant is a person in the public sector
employed for a government department or agency.
The extent of civil servants of a state as part of the "civil
service" varies from country to country.
Civil service system came about as a result of an increased
dissatisfaction with the patronage-based personnel system.
23
Collective Bargaining….
Collective bargaining is a process of negotiations between
employers and a group of employees aimed at reaching
agreements to regulate working conditions. The interests of the

employees are commonly presented by representatives of a trade
union to which the employees belong.
The collective agreements reached by these negotiations usually
set out wage scales, working hours, training, health and safety,
overtime, grievance mechanisms, and rights to participate in
workplace or company affairs.]
This is in contrast to the patronage system, where they are set
and operationally influence by elected officials, or the civil
service system, where they are set by law and regulations issued
by management and administered by a civil service board (or
their representative).
Please note: public sector unions never has the right to
negotiate binding contracts with respect to wages, benefits, or
other economic issues.
Because only legislative bodies (such as the city council, school
board, or state legislature) have the authority to appropriate
money to fund contracts.
24
Affirmative Action System
The term "affirmative action" was first used in the United States
in Executive Order 10925 and was signed by President John F.
Kennedy on 6 March 1961.
It was used to promote actions that achieve non-discrimination.

Affirmative action is intended to promote the opportunities of
defined minority groups within a society to give them equal
access to that of the majority population.
It help to compensate for past discrimination, persecution or
exploitation by the ruling class of a culture, and to address
existing discrimination.
25
Discussion Question…..
How do the following two emergent nongovernmental systems
impact on public jobs?
Privatization
Essentially, it is the process of transferring ownership of a
business, enterprise, agency, public service, or public property
from the public sector (a government) to the private sector,
either to a business that operates for a profit or to a nonprofit
organization.
It may also mean government outsourcing of services or
functions to private firms, e.g. revenue collection, law
enforcement, and prison management.
Partnerships
A partnership is an arrangement where parties agree to
cooperate to advance their mutual interests.

Since humans are social beings, partnerships between
individuals, businesses, interest-based organizations, schools,
governments, and varied combinations thereof, have always
been and remain commonplace
26
27
Did you know…..
The federal government of the United States does not have
specific statutory law governing the establishment of
partnerships.
Instead, each of the fifty states as well as the District of
Columbia has its own statutes and common law that govern
partnerships
While partnerships stand to amplify mutual interests and
success, some are considered ethically problematic.
When a politician, for example, partners with a corporation to
advance the latter's interest in exchange for some benefit, a
conflict of interest results; consequentially, the public good
may suffer.

While technically legal in some jurisdictions, such practice is
broadly viewed negatively or as corruption.
28
Key Questions
So what is a Public Personnel System?
Can there be a uniform “best practice” HRM solution to build
local and global governance capacity?
As responsible public administrators and public personnel
managers, what can we do to promote the development of
rational and transparent government, at home and abroad?
29
Key Terms
Affirmative action systems
Pendleton Act (1883) / Civil Service Reform Act of (1978)
Collective bargaining
Faith-based organizations (FBOs)
Non-governmental organizations
Franchise agreements
Human resource management (HRM)

Office of Personnel Management (USOPM)
Partnerships / Privatization
PADS
SWOT analysis
Force field Analysis
30

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