South Sudan-2

Lauren Pirk
August 11, 2012
Amidst the tribal conflicts, malnourished bodies, and strong governmental influence is a nation
in need of change to successfully carry them through the years to come. This paper provides an
overview of South Sudan: the land, its people, their economy and practical business solutions
to help the nation find hope in the midst of crisis.

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Table of Contents
Natural Environment ....................................................................................................................5
Climate .....................................................................................................................................11
Natural Resources .....................................................................................................................11
Agriculture................................................................................................................................12
Becoming a State ...................................................................................................................13
The Ten States ...........................................................................................................................14
Bahr el Ghazal ........................................................................................................................14
Equatoria..................................................................................................................................15
Greater Upper Nile .................................................................................................................15
Males............................................................................................................................................15
Fathers .....................................................................................................................................16
Grandfathers............................................................................................................................16
Male Children..........................................................................................................................17
Females .......................................................................................................................................17
Mothers ....................................................................................................................................18
Grandmothers .........................................................................................................................18
Female Children......................................................................................................................19
Widows.....................................................................................................................................19
Peoples........................................................................................................................................20
The Dinka .............................................................................................................................20
The Zande............................................................................................................................20
Languages...............................................................................................................................20

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Housing ....................................................................................................................................21
Clothing ....................................................................................................................................22
Food..........................................................................................................................................23
Religion ....................................................................................................................................24
Economy..................................................................................................................................25
Technology..............................................................................................................................26
Medical.....................................................................................................................................27
Education.................................................................................................................................29
Urban Centers .....................................................................................................................30
Business ......................................................................................................................................30
The Current Government ..........................................................................................................33
Children Soldiers ........................................................................................................................33
President..................................................................................................................................34
Vice President.........................................................................................................................35
Financial and Economic Status............................................................................................37
The Government’s Involvement in Business......................................................................38
Tapping Into the Untouched Grounds.....................................................................................39
Helping Hands ............................................................................................................................40
What We Can Do .......................................................................................................................41
The Ultimate Solution ................................................................................................................41

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Executive Summary
Sudan, the largest country in Africa, has a rich supply of natural resources and
beautiful land to sustain its tribes. With a people population of 8,260,490, South Sudan
is fully equipped with the human hands it needs to take care of the large amount of
supplies it contains. Oil, gold, and water are just three practical examples of the
hundreds of natural resources contained in South Sudan. Unfortunately, a lack of
education and proper training in South Sudan has caused little to be done with its
abundance of resources.
The people of South Sudan are passionate about their communities, cattle, and
traditions. The south is said to have the most complex linguistic and ethnic population,
which includes the Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk and Zande. Sudan’s southern region is
dominated by a vast marshland called the Sudd. It is so wet and difficult to travel in the
Sudd that the people who live in this region of South Sudan have a difficult time
traveling during the rainy months of the year.
When it comes to growth and expansion, some of the fastest growing cities in
Africa are located in Sudan. Juba, the current capital of South Sudan, is one of these
cities and contains over 372,000 people. Juba is located right next to the White Nile, a
key place for any significant agricultural enterprise in the country to be irrigated.
When it comes to the basic living necessities, the Nile River is said to be the place to
where Sudanese migrate. The Nile provides people in Sudan with the majority of tools
that they need to survive. A lot of people build their homes very close to the river,
especially in times of drought.
In January of 2012, South Sudan shut down its oil production after it failed to
agree how much it should pay to export oil via pipelines and other infrastructure in North
Sudan. The government of South Sudan is currently conversing with North Sudan on
how to settle on a financial agreement in the midst of this unfortunate financial loss for
both nations. The government has high hopes of restoring the current economic
conditions of South Sudan.
Over the last few years, South Sudan has been in the midst of unrest due to war,
land disputes and tribal conflicts. The country is currently on its toes and seeking for aid
to help restore peace amongst the people. In the midst of this unrest, the economy has
been facing major declines and needs an economic boost to sustain the nation. Without
attention being brought to these needs, the economy of South Sudan could potentially
collapse.
After observing the current economic crisis in South Sudan, efforts must be made
to help. North Central University has the opportunity and ability to be used in this
country to help the local people survive and learn how to financially sustain themselves
through the use of natural resources within the land. By coming up with the proper
proposals and people to educate and train local Sudanese people, the economy of
South Sudan will experience the positive change and restoration that it is looking for.
There is hope for this land in the midst of its crisis.

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The Land
Natural Environment
With an area of about 967,000 square miles, Sudan is the largest country in
terms of land on the African Continent. Sudan shares borders with nine other African
countries: Egypt to the north; Libya to the northwest; Chad and the Central African
Republic to the west; Kenya, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the
south; and Ethiopia and Eritrea to the east. The Red Sea lies to the northeast of Sudan.
Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Jordon, and Israel lie just across this narrow body of water
(Nnoromele 10).
The northern part of Sudan is considered to some observers perhaps the most
impressive region of the country. The long stretches of the Nubian and the Libyan
deserts are what dominates the majority of land in northern Sudan. The months of May
and June are often the months that intense sandstorms occur in the northern deserts of
Sudan. About 30 percent of Sudan accounts for desert lands. Every year this amount is
increasing. It is stated that about two miles of Sudan’s land is lost to the established
deserts on an annual basis (Nnoromele 10). Very few Sudanese people live in the
northern deserts of Sudan due to its high temperatures and the unfavorable living
conditions. The most populated part of the desert is along the coastline of the Red Sea,
where there tends to be more rainfall and the weather is slightly cooler.

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The central part of Sudan contains central and rolling plains. The weather in the
central part of Sudan tends to be more bearable and favorable than in the north.
Nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples are said to make their home in the central region
of Sudan. In central Sudan, the cattle and camels owned by the semi nomadic and
nomadic peoples are able to adequately graze due to the stretches of rich grasslands.
The Nubian Desert (Guido) The Libyan Desert (Lanni)
Sandstorm in Khartoum, Sudan (2007)

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Sudan’s southern region is dominated by a vast marshland called the Sudd
(Arabic for barrier). The Sudd is created by the Nile and other small rivers that run off
the slopes of the east African mountains into an enormously wide, shallow basin. The
Sudd land is infested with papyrus, beds of reeds, other water plants, hippos, and
crocodiles. The Sudd served as a “natural barrier protecting those who live in the south
from invaders from the north” (Nnoromele 12). Swarms of insects, such as mosquitoes
and tsetse flies, would spread disease among any who tried to move through the area.
The forests of the Sudd provide wild fruits in abundance. The rivers are great resources
of fish for the local people and are exported to the neighboring countries of the south
(Nnoromele 13).
Abyei, a village located in the central part of Sudan (Martell).
Cattle herding near a river forming partof the Sudd swamplands in SouthSudan (Moore).

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Salome C. Nnoromele states in his book titled Sudan that “despite the
productivity of the lands bordering the Sudd, life in these areas is hardly easy.” Homes
and crops in this land are frequently destroyed due to floods and the mosquitoes and
tsetse flies that historically helped deter invaders also plague the local people.
Additionally, insects spread diseases, such as sleeping sickness. These diseases kill
cattle and immobilize many people in the Sudd land.
South of the Sudd and covering about 250,000 miles of land is the tropical rain
forest. The tropical rain forest covers nearly 25 percent of the total land area of Sudan.
These tropical rain forests spread and extend from the Sudd south to the border with
Uganda and the Central African Republic. This land is very wet due to much rain and
contains an abundance of tropical trees, as well as wildlife, including elephants
(Nnoromele 13). It is not uncommon to find fish, crocodiles, and hippos in this land.
Sudan’s unique landscape is displayed by the mountain ranges and highlands
that border the country to the west, east, and south. Additionally, the complementing
Nuba Mountains are found in west-central Sudan. The mountains in Sudan range in
height and can be as tall as thousand feet above the flat clay plain. Savanna vegetation
is found in abundance covering many of these mountains.
A mixture of desertand rainforestlocated on the border of Sudan and
Congo-Brazaaville.
The Nuba Mountains, located in west-central Sudan
(Snapp).

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Located at the eastern border are the Red Sea hills. The highest peak of the Red
Sea Hills rises above seven thousand feet. The Jebel Mountains are located on the
western border of Sudan. The Jebel Mountains are distinctive and stand out as rounded
rock pillars over the lower wooded slopes. The highest peak in the western region is an
extinct volcano called Gimbala, which rises to 10,079 feet.
The Imatong Mountains are located in South Sudan and are the highest
mountains in Sudan. These mountains reach peaks about 10,460 feet. Mount Kinyeti is
the highest peak in Sudan and rises to 10,460 feet. The Dingotona Mountains are also
very tall and located in South Sudan. There is quite a bit of rainfall on these mountains
and therefore they are covered with tall grasses and thick forests.
The Nile River is one of Sudan’s main geographical features. Most settlements
are focally formed alongside the Nile. Communities in Sudan, especially the desert
regions, depend entirely on the Nile as their source of water. The Nile’s course through
Sudan is over 2,000 miles. In Sudan, however, the Nile is really known as two rivers—
the White Nile and the Blue Nile. The reason is because these two waterways arise
from two different sources. The White Nile considers the starting point in measuring the
river’s length to be Lake Victoria. Central African natives of Uganda, Tanzania, and
Kenya also share this source.
The White Nile flows through the tropical woodland for about a hundred miles to
Juba and continues north to Gondokoro. According to Salome Nnoromele, “the river at
The Red Sea Hills, NE Sudan (McMorrow ). The Jebel Mountains in Sudan (Williams).
Mount Kinyeti (satellite image)
from )

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this point if full of floating, decaying lumps of plant matter” (Nnoromele 16). The river
gets quicker at Gondokoro and becomes a series of rapids at which it empties into the
vase and swampy Sudd. It then becomes a series of channels meandering through
thick beds of reeds and mud banks. Past this point, the White Nile flows sluggishly for
another six hundred miles to Khartous, where it then joins with the Blue Nile.
The Blue Nile rises from Lake Tana in the Ethiopian highlands to the east. Its
course is shorter, more turbulent, and swifter that the White Nile. The Blue Nile carries
seven times as much water as the White Nile during the main runoff between July and
October, causing floods all along its banks.The Blue Nile enters Sudan through a gorge
that is almost a mile deep in places and flows northwest for about five hundred miles
through the Sudan plains to join the White Nile. The Blue Nile continues to flow all the
way to the Egyptian border. From the Egyptian border it continues its course to the
Mediterranean. In the absence of good roads, the Nile serves as the main commercial
path, connecting the sound and north .Due to the swamp that is created during the rainy
season, it is virtually impossible to venture around the upper part of the Nile for at least
half the year, Steamers and barges, originating at Kosti, provide the only reliable
transportation to the south. In the 1960, Sudanese people built a dam that is referred to
as Roseires. The hydroelectric turbines at Roseires generate much of Sudan’s electric
power, and the dam’s gates regulate, to a degree, the flow of the Blue Nile.
Some of the fastest growing cities in Africa are located in Sudan. Some of these
major cities and their populations include El Faher (252,609), Omdurman (2,103,900),
Juba (372,410), Atbara (107,930), Kassala (419,030), Port Sudan (450,400), and
Khartoum (1,974,647). Khartoum is currently the capital of North. Khartoum serves as
the industrial, commercial, and intellectual center of Sudan. Many industries including
gum processing, glass, hide tanning, textiles, printing, and food processing take place
here. There are also many cultural and educational institutions in Khartoum. Juba has
been the administrative capital of South Sudan since independence. The long civil war
between the north and south has left it largely undeveloped and overcrowded with
people displaced by regional conflict (Carney, Butler, Carter, and Freeman 102). Juba is
known as the largest city in the south and is surrounded by grasslands dotted with thorn
trees, palms, and mangoes.
The White Nile The Blue Nile

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Climate
Land in the northern deserts of Sudan tends to be hot, dry, and hostile. Annual
rainfall ranges from non along the Egyptian border to about four inches to the north of
Khartoum. Temperatures in the north desert of Sudan can run as high as 120 degrees
Fahrenheit. Land in the semi-arid central region of Sudan tends to have a greater
percentage of rainfall than in the north—ranging from eight inches in the plain’s northern
edge and increasing to thirty inches going south (Nnoromele 11).
The land located in south Sudan known as the Sudd has the presence of water-
year-round and a rather warm climate. South of the Sudd in Sudan is the tropical rain
forest. The tropical rain forest region of Sudan experiences rainfall that ranges from
thirty to sixty inches in the southernmost reaches of the country.
Located on the western border, the Jebel Mountains receive an abundant
amount of rain. The volcano located in this western range, Gimbala, contains many hot
springs, waterfalls, and mountain pools, causing there to be a humid atmosphere.
Looking to the south part of Sudan, there are both the Imatong and Dingotona
Mountains that receive up to sixty inches of rain annually. In Sudan, average daily
temperatures range from 84 to 120 degrees Fahrenheit, depending on the season and
the region. Temperatures in the South stay relatively the same all year round at about
85 degrees Fahrenheit. Humidity increases during the rainy season, from April to
October, and can make the heat feel unbearable.
The climate is less humid in North Sudan that in South Sudan. The temperature
varies according to the season. November until March is usually the dry season and
usually features cooler daytime temperatures of 84 degrees Fahrenheit. The wet
season, from April to October, is hot and usually reaches daytime temperatures of up
to120 degrees Fahrenheit.
Sudan is known for having an extreme environment. In the desert North, there is
nearly no water at all, except what comes from the Nile River. While flooding is rather
common in the south. Both the north and the central regions experience severe
sandstorms, which the people call haboob. The haboob occurs anytime between March
and October, but is most frequent from May to July. All activities come to a stop during
the haboob due to the hazardous outcomes and respiratory sickness that occurs.
Natural Resources
Sudan is blessed with a large amount of natural resources. Unfortunately, most
of them are undeveloped. For example, Sudan has quite a large amount oil reserves
and they have only recently begun to be taken advantage of within the last decade.
While geologists estimate that the reserves could yield as much as 500,000 barrels per
day the oil reserves are producing less than half of the amount they could. The oil
reserves topic is continued later in this study.
The Nile River is perhaps the greatest natural resource and is a potential source
for hydroelectric energy in Sudan. Nonetheless, only two dams have been built inside
Sudan’s borders. Some in Sudan hope, however, that with careful planning and
thorough research, this aspect of Sudan’s natural resources can be utilized to the great
benefit of the country.

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Agriculture
Throughout most of the south, people east and west of the Nile depend on a
combination of cattle herding and existing agriculture. Coffee, fruit and tea plantations
were once popular and thriving in the south part of Sudan and are very capable of doing
so again .The southern region has forests of teak trees that were imported as saplings
decades ago, and additionally productive mango orchards. In the settlements of
Rumbek, Maridi, Tambura, and Yambio, southerners grow groundnuts (peanuts),
cassava, maize, and sorghum.
Boran cattle are a very important possession of most southern Sudanese people.
Owners depend on their cows and bulls for most of life’s necessities such as milk and
meat. Additionally, Sudanese people use the urine of these cattle as an antiseptic and
apply it with ash to make insect repellent. During the rainy season the Sudanese people
driver their animals to higher ground and away from tsetse flies. The dry season forces
them to move the cattle back towards the river.
In an early effort to support agriculture in Sudan, the Anglo-Egyptian
Condominium government built major dams along the Nile. The first two projects,
completed in the 1920s dammed the White and Blue Niles and enabled the irrigation of
the Gezira Peninsula between the rivers. One out of the two dams, the Sennar Dam,
continues to water 2.1 million acres in the Gezira.
The land in Sudan varies in climate and humidity, causing the agriculture to be
different throughout each region. Below I have listed a perceived idea of various things
that different regions in Sudan produce as far as crops are concerned.
Northern Desert The land along the northern desert of Sudan can sustain some crops.
All living crops rely on the Nile River to survive in this region.
Semi-Arid Central Region A variety of crops can be grown in the central region of
Sudan due to the favorable amount of rainfall it receives. Crops such as peanuts, millet,
wheat, sorghum and sesame seeds are just a few examples of things that are currently
growing the central region of Sudan. One of the major export crops grown in the area
known as the Gezira is cotton. The highest quality of cotton produced in this region is
long-fiber Egyptian cotton, much of which is exported to Europe. The hashab tree is
found all across the central semiarid belt in Sudan. This tree is used to produce gum
arabic for people all over the world.
The Sudd The presence of water year-round and the warm climate make farming
possible along the edges of the Sudd. Crops such as maize, sesame, sweet potatoes,
cotton, groundnuts, cassava, and tobacco are grown regularly in the Sudd part of South
Sudan.
The Tropical South Many rivers and streams are located in the tropical rain forest
region of Sudan. These rivers and streams contain a variety of fish.
The Mountains Crops are easily cultivated in the mountains. The Jebel Mountains are
considered to be agriculturally productive due to the generous amount of rainfall and
soil they have. The eastern region of Sudan, where the Red Sea hill reside, is rich in

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natural resources such as mahogany, eucalyptus, teak, and timber. Gold is another
natural resources that has been mined in the eastern region of Sudan for hundreds of
years.
The Nile River Any significant agricultural enterprise in the country is irrigated by water
drawn from the Nile. The Nile River provides water for farming and consumption by
people and animals. It also contains many different kinds of fish. Four examples of fish
include tiger fish, salmon, perch, and catfish. Fish, especially perch, is often preserved
and exported.
Becoming a State
After much war and unresolved conflict between North and South Sudan, the two
decided to try and resolve their issues with one another. All of this took place six months
before the secession that was scheduled to take place in July 2011.Meanwhile, Omar
Bashir (president of North Sudan) was coming under attack from political opponents for
permitting the south to secede. During this time, the Abyei region of Sudan was being
patrolled by joint north-south military units and U.N. peacekeepers for protection
purposes. Despite their attempts, violence would occasionally erupt there.
On May 21, 2011, six weeks before secession, the north responded to one of
those acts of violence by invading and occupying Abyei. Local residents left and fled
southward by the tens of thousands. To solidify its territory, the north quickly replaced
the people with Misseriya tribesmen.
During this time, the threat of ongoing warfare hung over the region. Despite the
threat, both sides appeared reluctant to proceed further. Neither could afford another
war, and the south feared that renewed hostilities would hinder and stop its move to
independence for the new state. On May 31 2011, both north and south agreed to
establish a 12.4-mile-wide demilitarized zone along the 1,240-mile border between
them.
When the northern army attempted to disarm the militias, fighting then erupted in
Kadugli, the capital of Southern Kordofan, and in the villages of the Nuba Mountains.
The fighting remained north of their border, and therefore the forces of South Sudan did
not initially involve themselves in the fighting. In Ethiopia on June 2011, the Khartoum
and Juba governments agreed to create a joint political and security arrangement for
Southern Kordofan.
It was on July 9, 2011 that South Sudan became its own independent state. The
huge crowd that gathered in Juba to witness the independence ceremony cheered
loudly as the Sudanese flag was lowered for the last time and the new colors of the
Republic of South Sudan were raised. The former president of the regional government,
Salva Kiir, then took the oath of office as president of South Sudan and signed a new
interim constitution. One of President Kiir’s first acts was to apply for U.N. membership
for the new state. On July 14, the U.N. General Assembly admitted the Republic of
South Sudan as the 193rd member of the U.N. This act welcomed the newly
independent country to the community of nations.

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The Ten States
South Sudan, which comprises the Upper Nile, western and eastern Equatoria as
well as Bahr al-Ghazel, has a large number of ethnic groups with African heritage. The
south is said to have the most complex linguistic and ethnic population, which includes
the Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk and Zande. Although people of different ethnic backgrounds
belong to various religious groups, some Sudanese choose their religion based off of
historical factors or because of where they live in the country.
The southern region of the Sudan traditionally consisted of three provinces:
Equatoria, Bahr el-Ghazal, and Upper Nile. In the late 20th century, these provinces
went through a reorganization and soon became the ten states of South Sudan.
Equatoria was divided into Western Equatoria, Central Equatoria, and Eastern
Equatoria. Bahr el-Ghazal was divided into Western Bahr el-Ghazal, Northern Bahr el-
Ghazal, Warrap, and Lakes. Upper Nile was divided into Unity, Jonglei, and Upper Nile.
Bahr el Ghazal
As a region, Bahr el Ghazel consists of the states of Northern Bahr el Ghazal,
Western Bahr el Ghazal, Lakes, and Warrap. Bahr el Ghazel borders the Central
African Republic to the west. This region in South Sudan is an area of swamps and
ironstone plateaus inhabited mainly by the Dinka people, who make their living through
subsistence farming and cattle herding.
In 1948, Bahr el Ghazel was incorporated into Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and
became the ninth province after being split from Equatoria, and later a province, and
then state, under the Republic of Sudan. In 1996, the region was divided into the four
current districts as part of an administrative reorganization of the country.

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Equatoria
Equatoria is a region in the south of present-day South Sudan. Equatoria was
established by Samuel Baker in 1870. Equatoria is along the top part of the White Nile.
Originally a province of Egypt, at one point Equatoria also contained most of northern
part of present day Uganda including Albert Lake. It was an idealistic effort to create a
model state in the interior of Africa that never consisted of more than a handful of
adventurers and soldiers in isolated outposts. The people of Equatoria are both nomadic
and peasants. The various regions of Equatoria come from the counties of Budi, Ezo,
Juba, Kajokeji, Kapoeta, Magwi, Maridi, Lainya, Mundri, Terekeka, Tombura, Torit,
Yambio, and Yei.
Greater Upper Nile
The Greater Upper Nile is a region of northeastern South Sudan.[1] It is named for
the White Nile, a tributary of the Nile River in North and East Africa. The region consists
of the states of Jonglei, Unity, and Upper Nile.[1] It borders Ethiopia to the east and the
Republic of the Sudan to the north. The South Sudanese region of Bahr el Ghazal lies
to the west and the region of Equatoria lies to the south of Greater Upper Nile.
The People
Males

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On almost all levels in Sudan, men control positions of authority in every
segment of society—domestic, social and political positions. For instance, the
educational system, the manner in which religious activities are organized and how the
country is governed mainly focus on male authority and leadership. In fact, all these
public structures act as an extension of the home. Therefore, the domain of power and
control is largely associated with fathers, religious leaders, chiefs, lawmakers,
politicians, government leaders, the military and others (Essien and Falola 134).
During times of war, men are forced to volunteer as soldiers in the SPLA/M and
other resistance groups to defend their family, property and cultures.
Men are typically allowed to marry and have more than one wife in Sudan. Those
with many wives must negotiate responsibilities and provide their wives with equal
attention, gifts, separate rooms and other resources to ensure peaceful relations. Many
men choose to marry only two wives because of the financial responsibilities of
attending to larger families.
Fathers
Fathers play an important role in determining the paths of their children. The
father is the one who is mainly responsible for giving the name of their child after
consulting the elders. Fathers are the main authoritative figure of their household and
are responsible to provide for their families.
Grandfathers
Grandfathers are highly respected in the Sudanese culture. They are generally
supported and taken care of by their relatives. Most grandfathers are not able to work
do to various health reasons.
Sudanese Male (2008).

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Male Children
Male children serve as excellent companions to their parents. Economically, they
provide labor security for their Sudanese parents. In agricultural societies, one of their
roles is to assist their mothers as gatherers, planters and cultivators.
Females
Women form over 60 percent of the population of Sudan. Women in Sudan are
the “live wires” of most agricultural societies (Essien and Falola 125). They perform
multiple roles domestically, and in the field they act as gatherers, planters and
cultivators. At the same time, they preserve crops, vegetables and other important farm
products that are desperately needed during harsh seasons..
Refugees in a Yida Camp, South Sudan (Wartner).
People displaced from Abyei wait for emergency food rations
distributed by the World Food Program in Agok, South Sudan
(McKulka).

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Mothers
Due to the numerous ethnic conflicts taking place in recent times, many southern
Sudanese women are beginning to favor a smaller family size to lessen their familial
responsibilities. Children and women are said to have been the two major victims of the
civil war and are continually separated from their families and communities, to this day.
Typically, mothers embrace people and treat the entire community and friends as being
part of their family connection (Essien and Falola 135).
Grandmothers
Grandmothers are generally supported and taken care of by their relatives;
whether it is their children or grandchildren. Women are generally the caretakers of the
grandmothers in their community. Most grandmothers suffer with health issues and are
not able to work.
Darfuri Mother and Child (Ahmadi).
Darfuri mother and child
A Sudanese grandmother and child (2010).

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Female Children
Female children serve as excellent companions to their parents. Economically, they
provide labor security for their Sudanese parents. In fact, some parents force young
girls into marriage to relieve themselves from the responsibility of caring for the girls, to
offer them a better future, to protect them from tee age pregnancy, and to save the
family from an impoverished situation when they marry a wealthy person (Essien and
Falola 125).
Widows
Widows of Sudan are generally overburdened. Many widows are forced to
perform a double role of nourishing the family and working outside the home at the
same time to make ends meet. Because of these problems, many widows have been
struggling to survive in recent times.
The Culture
An ethnic Arab child from Sudan (O’Reilly).
Sudanese Female carrying firewood (Jeffrey).

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Peoples
The people of Sudan are generally categorized into three major regional groups:
those of African descent, those of Arab descent and those who share both ethnicities
through intermarriages. A number of Sudanese people also trace their history back to
the Middle East. However, one of the ironies about the country is the word Sudan, bilad
al-Sudan, is an Arabic word that means “the land of the blacks”. But people of Arab
descent control the political, social and economical structures of the country. The
general history of Sudan is one shaped by its colonial legacy, by forceful migrations, by
voluntary and forceful conversions to Christianity and Islam, by adaption into foreign
cultures, and most significantly an ongoing struggle by the original inhabitants of the
land to preserve their cultural traditions and heritage.
Non-Arab people in the north, such as the Nubians, have often been influenced
by religious and colonial intrusion The Nubians have been outnumbered by Arabs due
to assimilation and also acculturation between them. For groups with limited social,
political and economic control, differences in skin and racial ethnicity have been a
problem. These historical things have caused a lot of the “original” people who lived in
the area to leave their land, adapt to other cultures and migrate to other safe areas
outside northern Sudan.
The Dinka
The Dinka are the second largest ethnic group in the country and the largest
Nilotic community. Similar to other ethnic groups, the Dinka live in different regions
such as Darfur, southern and northeastern Sudan. Common Dinka traits include darker
skin and tall body features. Most Dinka are farmers and cattle herders. They speak a
wide variety of languages. The Dinka people are proud of their “intimate” relation with
their animals—especially cattle, because of their cultural and religious symbolism.
The Zande
According to Kwame Essien and Toyin Falola in their book, Culture and
Customs, the Zande are believed to have “migrated from the Central African Republic
and the Congo to western Equatoria and other areas in southern Sudan” (8). The
Zande are mostly hunters, herders and farmers who often grow food crops such as
cassava, yams, palm trees and various types of fruit. The Zande have a tradition of
maintaining their religious rituals and showing respect to the chiefs who lead various
communities. They are the third largest group among the Nilotic people.
Languages
There are over 500 major languages in Sudan that are associated with people
from different cultural groups in various regions. Arabs make up the largest population
in the country. The two largest non-Arab groups include the Dinka and the Beja people.
Arabic is the national language but there is a wide range of local languages that are
spoken alongside English in most urban areas. Another group includes the Nilotic
people, who are made of Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, and others. The Nilotic people, who
share similar African traditional customs, myths and physical traits, are also divided
along language groups. In the south, Dinka languages are the most common non-
Arabic languages (Essien and Falola 6).

21
Housing
The majority of Sudanese live near the Nile or one of its tributaries. The banks of
South Sudan are lined with round dwellings made by packing mud onto stalks of
sorghum straw that the Sudanese refer to as villages of daub and tukuls. Buildings in
rural areas are often made of mud or clay, wood, straw, bricks, or a combination of two
or three materials. A good number of rural buildings are design for both members of the
household and animals.
Storing crops is a big deal to the Sudanese. Another comment element in most
rural housing is the space that is provided for people to store their crops and tools to
serve their farming needs. Depending on the home, space is also provided to store food
and water. These storages are either located on the roof or in a selected location within
the courtyard.
Most Sudanese homes are designed close to each other and are separated by a
courtyard. The intent of having an outer courtyard is to have enough space to construct
wells for both humans and animals, and the inner courtyards provide space for
livestock.
Kitchen and bathrooms are other important rooms to consider. Toilets and baths
are often places around the courtyard or further away from the bedroom areas.
Sometimes they are even constructed with consideration given to the proximity between
men’s bathrooms and the women’s bathrooms. Something fascinating about North
Sudan is that courtyard walls are generally not encouraged. The reason being that
husband’s like to keep a “close watch” on their wives and daughters around the
compound (Essien and Falola 107)
Roofs in South Sudan are usually circular and made of grass; designers are
aware that a mud roof in the south stands a lesser chance of holding heavy rain.
Southerners have also found that pitched round-roofed grass housing is normally used
by herders, farmers, nomads and migrant workers not only because a round-shaped
edifice provides ample room for storage but because they are cheaper to build than
mud roofs. Most houses have a single window and a wooden door. Houses are build
with stone and they are either one or two stories high with balconies.
. In Rumbek, the living facility of a well-off family includes a large, central
thatches hut. In Omdurman, people live in more traditional Sudanese mud-brick houses
with inner courtyards. In Darfur, houses are often build with clay and in various designs
that either have horizontal high beams made of wood and are covered with clay,
different types of rafters and are reserved for visitors, or extended space in the form of a
shed. If the houses are made with extended space for a shed, that space is often used
by women for cooking and other household chores (Essien and Falola 108)
Sudanese often allow various religious belief systems to influence their choice of
housing and how much money should be invested in their house. For example, both
Muslims and Christians place less value on physical matters such as buildings because
of their strong beliefs that such structures are temporal worldly objects. On the Other
hand, Nomads and pastoral societies typically prefer natural materials for constructing
their tents. Nomads and pastor groups tend to prefer lighter materials for making their
tents because of their tradition of moving from one location to the next. Baja people
have different types of tents that provide adequate space for their clothing, cooking
utensils and other traveling necessities. Rashiada communities in the northeastern

22
Sudan border area prefer goat hair for their tents, whereas Hadendowa groups favor
palm fiber (Essien and Falola 108)
Urban architecture designs incorporate materials such as wood, metal, bricks,
plastic paneling and others. It is also common to find urban glass buildings and
skyscrapers with domes and arches. Rural-urban migrations has been gaining a lot of
attention over the last couple of years and although the problems with housing and
urban areas have not been solved, Sudanese and government officials claim to have
put other measure in place to alleviate the problem. For instance, it is becoming more
common for people to rent small plots of land within a large area of space to build
wooden houses for their families or share living space with other house owners. It is
also becoming increasingly common for Sudanese to share their kitchens, bathrooms,
and other private spaces with new tenants in such situations.
In Sudan, those who have been displaced by war and famine, migrant workers
and refugees from African countries such as Chad, Eritrea and Ethiopia often live in
slums or shacks. Slum buildings are often made of cheap materials such as cardboard,
thin wood or metals; they usually have no particular architectural design. These
buildings are often used as havens for nomads (Essien and Falola 111) Economic
hardships, unemployment, low0income jobs and the rising cost of living have forced
many people to relocate or depend on cheap housing in the slums.
Lack of easy access to land has created many tensions between poor people
and government in Sudan. Much attention has been drawn to the rise of shelters and
slums in urban areas of Sudan as military leaders and government officials continue to
pass laws to beautify architectural and housing units in urban areas. The government
officials and community leaders are in ongoing discussion to find new solutions to
housing problems in major cities in Sudan.
Clothing
Traditional dress plays a rather big role in the Sudanese culture. The older
generations of Sudanese people view the traditional dress as a way of carrying out
longstanding cultural traditions, preserving them and passing it on to the next
generation. This means that people take time to select outfits that fit specific occasion
and ceremony. Not only do their outfits carry traditional meaning to them, but they have
religious meaning as well.
Despite various attempts to impose a dress code under strict religious law, both
men and women have a fair amount of freedom to dress as they wish. It is, however. a
part of their culture to make sure that the way they dress does not bring shame to their
family, their community or their religion.
How people in Sudan present themselves in public is very important to them.
Dresses and clothing are not only meant to cover the body but have other traditional
religious functions as well. Dresses and fashion also command a great deal of respect
in both public and private spaces. Dress patterns and designs are influenced by local
African, Arab, and European styles (Essien and Falola 117)..
Weather also plays key role in what people wear. Hot weather conditions in some
areas can often determine a choice of dress for a particular occasion. If the weather is
hot, it is very common to see people wearing loose clothes. However, in general it is
unacceptable for women to wear dresses or clothes that expose their bodies. Keep in
mind that this does not suggest that Sudanese use only local styles. Many people can

23
be seen in urban and Western attire, such as skirts, shorts and blouses. In business,
banking institutions and public places, Sudanese wear suits, ties and casual clothes
such as jeans and t-shirts.
Clothing in Sudan varies widely among cultures. In the north’s capital Khartoum,
young and old dress in both indigenous and modern clothing. Some men wear turbans
and a jalabiya, others are found in suits and ties. Many Sudanese accept the jalabiya as
a national dress. Generally speaking, northern women can be usually distinguished by
their colorful tobes and southern women by their more “form-fitting batiks” (Carney,
Butler, Carter, and Freeman 105).
Food
Today, one hundred thousand farmers work plots of up to about 30 acres and
produce much of the food for the north. The food diet throughout Sudan depends on two
grains, sorghum and millet, or dukhun and durra. Both of these grains are strongly
drought resistant. Many Sudanese people have turned to wheat-based bread as a
staple in their diet. As a result, the Chinese have added facilities of bulk cargo such as
wheat into Port Sudan.
Both southerners and northerners drink large amounts of tea and coffee in
Sudan. Farmers in this area regularly grow the red-blossomed hibiscus flowers that,
when dried, produce a red-colored tea called karkade. Karakade is a key item of every
Sudanese kitchen and the Sudanese often export this tea to surrounding countries.
The Sudanese version of Turkish coffee is thick and flavored with cardamom,
ginger, and cloves. It is available everywhere in Sudan. Most Sudanese people pair
their cup of coffee with a food item known as zelabia. Zelabia is a deep-fried beignet
that is sprinkled with sugar.
South Sudan’s food and menu have greatly benefited from spiced dishes that
were introduced by Arabs, Turks, Syrians, and expatriates from the Middle East as well
as neighboring African countries such as Ethiopia. Garlic and red pepper, and different
vegetables, fruits, pastries and meatballs were introduced by Arab and Syrian traders
and other nationals from Mediterranean regions. Most of these transformations occurred
in the early nineteenth century and to this day, the various cultural interactions and
exchanges continue to add different flavors to local dishes (Essian and Falola 114).
The southern Sudanese make very good use of their natural resources; their
lakes, rivers and lagoons. Some dishes in this area are prepared with fish, crabs and
A farmer standingin a field of sorghum in Gezira state (2012).

24
other seafood. Two these are kajaik, which is made of dried dish, and aseeda, a type of
porridge made from sorghum that is eaten with stew. Southerners also have a tradition
of combining pastoral and agricultural recipes from the southeast and southwest
regions.
Food is meant to be consumed following traditional customs in Sudan. People
are very hospitable to local and foreigners. Therefore, they prepare their food with
particular attention to those who are going to eating it. Special guests are given
treatment such as the slaughtering of sheep to celebrate the occasion. They are also
welcomed with fruit drinks such as guddaim, aradaib and tabrihana. Before meals
begin, guests are provided with juice coffee or tea to welcome them. Water is then
provided in a special bowl while towels for wiping hands are offered to the guests. In
some places where strict traditional values are held, female guests are expected to
cover their knees with clothes as they sit around to eat with men. Sometimes men and
women eat in separate rooms to maintain traditional or religious rituals. Incense is
usually burnt when guests are there to provide a fresh smell. To honor guests, they are
given pillows to help them sit in a relaxed position. Guest should never reject such
special treatments.
Religion
People often describe Sudan as ethnically separated between the Arab Muslim
north and the African South, where traditional religions predominate (Carney, Butler,
Carter, and Freeman 213). Christianity flourished in the south and other areas in the
west and east more than in the north because of attempts by colonial rulers to minimize
the spread of Islam in these areas. Southern Sudan has a large number of Christians,
especially Catholics, and there are a number of cathedrals in many Christian
communities in the area (Essien and Falola 6)
On the other hand, Islam spread rapidly among northern communities. This
happened in part because of the rate at which Muslim merchants, nomads and
members of the Muslim brotherhood carried out the message of the Prophet
Muhammad. During the process of Islamization and Arabization, the people of Nubian
ancestry and Beja groups—who often went to war with each other in the north—
converted to Islam in great numbers (Essien and Falola 7).
The sharia law is based on religious teachings that emphasize Islamic codes
over secular laws because of the notion that God is the only authentic lawgiver.
Although the number of southern-born politicians and government officials have
increased over the last thirty years, the influence of Islamic leaders and Arab lawmakers
overshadow the political powers of southern government officials when it comes to
introducing various Islamic codes or enacting laws that affect Sudanese of African
heritage (Essien and Falola 25)
Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, religion has been highly
politicized. Therefore it is very hard to talk about the topic of religion without talking
about the implications for politics and how the two converge on different levels. The
Sudanese constitution allows the three religious groups of Christianity, Islam, and
traditional religions to exist, but the political tensions have not always provided an
atmosphere that allows all its citizens to exercise their freedom of religious expression.

25
Additionally, the Sudanese often feel powerless and hopeless because of attempts by
religious and military leaders to impose the sharia laws (Essien and Falola 45).
The Sudanese people take the topic of religion very seriously and many of them
depend on their religious faith, ancestral spirits and the creator of the universe to
redeem them from economic, religious and political hardships. Research has
additionally shown much evidence suggesting that individual Christians and followers of
traditional religions have fought side-by-side with rebel groups such as the SPLA/M,
who are based in South Sudan, to demand their religious and social freedom (Essien
and Falola 46).
Christianity in Sudan is often traced through the Nubian Kingdom, which is
located between southern Egypt and northern Sudan. The British colonial rulers as well
as European and American missionaries, both during and after colonialism, were the
ones to really ignite the practice of Christianity in Sudan On the other hand, Islam
gained a foothold in Sudan after Muslims and Arabs from regions in the middle East and
other areas of the world successfully penetrated the Christian Nubian Kingdom around
A.D. 1323 (Essien and Falola 46).
In Sudan, religion is not necessarily aligned with a particular ethnicity or a
specific culture. In other words, not all Sudanese in the south are Christians or people
who subscribe to traditional religions and not all northern Sudanese are Muslims or
Arabs. Culture and Customs of Sudan says this about the religions of Sudan. “Religion
in Sudan is somewhat spread along geographic lines, with Muslims and Arabs being
mainly located in the north and central part of the country whereas Christians as well as
traditional African religions dominate the south and the southwest. About 70 percent of
the people in Sudan are Muslims; approximately 20 percent are believed to practice
various traditional religions and the remaining 10 percent are Christians” (Essien and
Falola 46).
Despite their differences in beliefs, the Sudanese people try to make efforts to
tolerate and participate in different religious holidays like Christmas and Easter, along
with Eid-elFitr, a period of fasting, and Eif al-Adha, a feast of the sacrifice. It is not
uncommon to see people who share different beliefs fellowshipping with their friends
and neighbors, and during most religious holidays, you will also find the Sudanese
sharing drinks and meals with one another.
Even though traditional religions do have holidays and festivals, they are often
hidden or covered by those of Muslims and Christians. The Dinka and Shilluk organize
most known traditional festivals. All of the traditional festivals are usually connected with
sustenance, harvest and survival. For Dinkas, fishing festivals give them the ability to
demonstrate the various ancestral powers that provide them with the rain they need for
farming and pastoral activities. Additionally, the Shilluk people celebrate what they call
the rain dance; this is a very common thing among Nilotic groups. Generally speaking,
these festivals are done as a way of offering sacrifices and thanksgiving to the spirits of
their forefathers (Essien and Falola 47).
Economy
As a nation, South Sudan is one of the poorest countries in the world.
Over half its people live below the poverty line. That means they earn or consume less
than they need to achieve adequate levels of nutrition, shelter, medical care, and other

26
necessities. Sudan’s economy is mainly agriculturally based. Agriculture covers about
75 percent and generates over 80 percent of the country’s export.
South Sudan’s services sector is not well developed, but a financial sector is
emerging. The 2005 peace agreement envisioned a banking system in South Sudan
that would be distinct from Sudan's Islamic banking system. The system began with the
founding of the Bank of Southern Sudan in 2006.
The ebb and flow of the rivers in Sudan greatly influence the economics and
culture of the majority of the population. Generally, economic problems have been
caused by the following factors: drought and flooding; inflation, which ranges between
40 and 80 percent; lingering civil war; and unpaid foreign debt. The occupations of
people are often shaped by the location of particular resources and also the geographic
landscape of the country. People who live near the coastline regions and the Nile work
mostly in the fishing industry. Sudanese who live near the rural areas are often farmers
and herders. The urban areas of Sudan are often made up of people with different
occupational backgrounds. However, the majority work in the commercial sector or in
governmental offices.
The oil industry employees tens of thousands of Sudanese from all ethnic groups
in the fields, refineries, offices, and pots. The oil industry is poised to become Sudan’s
single largest employer and is said to account for 98 percent of the government’s
revenues. Chevron, Texaco, Total, Shell, and other companies from China, Malaysia,
and Canada have signed different contracts to gain access to Sudanese oil reserves.
Some of the various oil pipelines include the Toker Delta near the Red Sea, the Muglad
Basin, Toma, and Heglig. Over the last few years, oil exploration and production has
become consumed in political as well as ethnical rivalry between the north and the
south parts of Sudan. Both opposing sides are doing whatever it takes to gain maximum
control of oil reserves within their geographical boundaries.
After independence, the economic relations between Sudan and Westerners and
those they engage in with Arab nations have gone their separate ways. These relations
worked jointly whenever there was the need to merge the two different economic
engagements. For example, Sudanese leaders successfully incorporated Western
technology and expertise to develop the country’s infrastructure. However post-
independence economic programs were inconsistent with previous economic schemes,
mostly due to increasing political turmoil, ethnic conflicts, adverse weather conditions,
religious tensions, and military interventions (Essien and Falola 21).
Technology
Technology is something of high desire for the people in Sudan, however the
state is not considered technologically advanced. Electricity is produced mostly by
costly diesel generators. Television is controlled by the government in South Sudan;
several private FM stations are operational in South Sudan; some foreign radio
broadcasts are available, however they are only normally watched or owned by the
educated middle class, Arab merchants and wealthy people.
Cell phones are owned by the people in Sudan and Mobitel is known as one of
the most profitable cell phone networks in Africa. Mobitel is considered a joint venture
between the government and private industry. This company has over one million

27
subscribers, most of which are also owned by the educated middle class, Arab
merchants and wealthy people.
In the last decades, a pedestal has been placed on Khartoum, North Khartoum,
and Omdurman, which are known as The Three Towns. The reason there has been a
pedestal placed on these towns is because they offer huge opportunities for economic,
industrial, and technological growth. South Sudan, on the other hand, is lacking in the
area of technological growth. People of affluence have and operate more technology
than those that live in the slums.
Medical
South Sudan is known for having a very high degree of risk for major infectious
diseases. Some of the food and waterborne diseases that people face are bacterial and
protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever. Many people also suffer from
vectorborne diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and African trypanosomiasis
which is considered a sleeping sickness. Schistrosomiasis, meningococcal meningitis,
and rabies are other common diseases that people have in South Sudan.
As far as water is concerned, South Sudan has some of the lowest water and
sanitation indicators in the world. According to national data, 65 percent of the
population has to walk more than a kilometer to access drinking water, and nearly 90
percent don’t have access to adequate sanitation. “South Sudan is a country where
waterborne diseases are all too common, as a result of poor water, sanitation and
hygiene environment,” said Bismarck Swangin, UNICEF Communication Officer in
South Sudan. “For schools where children come together, it is particularly important that
water is made available, together with hand-washing facilities and soap. Coupled with
correct hygiene practices, they will help children become agents of change to bring
good hygiene messages to their friends and families.”
People wait to receive consultations in MSF’s Pibor medical compound. (Chan).

28
South Sudan faces many health care challenges that it will have to overcome in
order to provide a better standard of living to its people. Since the year 2009, South
Sudan has had an adult prevalence rate for HIV/AIDS of 3.1 percent. South Sudan is
ranked at the number 23 in comparison to the world (Central Intelligence Agency).
Juba, the state’s current capital, faces a dire lack of medical supplies and
facilities to treat patients. The limited health care services that are available are run by
charities like the Catholic Church or by the United Nations. Those clinics lack basic
supplies like anesthesia and stethoscopes. People often walk miles to reach them only
to wait for hours for attention.
The majority of health problems that the Doctors of Juba are facing in the
hospital are malaria, gastroenteritis and pneumonia. In North America we are able to
prevent these kinds of illnesses; however poor sanitation and health care continually
cause the people in South Sudan to suffer from these sicknesses. The wait would
almost certainly be shorter if South Sudan's hospitals had more nurses. Juba Teaching
Hospital has no trouble finding doctors: The internal medicine wing has grown from just
two doctors in 2006 to ten doctors today, but there is a severe nurse shortage.
All of the doctors in Sudan are very much overworked; primarily due to a lack of
proper care facilities. Doctors in South Sudan often work seven days a week. Despite
all of these unfortunate circumstances, South Sudan does have big plans for the next
few years in the medical field. The nation is building a new hospital, John Garang
Memorial Hospital; this hospital will provide international standards of care.
Doctors at Juba Teaching Hospital say they often face shortages of
medicine and other equipment (Jazeera).

29
The long term medical goals of South Sudan are looking rather promising.
Unfortunately, the short terms goals simply cannot keep up with the medical demand of
the nation. Many South Sudanese in rural areas have to walk for days to reach a clinic.
Once they arrive at a clinic, majority of the patients spend hours waiting in line for aid.
Due to such a high medical demand, roughly 80 percent of the medical care in South
Sudan is provided by international aid groups.
Some good news regarding the nation’s medical condition is that Juba has not
had an outbreak of acute diarrhea since 2008. People think that this is primarily due to
the better water supplies in the capital city. Additionally, two of the main reasons people
seek treatment, incidences of malaria and gastroenteritis, have also lessened. The
biggest cause of emergency room visits are strangely traffic accidents.
Juba Teaching Hospital was completely renovated in 2006, and several other
wings have been added since then. The United Nations supplies much of the
equipment; the Turkish government donated an X-ray machine in 2008.Basic treatment
at the hospital is free, except for a one pound ($0.33) admission charge. Specialist
referrals cost 5 pounds ($1.65); prescriptions for outpatients have to be filled at private
pharmacies outside the hospital (Cardom).
Education
It is not as common to find South Sudanese people that can read and write as it
is in other surrounding countries. According to the Central Intelligence Agency, only 27
percent of the total population, over the age of fifteen, can read and write. Out of the
people that are considered literate, 40 percent of them are male and 16 percent are
female.
Pre-college education in Sudan includes nursery and primary schools, which
begin at ages six or seven and last for about five to six years. By the age 18 or 19,
Sudanese boys and girls are expected to graduate from secondary school. Thereafter
students prepare for national exams that admit successful candidates to colleges of
their choice. Private schools are common in many areas in the country. Often the
John Garang (L) shakes hands withRoger Winter, now an
honorary adviser to the South Sudangovernmentand one of
the Council's original members, (Roger Winter).

30
private schools are run by missionaries and churches. There are also schools that are
run by other individuals.
Education comes in different forms: local, vocational and formal settings. Before
being taught by the Europeans how to educate, communities has already developed
their own way of teaching cultural norms and imparting skills that were relevant to
improve the lives of the Sudanese people
At the time of independence in 2011, the United Nations estimated that over 70
percent of the South Sudanese aged 15 and older were illiterate, meaning that they
could not read or write. U.N. agencies and international aid organizations operated the
few existing schools and health clinics. Less than half of the country's primary-school-
age children attended classes, and the enrollment rate for secondary education was 4
percent, the lowest in the world. On average, there was one textbook available for every
four students (“South Sudan” Lands and Peoples).
Tensions between the government and students have affected the education
system in many ways. In fact, since the 1970s Sudanese students have successfully
organized strikes and various forms of protests against military rulers. They have also
challenged attempts by religious leaders to introduce the sharia law. Students in
Sudanese institutions of higher learning and teachers have both embarked on various
protests to call attention to the lack of resources in public school systems. They have
ever protested against higher school fees and lower salaries for teachers. Military and
religious leaders have responded by closing down schools and imprisoning leaders of
these rebellions. Since independence, the University of Khartoum (located in North
Sudan) has served as the center for mobilizing radical protests against the state.
Urban Centers
Sudanese urban centers in different locales have become hubs for globalization,
technological advancement, modern art and skyscrapers with different architectural
designs (Essien and Falola 17). Urban centers provide key elements such as jobs and
housing for people who live in these areas, and they have the following in common:
They are used for commercial and business activities as well as for government
administrative centers, industrial buildings, restaurants and clubs where interactions
between people being in the early morning hours and continue until midnight. There are
two major urban centers in South Sudan, one in Bor, one in Juba.
Business
Oil is the major source of revue for the nations and both North and South Sudan
depend on it. South Sudan produces about two-thirds of the 500,000 barrels of oil
produced by Sudan. Most of the oil is located in what is now South Sudan, but the
pipeline to the only port on the Red Sea coast and many of the refineries are located in
North Sudan. There is no specific deal about how the two nations will share the
reserves and this topic is currently up for discussion amongst both nations.

31
No one knows the full extent of Sudan’s oil deposits. However, geological and
seismic surveys completed before 1983 suggest that reserves of at least 1.2 billion
barrels lie beneath the Sudd. International oil companies, including TotalElfFina,
Petronas, and the China National Petroleum Corporation have concessionary blocs in
the region. With peace, exploration and production in the Sudd could increase Sudan’s
oil earnings by about $1 billion per year for a decade. The oil sector has already begun
looking at the technology needed to overcome the physical challenges posted by the
swamp (Carney, Butler, Carter, and Freeman 102).
An oil refinery north of Khartous has made Sudan self sufficient for all its
petroleum needs except jet fuel. Most of the rest of the production goes directly to
China. Up until January of 2012, oil was Sudan’s largest source of revenue and was
fueling much of the development taking place throughout the country.
In the 1970s, Sudanese and European entrepreneurs sparked an entrepreneurial
idea of using Louisiana sugarcane refinery technology, hoping to turn Sudan into the
Oil Reserves in South Sudan (2011)
The Kenana Sugar Factory, Sudan (2010)

32
region’s center for sugar. Out of the 400,000 tons of sugar produced a year at the
Kenana Sugar Factory, 100,000 tons are exported.
Cotton once accounted for more than half of Sudan’s export earnings. However,
the crop is much smaller now, fallen to about 5 percent of its greatest production. China
is now a large part to Sudan’s cotton competition due to its synthetic textiles.
The northern region of Sudan is known for its iron ore. Sudan’s long history of
working with iron dates to the days of the kingdom of Kush. Quantities of ferrous silicate
ore are underfoot near the pyramids. Sudan has additional, largely unexploited iron-ore
deposits in the south, west, and Red Sea hills. Despite these reserves, the country
imports all its steel for light industries (Carney, Butler, Carter, and Freeman 107).
Large-scale production of gold began in 1991 under an agreement between the
Sudanese government and a French agency that created the Ariab Mining Company.
Over the course of many years, Sudanese people have been hired to do work for them
in the gold mining industry. Foot-pumped wells are often provided for the communities
that supply gold mine workers.
In the west and also in the south, many people count their wealth in livestock.
Camels, cattle sheep, and goats are all highly sought after in business for both their
meat and ability to transport. These animals have long been a major source of income
for the people of Sudan.
Gum Arabic is another one of the country’s exports. Gum Arabic helps create the
foam in beer, the smoothness in ice cream, and also the chewiness in gumdrops.
People who make rubber also use gum arabic. Sudan produces three-fifths of the
world’s supple of gum arabic.
The Politics
Cottonm Field, Sudan (2012)

33
The CurrentGovernment
Prior to independence, a parliamentary form of governance was introduced and it
remains a part of the political structure of Sudan. Power is mainly held by military
leaders, who are often blamed for interrupting democratic processes with their religious
agendas. Sudanese leaders have adopted different approaches to governing the
populace. For instance, to give South Sudan a fair representation in the government,
the high executive council was established in the early 1970s.
The main source of political authority is under the arm of the President and the
People’s Assembly, which acts as guidance for the legislature and the judiciary
systems. On a regional level, governors are elected or appointed depending on who is
ruling the country at a certain point in time. At the district level, district and town councils
work closely with local leaders. According to Essien and Falola in Cultures and Customs
of Sudan, “traditional and religious leaders are respected and are provided a degree of
freedom and authority in managing their followers” (25).
Chiefs and religious leaders in various rural areas have a voice in the
government. Both of them have the authority to act as judges in domestic and social
matters within the areas that they serve. The chiefs and religious leaders often deal with
issues relating to customary laws, marriage, complex inheritance issues and matters
regarding divorce, among others. On the other hand, the local government
administrative posts serve as a bridge between government and the masses.
The constitution has undergone many changes over the last years. In fact, the
constitution has not been fully implemented because of looming civil war and other
tensions in the country since independence. Under the constitution, the president is the
commander of the armed forces and the military engine of the government. However,
the constitution of Sudan has been suspended or changed almost entirely by different
leaders who have governed Sudan.
There are other reasons why the Sudanese constitution has not been effective.
These include the various agendas of military and religious leaders. Instead of adhering
to the constitution, Nimeiri, al Bashir (the president of North Sudan) and other religious
leaders have tried on many occasions to enforce the sharia law under the cover of
maintaining peace and stability, Some of these decisions are for political, religious and
personal economic gains. (Essien and Falola 25).
The Republic of South Sudan is a constitutional democracy and is lead by an elected
president who serves a 4-year term. The legislative branch is divided into two bodies: the
National Legislative Assembly and the Council of States. The National Legislative Assembly has
170 members and the Council of States has 48 members. Members of the National Legislative
Assembly and the Council of States serve 4-year terms.
Children Soldiers
The Government of South Sudan announced in August 2010 that anyone
younger than 18 years of age would be mustered out of the army, but 900 children were
estimated to still be active at the end of that year; in April 2011, a conscription program
was being implemented to thwart recruitment of military-aged males into other armed
groups (2011).

34
President
Salva Kiir is the current president of South Sudan and the next upcoming election
is schedule for 2015. The people of South Sudan voted in favor of independence from
Sudan in January 2011. Statistics show that 98.83 percent of voters reportedly preferred
to split from North Sudan. It was on July 9, 2011 that South Sudan became an
independent state; it was also on this day that Kiir became its first president.
According to an article in Africa Confidential, Salva Kiirwas a boy when he
joined Anya Nya, the rebel movement of the post-Independence North-South war
(1955-72). He was absorbed into the Sudan Armed Forces following the Addis Ababa
accord which ended that conflict, and rose to become a lieutenant colonel. He worked
and fought in different regions of the country, hence learning “the South’s ethnic and
regional complexities,” At one point in time, Kiir also led military intelligence in the Upper
Nile (Sheikholeslami).
South Sudan's first president, Salva Kiir (Getty Images)

35
During the 2011 election, Kiir positioned himself as a reformer, using his
inaugural address to call for the South Sudanese people "to forgive, though we shall not
forget” what the North had done to them. A few weeks later, he publicly addressed
members of the military and police, warning them that rape, torture, and other human
rights violations carried out by armed personnel would be considered criminal acts and
prosecuted aggressively by the Ministry of Justice.
Vice President
Vice President Riek Machar was elected to be a part of the Executive Branch of
government on July 10 2011, the day after President Salva was elected. Riek Machar
trained as an Engineer at Khartoum University, and obtained a PhD in Philosophy and
strategic planning from the University of Bradford in 1984. Once Riek obtained his PhD,
he then joined the rebel Sudan People's Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A) during
the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005). Vice President Riek fell out with the
SPLM/A leader John Garang in 1991 and formed a splinter group, the SPLM/A-Nasir. In
1997, Riek made a treaty with the Government of Sudan and become head of the
government-backed South Sudan Defense Force (SSDF). In 2000, he left the SSDF
and formed a new militia, the Sudan People's Democratic Forces (SPDF), and in 2002
rejoined the SPLA as a senior commander.
Salva Kiir (Sudan Tribune)

36
Riek Machar Teny Dhurgon was born in Leer, Unity State in 1953. Riek is the
26th son of the chief of both Ayod and Leer. Riek grew up as a member of the
Presbyterian church. Vice President Riek belongs to the Dok section of the Nuer people
and has been called a tuut dhoali, which may be translated "adult boy", meaning
uninitiated and literate.Vice President Riek has tried to transcend tribal divisions, and at
one time attempted to ban initiation marks. However, Riek faced a struggle with John
Garang and in the midst of his struggle he exploited ethnic rivalries between the Nuer
and Dinka people.
Riek married Emma McCune, a British aid worker. Unfortunately, Emma died in a
car accident in Nairobi in 1993 at the age of 29, while pregnant. Riek's second wife,
Angelina Teny, is one of the leading women politicians in South Sudan. Angelina was
state minister of Energy and Mining in the transitional government (2005–2010).
Emma McCune with guerilla husbandRiek Machar and his bodyguards.
Vice President Riek Machar (Dr. Riek Marchar)

37
Vice President Riek was a rebel leader with the Sudan People's Liberation
Army/Movement (SPLM/A) headed by John Garang from 1984 until he fell out with
Garang in 1991. As Zonal Commander of Western Upper Nile, in 1986 he entered into
an agreement with Baggara chiefs. Riek led forces that attacked and overran Melut in
1989. That year he was able to visit his family in Britain for the first time since the civil war
started. In 1990 Riek was based at Leer. Later he was appointed SPLA Regional
Commander for a region that extended from the Ethiopian border in the east to Renk in the
north and to Waat and Avod in the south.
Something interesting about Sudan is that in its past history, before the South
became an independent state, the position of vice president has been occupied by two
people at different times. For example during Jaafar al Nimeiri’s reign, he appointed
Umar Mohammad al Tayyib as the first president and Abel Alier Kyai as the second
president. Kyai, a Dinka from Bor, later became the first president of the high executive
council. In 2005, a similar approach was adopted under Umar-Baahir’sal’s reign when
he selected Dr. John Garang, the former SPLA/M leader, as one of the vice presidents
of Sudan in 2005. Garang died tragically in a plane crash shortly after he took office.
Financial and Economic Status
Industry and infrastructure in South Sudan are really underdeveloped and
poverty is widespread, following several decades of civil war with the north. Because
markets are not well organized property rights are tentative and price signals are
missing. South Sudan has little infrastructure, they just have 60 kilometers of paved
roads. The government spends large amounts of money to maintain a large army. The
government also delays in paying salaries and because of this riots by unruly soldiers
have resulted. Ethnic conflicts have resulted in a large number of civilian deaths and
displacement. South Sudan depends largely on imports of goods, services, and capital
from the north.
South Sudan does not have large external debt or structural trade deficits. South
Sudan has received more than $4 billion in foreign aid since 2005, largely from the UK,
Angelina Teny, Riek
Machar’s Current
Wife in Sudan
(Angelina).

38
US, Norway, and Netherlands, but Khartoum has imposed blockades on goods and
capital going to South Sudan. The World Bank plans to support investment in
infrastructure, agriculture, and power generation. The Government of South Sudan set a
target for economic growth of 6% for 2011, and expects 7.2% growth in 2012. Inflation
stood at 8.6% in April 2011, with high fuel prices pushing up food prices. Following
independence, South Sudan's central bank issued a new currency, the South Sudanese
Pound, allowing a short grace period for turning in the old currency. Long term problems
include alleviating poverty, maintaining macroeconomic stability, improving tax
collection and financial management, focusing resources on speeding growth, and
improving the business environment.
The Government’s Involvement in Business
Critics have accused the government of forcibly removing local populations from
oil-producing areas. The peace accords that were attempted to enable the north and
south to share oil revenues are currently under reconstruction and have caused severe
issues between north and south Sudan over the last year. These tensions between the
governmental forces and rebel groups have threatened many peace negotiations. South
Sudan shut down its oil production in January of this year (2012) after it failed to agree
how much it should pay to export oil via pipelines and other infrastructure in North
Sudan. This topic sparked a military confrontation between the north and south, causing
South Sudan to capture Heglig, the town that is responsible for more than half of
Sudan’s oil production this April. North Sudan was demanding that South Sudan pay
them $36 per barrel of oil that they produce. South Sudan was only willing to pay $9.48
per barrel. One fee agreed to was $9.48, and another was about $11.South Sudan said
that the agreement on the pipeline transportations fees will last for three and a half
years.
In his article, Sudan, South Sudan Strike Oil Exportation Deal, Kirubel Tadesse
states, “a $3,028 billion payment will be made to Sudan by the south to compensate
their neighbor for the loss of oil revenue following South Sudan’s independence last
year. That amount is a one-off payment and compromises of a third of Sudan’s current
financial gap resulting from the loss of South Sudan’s oil revenue.” The United Nations
has gotten involved in the oil conflict and has determined that both countries must come
to agreement with one another by September 22, 2012 or they will face sanctions.
As a part of their business regulations, the government insists that all foreign
companies investing in Sudan include community development projects in education
and health as a part of their business plans. The government has high hopes of
restoring the current economic conditions of South Sudan.

39
The Solution
Tapping Into the Untouched Grounds
In addition to gold, south-eastern Sudan has more than a million tons of largely
untapped chromite reserves. Searching for these reserves and exporting them to
surrounding countries would potentially bring economic increase to South Sudan. There
are many areas outside of the mineral and gold market that need attention drawn to
them as well. Sudan’s Red Sea coastline stretches more than four hundred miles, but
the Sudanese have done little to efficiently and effectively use the sea’s bounty.
For the most part, the Sudanese fishermen still follow the traditional ways of
setting out in small boats and bringing their catch back to the markets early in the
morning. In their book Sudan: the Land and the People, Timothy Carney and Victoria
Butler address this issue and recommend that “a joint German-Sudanese venture would
establish a cannery to process forty thousand tons of tuna annually, a factory to process
thirty thousand tons of shrimp per year, and a fish-meal plant” (Carney, Butler, Carter,
and Freeman 109).
Red Sea Coast on approach to Port Sudan Airport (McMorrow ).

40
Aside from fishing, South Sudan has a plethora of cattle. Currently the region
supports 10-20 million head of cattle. A lot of the cattle that South Sudan has, lack the
proper nutrients to be considered healthy. Taking the time to purify the water that the
cattle drink could significantly increase their life span and also cause the cattle to
reproduce at a much healthier and quicker speed.
The White Nile has sufficient flow to generate large quantities of hydroelectricity.
Learning how to work with the hydroelectricity produced by the Nile even more than
they are now would be very beneficial to the Sudanese people. South Sudan also has
large, but undeveloped, deposits of gold, copper, iron ore, and zinc chromium. Uranium
is mined in the country’s Eastern Equatoria state. All of these different natural
resources need to be sought after, searched out, and developed.
Helping Hands
The United Nations Development Program, together with the Global Environment
Facility and the Food and Agricultural Organization, are working with the government of
Sudan and local communities to develop a management plan that would preserve the
Dinder National Park area’s biodiversity and provide for the sustainable use of its
resources. This park supports 250 species of birds and twenty-seven species of large
mammals that without help, would suffer tremendously as the sources of water in this
area dry up during the months of drought.
In 1994, the Cousteau Society, in conjunction with UNESCO, completed the first
survey of the Red Sea since 1953. The society is working with the Sudanese
government as of 2005 to establish an ongoing program based in Port Sudan that would
support the sustainable development of the Red Sea and its resources.
UNICEF is working with partners and the government to ensuring that water,
sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services and hygiene education are available in
schools. Sanitation clubs like the one in Airport View Primary have been established
and supported in over 76 schools since 2010.
Sudanese People on a boat in the White Nile (2010).

41
What We Can Do
As a school of nearly 1400 students, North Central University has much potential
to help South Sudan prosper and flourish into a greater nation. As far as religion is
concerned, the majority of South Sudanese people are familiar with Christianity;
therefore the religious factor is not considered a large barrier for us to reach out to
them. What it is going to take for North Central to have an impact on this nation are
these things: love, the Holy Spirit, motivation, patience, knowledge, people, unity,
compassion, and resources.
One of the most practical things that we can do is help educate and train
Sudanese people. The majority of Sudanese people in the south are rather illiterate and
do not have the basic skill set it takes to do things like create water purification systems.
By going to Sudan and training Sudanese people how to use the resources like water
that they have been naturally given, we can increase the longevity of their lives as well
as help them provide health to their cattle.
Medical aid is really needed in almost all parts of Sudan. Although our
school does not have medical students or proper training to give medical aid assistance
to the Sudanese people, we do have the ability to teach and train people how to start up
sustainable businesses. Entrepreneurial business endeavors, done with love and
compassion, could be a very successful way of reaching into the tribes and
communities of South Sudan.
In South Sudan, people place a very high value on their cattle and crops. A great
way to help them increase the lifespan and healthiness on these valued possessions
would be to have agriculture and cattle specialists sent to educate the people in the
southern parts of Sudan where these things are done and handled.
The Ultimate Solution
As much as people are hoping that there is an ultimate solution to the entire
crisis that South Sudan is currently facing, I do not think that there is one. Instead, I
believe that there is a wide scale of things that that could be done, things that should be
done, and then there are certain things that must be done. From a business standpoint,
educating natives on how to use their country’s natural resources in a more effective
way is a “must-be-done”. The ultimate solution from a business standpoint would be to
utilize the country’s current resources to develop a significant amount of profit through
multiple mediums. However, this is not the only solution because there are many
perspectives to take and learn from.
From a medical perspective, one of the up-front, most important steps for Sudan
is to hire the doctors and nurses needed to assist the overload of people suffering from
illness and severe diseases. Next on their list would most likely be purchase the medical
supplies and equipment needed to aid the millions of sick people. Lastly, create more
medical facilities to host the patients. But once again, there are other perspectives to
consider.
From a biblical perspective, it is evident that God needs to be put first even in the
midst of all of the struggles that South Sudan is facing. One of the most important things
from a biblical perspective would be that the people of South Sudan love the Lord with

42
all of their heart, soul, mind, and strength. Secondly, that they would love their neighbor
as themselves.
It is important to take note of all three of these perspectives. Although people are
unique and develop different opinions on situations, I believe that all three of these
perspectives, when combined, have the ability to product something sustainable and
successful. The fate and economy of South Sudan does not rest on one mere
perspective, but the ultimate solution comes from the hope produced as all three of
these perspectives are utilized and put into action.

43
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