Alternative Energy and Livelihood Potential - Draft 2 - JulyAug 2013

Alte
rnative energy and livelihood assessment in South Sudan
THE LIVELIHOOD SERIES No 2
Alternative Energy and Livelihood Potential
in South Sudan
An Assessment
By
Plan South Sudan
1 | P a g e
P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n

Alte
CONTENTS
Forward
Acknowledgement
Introduction…………………………………………….1
Background and objectives…………………………………2
Existing livelihood options………………………………..4
Challenges of livelihood……………………………………5
Challenges in agriculture…………………………………………6
Environmental challenges……………………………………….7
Protection challenges……………………………………………9
Health and nutrition challenges……………………………….10
Challenges in access to sustainable energy…………………...11
Coping mechanisms / alternative livelihood options…..14
Who does what? …………………………………………….16
Conclusion……………………………………………………18
Recommendations ……………………….20
Alternative livelihood options……………………………………….20
Production and dissemination of fuel efficient stoves…….21
Production, dissemination of solar cookers ………………27
Small household solar systems / Distribution of Pico-solar kits …27
Micro-solar Irrigation Scheme……………………………….28
Environmental protection……………………………………………..28
Establishment of tree nurseries ………………………………….29
Area closure and valuable tree planting………………………29
Gum Arabica / Africa and Lulu collection………………………29
Policy advocacy and raising awareness ………………………….30
Policy analysis and influencing………………………………30
Raising awareness about sustainable community-based environmental
management…………………………………30
References ……………………………………………………..31
2 | P a g e

Alte
FORWARD
Plan International is a child-focused organisation that is active in 75 countries of the
world. Plan was registered in South Sudan in 2006, and became a full country office in
2011, when the country achieved independence. Since then Plan South Sudan has
since worked in close partnership with the government, community-based organisations
and other groups to address the many pressing needs of the new country.
Livelihoods approach
One of the areas in which Plan has placed a special emphasis is livelihoods
development. By assisting families to engage in positive income-generating activities,
Plan believes it can reach and benefit the many children and youth who are now living
in poverty across the county.
South Sudan has one of the youngest populations in the world with 72 per cent of its
people aged less than 30 years. Plan believes that providing alternative livelihood
opportunities for the youth is the best way to engage them in nation building and
discourage their involvement in antisocial activities such as cattle raiding, sex work,
forced labour, anti-government militia groups, urban crime and banditry.
Evidence -based programming
Plan is convinced that the livelihood approach is a valid way of achieving development
in a country that is emerging from years of protracted conflict. To this end Plan also is
obliged to design and carry out programmes that offer the best value for money, as
seen through measurable results and clear benefits to children, youth and the
community.
It is for this reason that Plan has been carrying out assessments of livelihood
opportunities in the areas where it work. The information and analysis adduced has
been very important in program design as well as in advocating for more support from
government and development partners. In 2012 and 2013, Plan commissioned three
studies to assess the potential available in agriculture and livestock development,
apiculture (bee-keeping) and alternative energy. Each of these studies addresses a
critical need and one identified as a priority in Plan’s Country Strategic Plan (CSP) as
well as in government, national, and sector development plans. These studies are being
published under a “Livelihoods Series” label that the organization hopes to keep adding
to. The assessments mainly focused on the region located along the Nimule, Kapoeita
and Yei – Juba – Bor transport corridors, and the environs. This is the area where Plan
has made the greatest program investments since 2006 and believes that, due to
markets proximity, relative stability and strategic location, holds the greatest potential to
generate livelihood opportunities on the large scale that the country needs.
3 | P a g e

Alte
National dialogue
These reports will contribute to the growing store of knowledge on South Sudan, as well
as the ongoing debate on what the best approaches to development are. Plan South
Sudan does not see itself as holding the final word, or even the answers to any of these
important questions. However, it is our hope that other development actors will finds
these reports useful for their own work and perhaps stimulate the need for more
research and discussion.
Thank you.
Gyan Adhikarii
Country Director
Plan International South Sudan
July 2013, Juba, South Sudan
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
4 | P a g e

Alte
The research and publication of this report on could not have been possible without the
funding provided by Plan Canada. Plan wishes to thank Safo Visha and Ivan Zenar of
Plan Canada for their support and commitment to South Sudan.
Plan also wishes to thank Fasil Tsegaye of Plan Ethiopia who led the research, and the
Emergency Response Department of Plan South Sudan, led by Resom Habtegabriel,
who made this possible. Thanks to Eric Amadra, the Livelihoods Advisor for Plan South
Sudan for technical support. Thanks also to Roselyne Omondi for editorial support and
for the good work she has done to help knit the livelihood series together.
Finally we wish to acknowledge the support and encouragement of the World Food
Programme (South Sudan) with whom we have worked very closely in our emergency
response work. It is our hope that this research will lead to the strengthening of our
partnership and the expansion of the work we do together.
INTRODUCTION
5 | P a g e

Alte
“The conventional way of framing the dialogue on climate change strategies is based on
the concept of multiple-wins solutions that attempt to solve problems of growth, poverty,
mitigation and adaptation simultaneously. However, such a concept might be
misleading and suggests there is a fundamental difference between solving problems
related to rising affluence (energy infrastructure and mitigation), and problems related to
persistent poverty (energy access and adaptation), with important consequences for
energy aid. The dialogue on climate compatible development strategies should be
reframed in terms of finding double-wins solutions in two separate spheres of
intervention and policy: green growth dealing with the problem of rising affluence, and
energy access dealing with problems of poverty. Replacing the traditional divide
between economic development and climate change with a new divide between green
growth and energy access may offer a better starting point to address the geopolitical
and economic realities facing developing countries today.” - Bruggink, J. ‘Energy Aid in
Times of Climate Change: Designing Climate Change Compatible Development
Strategies’. March, 2012.
The failure to address the issue of climate change especially in post-conflict areas in
developing countries has received little attention in the humanitarian setting. Climate
change due to global warming at the international level, which is further exacerbated by
the depletion of the natural environment due to lack of access to energy in local
contexts, has become a real threat to the very existence of people in the developing
countries in general, and sub-Saharan African countries in particular. The situation is
even worse in the context of post-independence South Sudan where environmental
degradation caused by decades of conflict, mismanagement of the natural resources
and lack of alternative energy sources has jeopardized the growth and development of
the country. Sustainable energy should be developed to drive growth and development
and made accessible to the people in order to foster productivity and reduce the severe
poverty that affects the country.
According to a baseline assessment carried out by World Food Programme (WFP) in
January-February 2012, more than 96 per cent of the population in Southern Sudan
depends on biomass for cooking, heating, and lighting. Such massive dependence on
biomass impacts the natural environment negatively, and makes it increasingly difficult
for the people to collect firewood on a daily basis. The distance of travelled to collect
firewood and produce charcoal has become longer posing diverse challenges to the
people. The challenges are worse for women who may become victims of rape and
killings. Men are not spared either and some are killed in the process of collecting
firewood and cutting trees to produce charcoal.
The loss of the natural forest resource and the biodiversity due to the ever increasing
demand for charcoal, brick making, firewood and pole production significantly
contributes to changing local climate. The traditional practice of shifting cultivation,
which has been used for ages, also leads to the loss of the natural forest cover and
6 | P a g e

Alte
biodiversity, significantly reduces greenhouse gases absorption and annual
precipitation. In the long run the rapid deforestation in the country will make most parts
of the country vulnerable to natural disasters, particularly drought and floods.
In addition to exposure to dangers like rape and violence, charcoal making and charcoal
burning affect the health of women and children negatively. The WFP baseline
assessment1
indicates that the use of three-stone fires for cooking exposes women to
open fires, toxic smoke and particulates that are known to cause serious respiratory and
eye illnesses.
According to the report, the unsustainable exploitation of the environment for firewood
and charcoal making compromises the envisaged long-term food security efforts of the
Government of the Republic of South Sudan. Firewood collection and charcoal making
now form the primary means of livelihood for majority of the people in the country.
These have become sources of conflict as different communities compete for the rapidly
depleting forest resources.
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES
Plan South Sudan (PSS) working in partnership with Plan Canada National Office
(CNO) requested technical support to assess the alternative energy situation in the
Republic of South Sudan (hereafter South Sudan), and develop a project concept on
the livelihood options available in this area. This initiative taken in recognition of the
challenges posed to the most vulnerable children and sections of the communities in
areas where PSS works with regards to the collection of firewood and charcoal making.
PSS has also embarked on programmes to address widespread poverty by supporting
women and young people to secure opportunities for income generation and is keen to
explore what opportunities can be exploited simultaneously with climate mitigation
efforts. PSS further initiated this effort initiated this effort in collaboration with WFP in
order to build on the effort in the Safe Access to Firewood and Alternative Energy
through enhanced livelihood mechanisms in South Sudan.
The results of the assessment are envisaged to lead Plan International and WFP
developing joint projects and related activities to address the challenges and build on
the strengths and opportunities identified in the assessment. This will further expand the
collaboration which PSS and WFP working with the support of Plan Canada and Plan
Australia have established in order to deliver life-saving support to thousands of people
affected by disaster in South Sudan. Successful initiatives in alternative energy and
livelihoods development among communities affected by humanitarian crisis would
have stabilizing effort contribution to possible recovery and resilience and support of the
implementation of the Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) strategy of PSS.
REPUBLIC OF SOUTH SUDAN
1
WFP Safe Access to Firewood and Alternative Energy, 2012
7 | P a g e

Alte
South Sudan emerged as the newest country in the world on 9th
July 2011 after the
devastating decades-long post-independence civil war ended when the region voted to
break away from Sudan. However, majority of the estimated 8.2 million people there still
live in abject poverty and suffer intricate social, economic and political problems (WFP
SAFE report, 2012).
The country’s national revenue is largely derived from the extraction of oil which
accounts for 98 per cent of the government budget. Despite starting life with some of
the worst social indicators in the world, South Sudan holds great potential especially in
the agricultural sector, in both crop cultivation and livestock production. With good soils,
plenty of water and large expanses of arable land, the country has the potential to
become the breadbasket of the entire region in the near future. However, the
development of the agricultural sector is impeded by persistent inter-ethnic conflicts
often caused by a clash between pastoralist and sedentary ways of life as well as
negative attitudes by the youth who dislike the idea of earning a living through working
on land. Addressing these challenges is a priority but will take many years as the new
country has established only a few of the relevant institutions and these have limited
resources and capacity.
Inter-ethnic conflicts, seasonal floods and drought (partly due to climate change) cause
instability and affect sustainable development and food security in the country
negatively. The mounting pressure on the livelihoods of millions of vulnerable people in
South Sudan cannot be relieved through unsustainable use of natural resources. The
protracted socio-economic and political challenges and problems in the country often
frustrate the process of sustainable land use, forest management, and promotion of
alternative livelihoods to reduce extreme poverty and the stress on the natural
environment. For instance, rampant poverty has had a significant impact on the
depletion of forest cover in areas near urban centres as people resort to charcoal
burning, selling firewood and fencing poles as the only means of earning a living. A
similar problem occurs in rural areas where the communities practice slash-and-burn
land management. Recent droughts have resulted in pastoralist communities burning
pasture to generate animal food, which often lead to forest fires.
In rural areas
The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
such as United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) and German Agency
for International Cooperation (GIZ) have tried to find livelihood options that help the
most affected communities, and prevent further devastation of the natural environment.
However, it will take a while longer and more concerted long-term efforts of many other
agencies and stakeholders to achieve the desired impact.
This assessment builds directly on the WFP Safe Access to Firewood and Livelihoods
assessment which is meant to form the baseline for a global programme that will
8 | P a g e

Alte
address the challenge of alternative energy in areas where WFP and its partners work.
The objectives of SAFE are to:
i. assess the existing livelihood options of the communities in selected sites in
South Sudan and the impacts on the natural environment
ii. assess the risks attached to the existing livelihood options
iii. assess the environmental impacts of the livelihood options
iv. identify environmentally friendly livelihood options
v. assess relevant options to promote SAFE and alternative energy options to
improve the livelihood options of the communities and positively impact the
natural environment.
EXISTING LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS
According the WFP assessment report the main livelihoods for majority of the people in
South Sudan are based on crop cultivation and cattle herding. However, both sectors
are at their lowest productivity level due to decades of civil war with the Sudan. Crop
cultivation practices are usually affected by the variability in amount and distribution of
rainfall, and displacement of people due to conflicts. The farming sector relies heavily
on traditional practices due to lack of improved agricultural inputs and diversification of
technology. Irrigation both at the micro and macro levels has not yet developed to the
level where it could contribute to securing food sufficiency in the country. The
communities’ dependence on the natural environment for their livelihood leads to the
depletion of the natural resources. The collection of firewood for cooking and the
production of charcoal have become alternative sources of income for significant
proportion of the communities in both rural and urban settings. Households tend to
depend on the sale of firewood and charcoal to earn income and sustain livelihoods.
This has created increased pressure on the natural forest, contributing to climate
change at local level. According to a food security survey conducted in March 2012 by
WFP, more than 69 per cent of the population relies on the sale of charcoal and
firewood for income.
Most rural communities do not consider farming to be a sustainable livelihood option
because of several reasons, including:
i. the demanding nature of non-mechanised farming
ii. erratic rainfall, which leads to crop failure
iii. limited access to markets for produce.
All these are considered as disincentives for the farmers to cultivate more and bring the
surplus to the market to enhance their earnings. The problem is worsened by the low
level of literacy (estimated at less than 20 per cent in rural areas), which impedes the
adaptive capacity of the rural population to take up improved agricultural inputs,
practices and other alternative sources of energy such as solar and biogas (that have
9 | P a g e

Alte
huge potential to improve production and productivity thereby improving quality of life in
the rural setting.
In order to enhance their income, rural communities - and in some cases urban
communities - engage in firewood collection and charcoal production for the market.
However, these activities are risky because the depletion of the natural resources in
settlement areas forces the people to travel longer distances to access forest resources.
The longer the distances the business owners travel, the more vulnerable they become
to violence, rape and abductions and other incidents inflicted by cattle riders, bandits
and other armed groups. The business of firewood collection and charcoal making has
also created competition for the same resources by neighboring communities which
sometimes leads to violence and conflicts. Competition between communities for the
increasingly scarce forest resources will eventually lead to the complete devastation of
the biodiversity and deforestation, which will accelerate climate change and the
occurrence of related natural disasters such as floods and famine, if the cycle continues
unabated.
The protracted conflict in some parts of the country before and in the aftermath of the
independence in South Sudan hinders the government and other development actors
from developing policies and programmes for the sustainable use of the natural
resources in the country to enhance livelihood options.
Livestock production is also practiced in traditional ways exposing certain tribes to cattle
raiding which can escalate into major inter-ethnic wars. The livestock and agricultural
extension services are not yet developed to provide veterinary services among the
cattle herding communities. The livestock production sector is not linked to the markets
despite the huge potential the sector has to enhance not only the income of herding
communities but also the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of South Sudan. Cattle
herders consider their cattle population as a symbol of their social status, and are very
resistant to ideas of monetising them even in seasons of drought when many animals
die. In any case the complete lack of infrastructure makes market access very difficult.
In some parts of Jonglei and Upper Nile States, for instance, access is limited to the
short dry season. Nevertheless the role of the livestock sector in enhancing income at
community and national levels is insignificant if the potential is exploited.
Subsistence farmers who participated in the focus group discussion in Juba Country,
Rokon Payam and Rokon Boma stated that migratory cattle practice is one of the
factors for the environmental degradation due to open grazing and destruction of crops.
Quite often open grazing results in deadly conflicts between cattle herders and
sedentary agriculturalist communities. The conflict between subsistence crop cultivators
and cattle herders due to the completion for farm lands and grazing land, representing
the respective dominant economic groups, often results in discouragement on the part
of the cultivators. They view the destruction of crops by cattle as a deliberate act by
livestock keeping communities who tend to look down on (crop) farmers. This makes it
difficult for the cultivators to pursue their agricultural practices forcing them to revert to
10 | P a g e

Alte
other sources of income such as charcoal making, firewood collection and fencing poles
production, which accelerates the deforestation and environmental degradation further.
CHALLENGES OF LIVELIHOOD
As a country emerging from protracted civil war South Sudan faces intricate socio-
economic and political challenges. The economic sector is at its lowest by all economic
indicators2
. As indicated earlier, the agriculture sector is the least developed sector
despite the fact that the livelihood of the majority of the population is dependent on it.
Although both farming and livestock production sectors are critical for food security and
livelihoods in the country both are highly vulnerable due to the protracted conflict and
instability which continue in the post-independence period. These problems are
exacerbated by the slow institution building process meant to enhance production and
productivity in the sector.
Challenges in agriculture
A community discussion held in the Rjaf Village, Juba County, revealed that farmers are
facing severe problems in their livelihoods due to environmental, social and economic
setbacks. The community members said food production is unrewarding due to the
following reasons:
i. Rainfall irregularities cause crop failure every season. Under normal
circumstances the rain season starts in April. Currently the rain season starts in
July or September.
ii. Pests destroy the crops as there are no pesticides to prevent crop loss.
iii. The cultivation practice is so backward and labor intensive, which discourages
most people from intensifying their crop production.
iv. Lack of access to markets to sell some of the agricultural produce impedes
cultivation, and the incomes of the cultivators remain very low.
v. Range cattle keeping practices, the herds are numbered in thousands, cause
destruction farm crops and the forest.
The livestock production in much of South Sudan is rudimentary. Cattle are considered
valuable assets more for the social purposes like paying bride price than for their
economic values. According to community members, cattle herders use the size of their
cattle herds as a measure of a man’s prestige and power rather than economic wealth.
This cultural value attached to the livestock production leads to the notorious cattle
raiding which is a major cause of inter-ethnic conflicts. These conflicts are not always
limited to herding communities. In Jonglei State, for instance, cyclic conflict between
the Lour Nuer and the Mulre communities affect neighboring sedentary tribes as far
afield as Torit and Juba Counties in Eastern and Central Equatoria States. In some
cases conflict around cattle ownership or resource access takes place among groups of
2
The Political Economy of South Sudan: A Scoping Analytical Study; The
African Development Bank, 2011
Country Strategic Plan (CSP): Plan South Sudan Program FY 2011-FY2016; PP. 5-6
11 | P a g e

Alte
the same ethnic communities as often seen among the Lotuko people in Eastern
Equatoria State.
Environmental challenges
The community dialogue held in Rejaf Village revealed that community members are
aware of the climate change impact caused by human activities. They articulated the
phenomenon of the changing climate in relation to the continuing civil war between the
Sudan and the liberation fighters in Southern Sudan. Most members of the community
who participated in the dialogue3
associated the causes of the changing climate to the
extinction of their shaman’s ancestors who used to perform rituals to bring rain at the
right time. These shamans knew the techniques of mediating between the community
and the creator and bring the benevolence of the gods upon the people. The
discussants therefore lamented that all their shamans died during the civil war and now
none of them can perform the same rituals. For this reason the rain season has become
unpredictable and the rainfall erratic, making cultivation of crops almost an uncertain
task which is often unrewarding. According to them the loss of the shamans has also
led to the moral degradation and the loosening of social bonds.
Although community members explained the unpredictability rainy seasons and
variability in the coverage and amount of rainfall as the result of the disappearance of
the shamans, they are also aware of other factors that can be attributed directly to their
own actions. They identified the following factors as contributors to rainfall failure:
i. The slash-and-burn (shifting cultivation) practice, which is common agricultural
method used for generations, causes deforestation.
ii. Cattle that are grazed openly destroy of the natural forest and natural vegetation.
iii. Firewood collection and charcoal making. This leads to uncontrolled cutting of
trees, which causes variability in the amount and distribution of rainfall.
3
Torit and Central Equatoria FGD with villagers
12 | P a g e

Alte
Charcoal making, pole production destroy the natural environment.
Protection challenges
In addition to the environmental risks and livelihood challenges South Sudan is
susceptible to many human rights violations. Many people are vulnerable to one or
another form of violence due to inter-ethnic conflict and cattle raiding that partly
emanates from the competition for scarce resources in the environment. This
sometimes causes large-scale population displacement further increasing the risk of
trafficking, forced labour, abductions and other types of human rights violations. In some
States such as Jonglei and Upper Nile these inert ethnic conflicts have evolved into
armed anti-government militia groups, which have resulted in even greater violation of
human rights. Vulnerable communities are often caught between the armed rebel
groups and government forces. The most vulnerable in such situations are children and
women.
Protection mechanisms in the country are weak as institutions lack the resources and
capacity to carry out their mandates. The austerity measures introduced in 2012, which
followed the decision by the government to shut off the flow of oil through the North,
have affected these institutions and government departments usually leaving these
without the means to function.
In most cases conflicts among different communities or tribes occur due to competition
for scarce resources such as grazing land and forests (for firewood, charcoal making,
water resources, and pole production. According to the Chief Administrator of Rokon
Payam in Juba County, the local government administration exacts revenue from
taxation imposed on charcoal and fencing poles sales to discourage uncontrolled
resource exploitation that leads to further environmental degradation. The government
policy on the forest resource management states that five trees have to be planted by
users to replace every tree that they cut down. According to the administrator this law is
not enforced due to government’s limited law enforcement capacity. Many indigenous
trees will be destroyed in a few years in places where there are settlements if this trend
continues unabated.
Violence not only occurs because of competition for natural resources among
communities, but also from political instability in South Sudan. The tense relationship
with Sudan (the North) remains a major security risk in the country. The frequent border
tensions cause large population displacement and has often led to humanitarian
catastrophes. Following such tensions in 2012, and a decision by the North to declare
all Southerners on their territory illegal such a humanitarian crisis occurred, leaving
thousands of people stuck on the border between the two countries. This forced
movement of large population groups leads to conflict with the host communities
resulting in the loss of life and the deterioration of relationships between refugees
and/or internally displaced persons (IDPs) and their hosts. The other social groups that
are prone to conflict situation among settler communities are the voluntary returnees
13 | P a g e

Alte
from the Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia and other countries, many of whom chose to
return to their country after its independence. These groups also use the natural
environment as a survival and coping mechanism as they often lack alternative ways to
earn a living. This not only accelerates environmental degradation but also increases
competition for the same resources with other groups, leading to conflicts.
Problems in relation to protection are not only limited to the major issues already
discussed. Women are particularly affected by the risky task of collecting firewood for
cooking and sale. This is worsened by the abject poverty that engulfs the country
exposing women and children to violence. Firewood collection and sale is entirely a
woman’s task in most of South Sudan. The violence committed against women usually
goes unreported for fear of divorce or inciting further conflict in the community. In
addition to sexual violence, the productivity of the women is affected by the ever
increasing distance that they have to travel to collect firewood. Children, who also
engage in firewood collection and related tasks, are at risk of similar incidents including
abduction.
Although women and children are considered the most vulnerable to violence in the
process of firewood collection and sale, men also face some dangers in the process of
charcoal making and poles production for sale. This is mainly the case when they are
unable to find valuable big trees nearby and encroach into the areas occupied by
neighboring communities. They are beaten and sometimes killed by the neighboring
communities who also depend on the forest resources for pursuit of the same livelihood.
Sometimes they are killed by cattle raiders.
Finally as a consequence of many years of civil war, many places especially Eastern
and Central Equatoria, Jonglei and Lakes States are littered with landmines and other
unexploded ordinances which put people at risk. Many cases of snake bite deaths have
also been reported as people exploit forest resources.
Health and nutrition challenges
The production and productivity of the subsistence farming by households in the two
States covered by the assessment, Central and Eastern Equatoria, is greatly impeded
by the civil war that lasted for decades, and the inter-ethnic conflicts that have continued
and now affect economic stability which is a prerequisite for social development and
productivity negatively. In addition to the conflict and instability that characterise the
post-independence South Sudan, subsistence agriculture in the two States is both
labour-intensive, and lacks capital and institutional support. The state government of
Eastern Equatoria regularly declares “cultivation days” – working days set aside each
rainy season for all people to work on the land. However, without suitable equipment the
task of preparing virgin land for food production is difficult and very few people are
willing to engage in it. All these constraints are further exacerbated by the frequent
variability in the amount and distribution of the seasonal rainfall causing crop failure
from time to time. The low level of institutional support in the agricultural sector also
14 | P a g e

Alte
contributes to poor subsistence production making it difficult to ensure food security and
poverty alleviation in South Sudan. These factors lead to inadequate availability of food
throughout the year causing enormous malnutrition and mortality. A significant
proportion of the population in both States is therefore forced to rely on the food aid.
The resultant dependency has pushed the attainment of the goal of food security even
further into the future.
Low productivity in the subsistence agriculture means that the food is insufficient and
cannot sustain the communities throughout the year. Malnutrition of children in the two
States is very high causing high child mortality. Although the major crops produced by
farmers such as sorghum, millet, groundnut, sesame, sweet potato and others have the
potential for marketing and significantly reducing malnutrition, the production is very low
in terms of quality and quantity and cannot sustain the farmers and their families
sufficiently. According to FAO assessments nine out of the 10 States of South Sudan
are chronically food insecure. The very low infrastructural development in South Sudan
in general, and the two States in particular, also discourages the subsistence farmers
from taking some of their produces to the market and buy food items to complement
their nutritional status.
Challenges in accessing sustainable energy
Sustainable economic growth and social development greatly depend on the availability
and access to sustainable energy. The history of man’s economic and technological
advancement shows that human creativity can be used to identify the most reliable and
sustainable sources of energy are critical to ensure the continuity of man’s aspiration to
growth and development. However, not many of the energy sources that man has
invented are sustainable and free from their devastating impact on the natural
environment.
Neither economic nor social development can be achieved without the production of
sufficient quantities of energy and ensuring their accessibility to economic actors.
Unfortunately, energy, especially electricity, is a scarce commodity in many developing
countries. That in turn makes it too expensive for the poor and simply inaccessible
especially in rural areas. As a result, the economic development of millions of people in
developing countries in general, and in South Sudan in particular, is hampered.
Development experts agree that many African countries including South Sudan will not
achieve all Millennium Development Goals that relate to food security, supply of potable
water, quality education and health services by 2015, because energy is required to
realise these targets. A growing number of experts and scientists also recommend that
developing countries avoid reliance on fossil fuels owing largely to the contribution of
global warming and climate change. However, governments of rapidly developing
economies such as China, India, Brazil, Indonesia and Mexico invest heavily in fossil
fuels like oil and coal, so it is not easy ( for other developing nations) to adopt this
recommendation.
15 | P a g e

Alte
The development models of these countries also demonstrate that rapid economic
development comes at the price of serious environmental pollution and a widening gap
between rich and the poor. In addition the continued environmental pollution due to the
ever increasing greenhouse gas emissions by developed and fast-growing countries
has made poor countries across the globe more vulnerable to disasters caused by
global warming as they lack of resilience and capacity to overcome the disasters.
This reality calls for an immediate and collective response of all actors at global level to
nurture the resilience capacity of poor nations to environmental disasters and exert all
the necessary pressure on the developed and fast-growing nations to reduce and
gradually stop the pollution of the atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions.
The contribution of the developing countries to environmental devastation is also
massive. Quite often the economies of developing countries in general (and South
Sudan is a good example), relies heavily on the natural environment for subsistence
agriculture, cattle herding, fishery, mining and other industries. Most sectors also rely on
the biomass and fossil fuel to meet their energy requirements. This heavy reliance on
the natural environment leads to massive degradation of the natural environment
contributing to climate change at the local level.
In the two States, Central and Eastern Equatoria, where the assessment was
conducted, the main sources of energy are biomass and fossil fuels. Firewood and
charcoal are the main sources of energy for majority of the population. The collection of
firewood and charcoal making has led to the rapid depletion of the natural forest and the
evidence is quite visible as one travels along the Yei-Juba-Torit highway which links the
two States. Firewood and charcoal are also the main sources of energy for the urban
and semi-urban areas and the main sources of alternative income for the rural
communities, serving as a coping mechanism in the context of the unreliable or simply
unavailable livelihood alternatives.
A government official in the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Eastern Equatoria
State in charge of Torit Payam explained that the business of charcoal making attracts
not only indigenous communities in the State but also immigrants from the neighboring
countries such as Kenya and Uganda. Tonnes of charcoal are produced and supplied to
the market in urban areas mainly Juba, South Sudan’s capital, where the consumption
of charcoal is very high, and charcoal selling is a lucrative business. However charcoal
making destroys valuable indigenous trees and accentuates the process of
desertification. Furthermore, the heavy dependence on firewood and charcoal for
cooking, lighting and heating destroys natural forests rapidly, a situation which is
worsened by lack of availability and access to alternative energy sources.
Electric power for the capital, and for use in other urban and semi-urban areas across
the nation, is generated entirely by fuel generators. Hydroelectric power generation is
not envisaged as a near future endeavour because of the limited potential, and the
16 | P a g e

Alte
limited institutional and financial capacities. The use of fossil fuel generators contributes
not only to global warming due to greenhouse gas emissions, but also results in the loss
of capital due to the high running costs of the generators such as fuel, oil, and
maintenance.
Cooking is a risky task in most households in both rural and urban areas because the
traditional three-stone fires used expose women and children to the open flames that
cause burns and emit toxic smoke. There is always a risk of fires destroying property
and causing death.
The use of energy for lighting in most rural areas in the two States covered by the
assessment is very low. Hot weather during the dry seasons forces rural communities to
spend the nights outdoors. Grass torches, small hand-held battery torches, and open
fires are used for lighting during the rainy season. The absence of electricity service or
alternative sources of energy for lighting in rural areas has a negative bearing on the
socialisation of family members and especially children’s ability to study during the
night.
Lack of availability and access to sustainable energy means low productivity in the
economy at national and community levels. In order to have a vibrant economy and
robust productivity in the agricultural sector, ensuring access to sustainable and clean
energy should be a priority for South Sudan. However, there are few initiatives to
improve the sector by development actors such as the government, the private sector
and the NGO sector. The energy sector has been given little attention, and
improvements in the quality of the energy service provision are minimal. Although there
are some initiatives to improve the communities’ use of energy and cooking
technologies at local level in order to ensure energy use efficiency, these initiatives
have not yet created significant change. The implication of lack of improved
technologies for cooking and lighting is devastation of the natural environment as has
been explained. Lack of improved cooking stoves means firewood consumption remains
very high and charcoal production intensifies. More and more forests are therefore
being destroyed to meet the ever increasing demand for firewood and charcoal.
COPING MECHANISMS AND/OR ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS
Subsistence cultivation is a labour-intensive and often unrewarding endeavour for the
sedentary rural farmers, leads most of them to resort to other livelihood options directly
related to the environment to generate income and sustain their lives. However, most of
these options destroy the natural environment. The lack of employment opportunities
due to the absence of a vibrant market economy in post-independent South Sudan,
exacerbated by poor and limited education opportunities, means majority of the people
in both rural and urban areas are self employed.
17 | P a g e

Alte
The relative peace and stability in the post-independence period, especially in the two
States covered and the rapid growth of urban centres such as Yei, Juba and Torit
contributes to the rise of demand for charcoal and firewood for cooking and poles for
construction purposes. The demand also raises prices, and is an incentive for the
charcoal. Consequently more forest resources - including indigenous trees - are being
rapidly depleted.
Truckloads of charcoal destined for Juba
Although the price of charcoal varies greatly from place to place the assessment results
show that on average one sack of charcoal retails at SSP 40 SSP (US$ 12) near the
place of production, and for SSP 90 SSP (US$ 25 USD) in urban areas, especially
Juba. This price is indicative, and can rise anytime depending on the demand and
supply factors that are driven by the rapid growth of urban centers. The same applies to
poles used for construction of houses and fences. A construction pole retails at SSP 4
(US$ 1.2) at the production site, and SSP 15 (US$ 4.5) in urban areas such as Juba.
The production of charcoal and poles is seen a lucrative and sustainable source of
income for the self-employed rural communities who are affected by the unpredictable
and labour-intensive subsistence cultivation or uncertain livestock keeping. The sale of
firewood is also another means of livelihood for the rural communities. Since more than
96 per cent of the people in South Sudan rely on biomass for energy, there is significant
market demand for firewood and venders tend t do very well. A bundle of fire would
sales around SSP 10 (3 US$). In addition to firewood sale, a significant number of the
rural communities in the States, most of whom are self-employed, see the sale of
charcoal and poles as a lucrative venture and sustainable source of income. Other
means of livelihood in urban areas are grass cutting (for roof thatching) and stone
crushing for the booming construction industry.
WHO DOES WHAT?
18 | P a g e

Alte
Many development actors are involved in the reconstruction of South Sudan including
UN agencies, governmental and non-governmental organisations and private sector
actors. However, due to the priority given to the emergency response and conflict
management in the still very unstable post-independence South Sudan, little attention is
being given to environmental and natural resources management. Food security can
only be achieved through a robust policy that ensures the sustainable use and
management of the country’s natural resources.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Forest Management of South Sudan is focusing on
ensuring sustainable food security and proper management of forest resources.
Unfortunately, the appropriate institutional structures have not yet been created to
enforce practices or create the policies that will ensure achievement of the vision. This
low capacity to carry out the Ministry’s mandate impedes the proper use and
management of natural resources in the States leading to the rapid degradation of the
natural resources.
The rural development and livelihood programmes are mainly restricted to the provision
of improved seeds, agricultural inputs, and capacity building (training). Most of these
programmes are also not based on value chain principles and are more or less hit-and-
run type of interventions.
Fuel-saving stoves designed by GIZ at a demonstration site, Magwi County, Eastern Equatoria State
CONCLUSION
19 | P a g e

Alte
The alternative livelihood assessment conducted in the two States (Central and Eastern
Equatoria) shows that the majority of the people rely heavily on the natural environment
for economic and social reasons. The two main sectors of the economy which sustain
more than 90 per cent of the population, subsistence crop cultivation and cattle herding,
are underdeveloped with limited economic benefits to the national GDP. Both sectors
are characterised by traditional agricultural practices and traditional farm implements
which impede production and productivity. The heavy dependence on seasonal rainfall
for cultivation and cattle herding makes the sectors vulnerable to environmental factors
that are related to climate change.
Decades-long civil war for independence and the continued inter-ethnic conflicts that
affect the country today interfere with the strengthening of institutions for the
transformation of the economic sectors of the country. Limited infrastructural
development also makes it difficult for people to diversify their livelihood options and
access markets. The low level of development in the industrial and service sectors limit
opportunities for employment in urban areas. The majority of people therefore struggle
with subsistence crop farming and cattle herding to the extent possible although these
occupations demand hours of back-breaking work or the risk of attacks by cattle raiders
and are vulnerable to variability in the amount and distribution of rainfall. To cope, a
considerable number of people in rural communities turn to livelihood options that
include charcoal making, firewood, grass thatch and pole production. This in turn
contributes to environmental degradation causing erosion, and severely affecting
ground water sources.
The negative implication of this on the national agenda for sustainable food security in
South Sudan is evident; in 2012 all States except Western Equatoria were considered
by FAO to be food insecure. The occurrence of drought, seasonal rainfall failure and
floods as natural disasters are not very severe compared to other sub-Saharan
countries because South Sudan has large natural forest cover. However the increased
occurrence of natural disasters cannot be discounted.
The achievement of full independence for South Sudan has created relative peace
which bolsters economic activities. Stable economic activity increases the demand for
energy sources which are met through the readily available resources in the
environment. The potential source of energy for the underdeveloped country is biomass,
which is now being threatened by unmanaged exploitation. Unfortunately, the country’s
early phase of development and the continued instability and conflict mainly along the
borders with the Sudan, do not allow the people to manage natural resources (forests,
biodiversity) sustainably. Natural disasters such as famines and floods will become
prevalent in the coming years unless this cycle is disrupted through urgent and
appropriate measures are taken by the government and other development
stakeholders to preserve the environment.
The best way of tackling the problem is therefore to identify alternative sources of
livelihood options for the majority of the people, and create a conducive environment
20 | P a g e

Alte
where people can access and exploit these and thus secure diversified sources of
income. PSS in partnership with organisations such as WFP, FAO and International
Labour Organisation can spearhead this process through demonstrable and scalable
livelihood projects designed to address some of the critical challenges identified in the
States which were assessed. These projects can form the basis for large-scale
interventions involving communities and private sector actors, the kind that will be
needed to create meaningful change for the millions of people living in poverty who
need alternatives to encourage them to look beyond their unsustainable biomass-based
livelihood activities.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In order for South Sudan to realise sustainable development, all development actors
must work together to create favourable and environmentally friendly strategies to
address the issue of access to sustainable energy sources and livelihoods. The role of
development partners such as the bilateral and multilateral agencies and NGOs is to
give the necessary support through capacity building, raising awareness, and advocacy.
However, the processes should be spearheaded by the government of South Sudan.
Sustainable livelihood and food security can be achieved through the creation of
opportunities for the most disadvantaged social groups in the country to enhance their
quality of life through increased income. Diversification of the means of livelihood for the
communities must take environmental issues and natural resources management into
consideration, for sustainability.
The livelihood assessment conducted in the three States, Central and Eastern
Equatoria and Jonglei, shows that the majority of the people depend on the natural
environment in general, and the forest resources in particular, to sustain their
livelihoods. The environmental impact of such dependence is a major factor that causes
persistent food insecurity in the country.
To solve the most critical problems in the livelihoods of the communities and create
favourable conditions to protect the natural environment for sustainable development
and food security, based on the qualitative findings of the assessment, the following
actions are recommended for intervention by PSS working with other partners in South
Sudan:
ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS
Production and dissemination of fuel-efficient stoves
The people in the three States depend on biomass or forest resources for alternative
income, particularly firewood sale, charcoal making and pole production.
21 | P a g e

Alte
One of the best ways of minimising the loss of forest cover is to use Fuel-Saving Stoves
(FSS), which can be produced and sold by many different groups. The benefits of this
initiative are two-fold:
i. It will help the communities to change their livelihood option from one that
depends on the forest resources to the production sector (which requires some
level of technical capacity and skills). It also helps them to generate income
through the production and sale of the Fuel-Efficient Stoves (FESs) to the
market.
ii. The production and dissemination of these stoves will significantly reduce the
amount of biomass used for energy and therefore minimise the depletion of
forest resources by the large population that depend on the same.
There is need for PSS and WFP to launch a programme to promote the use of FSSs in
selected sites in the three States where the assessment was conducted, and other
areas where the two organisations are already working together with other partners.4
FSS for household use
Brick production, a major livelihood activity in the three States, requires tonnes of
firewood (used to burn the bricks). Considering that biomass is one of the renewable
energy sources brick producers could be organised into groups and trained on the
proper use, regeneration and protection of natural environment and forest resources.
This will also help to ensure their active role in tree planting and proper use of the forest
resources.
The brick producers can also be trained to produce FSS for the market. This will help
them to diversify their products and increase their income while disseminating the use of
this technology to others in their communities. The brick producers can also be provided
with training of trainer (TOT) on the production of FSS and encouraged to train women
in the rural areas to make their own stoves. PSS could contract the brick producers who
have received the TOT to train women and children in other areas where the
organization has a developmental footprint, thus widely expanding the benefit to
communities and creating markets for the products.
PSS must seek the technical support of other neighbouring countries with considerable
experience in promoting the FSS such as Uganda, Ethiopia, and Kenya. Collaborating
with other actors in the sector like GIZ and Plan Ethiopia will also have added values to
draw lessons and skills transfer. These types of improved Fuel-Saving Stove
Technologies can be promoted in communities and at national level by using media as
well as social marketing strategies that have been tested successfully in neighbouring
countries.
4
Refer to annex 1 to see some improved technological option on efficient stoves that can be adapted to
the context of South Sudan.
22 | P a g e

Alte
Institutional rocket stoves for school feeding programmes
PSS runs school feeding programmes in the areas where it has established emergency
response programmes. The programmes, which involve cooking food for students,
require a considerable amount of firewood. A lot of the energy generated by burning
firewood is lost in the process. The introduction of improved stoves, especially the
institutional rocket stove, will resolve both problems.
The institutional rocket stoves can be produced by youth groups who will be organised,
trained and given the necessary materials by PSS. While promoting the improved
cooking stoves, the youth groups can have a sustainable means of income that will
allow them to scale up the production and dissemination of improved FSS for the urban
and peri-urban communities where the consumption of firewood and charcoal is very
high.
The following table shows different types of FSS that could be considered, and
indicates their potential value against popular three-stone cooking stoves commonly
used in most of South Sudan.
23 | P a g e

Alternative energy and livelihood
assessment in South Sudan
# Stove Test Type and
Performance Measure
Results % difference
against
baseline
stove5
Reference Remark
High
power,
cold
start
High
power,
hot start
Low
power
1 Tikikl Stove (double
skirt)
WBT
Time to boil
(min.)
23.9 16.8 - -3%, -23% Water Boiling Test
Results of Various
Types of Household
and Institutional
Wood Stoves for
Non-Injera Cooking
(Draft), Ethio
Resource Group
PLC. (for GTZSUN:
E), December
2009
Thermal
efficiency (%)
28 29 28 154%, 190%,
211%
Specific fuel
consumption
(g/liter)
77.8 69.5 106.1 -58%, -65%, -
71%
2 Tikikil stove (Delux
Tikikil)
WBT Time to boil
(min.)
41 28.1 - 67%, 28%
Thermal
efficiency (%)
34 30 30 209%, 200%,
233%
Specific fuel
consumption
(g/liter)
68.1 62 55.1 -63%, -69%, -
85%
3 Three stones/Open
fire
WBT Time to boil
(min.)
24.6 21.9 - Baseline
stove (for
comparison
against
stoves in #10
and 11)
note the
difference
in the results
against similar
stove
in #9.
Thermal
efficiency (%)
11 10 9
Specific fuel
consumption
(g/liter)
184.3 197.6 368.5
5
Percent difference against baseline stove is calculated by subtracting the value of a stove performance measure from the corresponding value of the baseline stove, dividing the difference by
the latter and finally multiplying the result by 100. Furthermore, positive percentage for thermal efficiency difference means that the stove is better than the baseline stove. On the other hand,
percentage differences of positives for specific fuel consumption, time to boil/bake and IAP concentration means that the stove is worse than the baseline stove.
24 | P a g e

Alternative energy and livelihood
assessment in South Sudan
4 Institutional rocket
stove
(10 liter)
WBT Time to boil
(min.)
34.7 21.7 - Water Boiling and
Field Test Results of
Institutional Rocket
Stove (Draft), Ethio
Resource Group-
ERG (for GTZ SUN E
Project), Hilawe
Lakew, September
2008
Thermal
efficiency (%)
26.9 31 26
Specific fuel
consumption
(g/liter)
86.6 73.9 114
stove
(20 liter)
WBT Time to boil
(min.)
42.1 27.5 -
Thermal
efficiency (%)
35 41 34
Specific fuel
consumption
(g/liter)
60 48.9 52.6
stove
(30 liter)
WBT Time to boil
(min.)
42.5 28.2 -
Thermal
efficiency (%)
30 40 28
Specific fuel
consumption
(g/liter)
59,2 52.5 56.7
stove
(100 liter)
WBT Time to boil
(min.)
54.1 41.2 -
Thermal
efficiency (%)
42 48 27
Specific fuel
consumption
(g/liter)
48.7 42.6 42.7
25 | P a g e

Alternative energy and livelihood assessment in South Sudan
Small household solar systems, Pico-solar kits distribution
Firewood is used for cooking, heating, and lighting in most households in the
rural areas. Families usually gather around open fires to discuss and socialise.
Most communities in both rural and urban areas of South Sudan have no
electricity. The distribution of solar home systems with 5 Watts or less power will
replace the use of firewood for lighting, which will improve the quality of life. Apart
from the light generated by solar lighting systems, the communities will use the
electric power to charge mobile phones and power radios. This will improve
communications and access to information.
As with the FSS production and dissemination strategy, the small household
solar systems or Pico-solar kits must be distributed through market principles
probably at cost or with a subsidised price in the initial stage. Such cost recovery
mechanisms will help sustain the intervention after the project is phased out by
boosting communities’ confidence in the ownership of their investment. On the
other hand the strategy will have considerable benefit in reducing communities’
dependence on aid. The ultimate goal of cost recovery mechanisms through
market principle is to create favourable conditions for the private sector to invest
widely bolstered by the market opportunity created through the increased
confidence of communities to invest on such types of alternative technologies to
enhance their livelihood.
The solar-powered products can be used for income generation activities as well.
Youth groups (both girls and boys) can be organised in urban and peri-urban
areas where PSS has active projects to use solar kits to charge mobile cell
phones and give maintenance services for the institutional PV systems after
receiving adequate training.
Solar systems for service delivery facilities
Access to basic services such as education, health and safe water supply in the
rural areas of South Sudan is impeded by socio-political factors and lack of
access to sustainable energy. As noted earlier, there is no hydroelectricity and
the entire country depends on thermal-generated electricity which in turn
depends on diesel generators and is only available in a few urban centres like
Juba, Yei and Kapoieta. This is expensive, unreliable and unavailable to the
large majority of the country’s population. Provision of reliable and affordable
electric services to the rural community may not be achievable in the foreseeable
future. PSS working with WFP and other partners should launch the use of solar-
based power systems for primary schools, rural health centers and water
schemes to enhance the quality of the services and increase their accessibility.
26 | P a g e

Micro-solar irrigation scheme
Micro-irrigation projects can be implemented to minimise the risks of rain failure
attached to subsistence crop cultivation. Such projects could be scaled-up to the
national level. Farmer associations and women groups could be organised to
manage the irrigation units; many households can benefit from continuous
production of cash crops. Since there are few perennial rivers, PSS should
launch a pilot micro-irrigation scheme with solar pumping in Torit County of
Eastern Equatoria State or Yei County, Central Equatoria, where there are
perennial rivers. The use of solar energy to pump water for the irrigable plots of
land will also enhance the communities’ awareness about environmental
management through the adoption and use of alternative technologies. The
irrigation scheme will help subsistence farmers to enhance their income through
the increased production and productivity. Ultimately, the pilot solar irrigation
schemes will be a learning centre for other development actors in South Sudan
to expand the effort to other states through learning and sharing.
Environmental protection
The economy is not yet strong enough to provide employment opportunities for
the majority of citizens in the working age, or opportunities for diversified
livelihood options. This leads the majority of the workforce to depend wholly on
the natural environment as their only means of livelihood. Mitigation strategies
should be used to ensure sustainable food security and protect the environment.
To kick start the process PSS should launch some potentially scalable activities
at micro level on natural environment protection and management. Good lessons
and practices can be drawn from the successful accomplishments of the
activities by other development actors in the country. Here are some suggested
activities:
Tree nursery establishment
Tree nurseries should be established to preserve indigenous species of valuable
trees. The nurseries should be managed by the communities with the capacity-
building support from PSS and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forest Resource
Management. The nurseries will also be used to provide the tree seedlings for
community tree planting, targeting institutions and households.
Area closure and valuable tree planting
Demonstration centres should be established to raise awareness on
environmental management. Along with the tree nursery centres and the micro-
solar irrigation site, it will become necessary to close off some land and limit free
27 | P a g e

access to the community. In the process fruits could be produced for sale at the
local market. Different actors would organise environmental management
trainings at the demonstration sites.
Gum Arabica / Africa and Lulu collection
The interview held in Bor town with the officers of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Forestry in Jonglei State revealed that there is abundant Gum Arabic (now
known as Gum Africa) and Lulu in the State. As a protection mechanism and
livelihood option, youth groups can be organised and trained to produce, collect,
and market this abundant natural resource. PSS provide training support on the
production of Gum Arabic and Lulu to organised youth groups. PSS should also
take responsibility to create linkages and market access for the youth groups to
ensure the sustainability of the intervention which potentially can be adopted and
scaled-up in the other States of South Sudan. According to experts interviewed
at the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, there is a good practice in the Upper
Nile State of Renk County in the production and commercialisation of Gum Africa
by community groups which can be adapted in Jonglei State and elsewhere.
Policy advocacy and raising awareness
i) Policy analysis and influencing
South Sudan is undergoing reconstruction in all spheres of social strata, and the
process of building and strengthening institutions is underway in the country. This
provides an opportunity for policy makers to establish policy advocacy, and raise
awareness regarding environmental management issues. Dialogue with relevant
government bodies on these policies will enhance production and productivity in
the country, and help to realise the national goal of achieving sustainable food
security.
ii) Raising awareness about sustainable community-based environmental
management
Raising awareness about environmental issues at community level, and the
government structures at all levels, is critical to achieving concrete results in the
proper management and use of natural resources. Continuous and planned
community dialogues on natural environment management should be
encouraged along with the other development projects to be launched by Plan
and her partners. All interventions of Plan also need to consider environmental
issues as cross-cutting issues and mainstream these in all programmes.
The awareness-raising effort on natural environment management for the
government bodies will strengthen policy enforcements at all levels. Regular
28 | P a g e

forums to discuss issues of environmental concerns and prevention of natural
disasters should be organised at state and county levels, and in schools to bring
all development actors together to discuss issues of environmental concerns and
prevention of natural disasters from occurring due to the rapid degradation of the
natural resources through human activities.
29 | P a g e

REFERENCES
The African Development Bank. The Political Economy of South Sudan: A Scoping
Analytical Study. 2011.
Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Directorate of Fisheries and Aquaculture
Development (2012) - Fisheries Policy for South Sudan 2012-2017.
Southern Sudan Centre for Census -Statistics and Evaluation (2010).
Plan International South Sudan - Country Strategic Plan (CSP) 2011-2016.
The National Bureau of Statistics - Statistical Year Book for South Sudan (2011)
World Food Programme (2012) - Safe Access to Firewood and Alternative Energy.
GOVERNMENT OFFICES, NGOS
Juba County Administration
Torit County Administration
Bore County Administration
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Central Equatoria State
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Eastern Equatoria State
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Jonglei State
Ministry of Education in Jonglei State
United Nations High Commission for Refugees
World Food Programme
German Agency for International Cooperation
COMMUNITY DIALOGUE
Rejaf villagers (women, men), Juba County, Central Equatoria State
Ofong villagers (men), Torit County, Eastern Equatoria State
30 | P a g e

Alternative Energy and Livelihood Potential - Draft 2 - JulyAug 2013

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Viewers also liked

Viewers also liked (8)

Similar to Alternative Energy and Livelihood Potential - Draft 2 - JulyAug 2013

Similar to Alternative Energy and Livelihood Potential - Draft 2 - JulyAug 2013 (20)

Alternative Energy and Livelihood Potential - Draft 2 - JulyAug 2013