Sophia Bosoni, Tombra Esite & Junhui LiuFebruary 6, 2020 Innov.docx

Sophia Bosoni, Tombra Esite & Junhui Liu
February 6, 2020
Innovation and Organization Transformation
The Boston Globe Organizational Transformations and
Innovations
Introduction
The Boston Globe is a company that has been running since
1872. They are experiencing great changes due to changes in the
media industry. The owner of The Boston Globe is The Boston
Globe Media Partners, LLC. Now, the publisher and the owner
of The Boston Globe is John Henry (The Boston Globe). Due to
technological innovations, the way and how we inform
ourselves is different than the past generations (ex: virtually).
The Boston Globe’s structure, human resources, political and
symbolic frames activities are changing so quickly due to the
new organization’s transformations and innovations. The
structure of the media organizations has changed internally and
externally. In relation to human resources we are going to focus
on the internal and external changes as a result of the structural
change. Politically and symbolically The Boston Globehas
transformed, as well. We are going to explore how digital
innovation has completely transformed The Boston Globe. This
issue is important as The Boston Globe is experiencing many
transformations and revenue challenges and they have to
survive. Moreover, as a group, we will focus on the
organizational transformations in relation to the four frames
(structural, human resources, political & symbolic).
Main Issue

· Requires organization response involving key decision makers
Underlying Causes
Activity in the Four Frames
Structural Frame
The Boston Globe had to restructure because of the
technological changes in this century. The Boston Globe had to
adapt; therefore they created the BostonGlobe.com in 1995. The
Boston Globe mains goal is to survive; then it is to deliver
news. The Boston Globe went from an all paper organization to
an electronic and paper organization (BostonGlobe.com). Due to
all the new technological innovation and other online website
there has been a need to get an IT department. This IT
department takes care of the online website. Moreover, there
needs to be a cyber security team because of all the hacking.
The Boston Globe needs to protect themselves from the hackers.
Additionally, jobs at The Boston Globe have changed greatly.
They had to fire Truck drivers to deliver the newspapers and
paper boys and hire more tech people.
Human Resources Frame
Political Frame

The owner of The Boston Globe, John Henry, is also the “Red
Sox” owner. “In February 2013, the Red Sox owner John Henry
assumed ownership, marking a new chapter (The Boston
Globe).” This involves means that there is a lot of politics
involved as John Henry has biases.
Due to the new structure at The Boston Globe it changes a lot of
activity that relates to the political frame. Some of the changes
are that there is no more need for different jobs that were very
important and essential a couple decades ago, a generation ago.
These jobs are the following: truck drivers to deliver the
newspapers, paper boys…
Moreover, there is a lot of financial risks. The first goal of The
Boston Globe is to survive. Due to all the new innovation and
structural changes they have to keep surviving. To make profit
The Boston Globe accepts advertisements. Advertising is a
house way they can make money. In the last generation they
made money on printing the new paper; but today due to the
online website (BostonGlobe.com), the company need to adapt
to the structural changes. Some financial risks in the future can
can include problems with virtual hacking.
Symbolic Frame
The Boston Globe now has shifted to an all paper media
organization a couple decades ago to now having a lot of
viewers virtually.
Findings
Visual 1

The Boston Globe website provide us information about the
audience. In visual 1, “Audience: The Boston Globe (Daily)”, it
is mentioned that the “readership” is of 515,105 people (The
Boston Globe). Also, they give us information on the gender of
the reader: men - 48%, and women - 52% (The Boston Globe).
The age demographics are as follows: “18-34 : 20.3%”, “35-49 :
15.6%”, “50-69 : 37.4%”, “70+ : 26.6%” (The Boston Globe).
Additionally, the visual states that “40% of daily Globe readers
have a net worth over $1 Million (The Boston Globe).”
Visual 2
In the second visual, the audience online is illustrated. The
visual demonstrates that monthly they get 37MM pageviews
(The Boston Globe). Additionally there have 4.9 MM “unique
visitors” (The Boston Globe). The age demographics are the
following: “18-34 : 36.7 %”, “35-49 : 26.2%”, “50-69 : 26.5%”,
“70+: 10.6%” (The Boston Globe). Additionally, visual 2 states
what devices their users are more active on. The results are as
follows: “Desktop : 49%”, “Tablet : 14%”, Smartphone : 37%”
(The Boston Globe). Moreover, it is mentioned that “34% of the
Boston.com readers have a net worth over $1 Million (The
Boston Globe).”
Visual 1 & Visual 2 Analysis
There are “515,105” readers of the Boston Globe daily (The
Boston Globe, Visual 1). There are “769,065 (The Boston
Globe, Visual 3)” readers of the Sunday tangible newspaper of
The Boston Globe. There are “37 MM monthly pageviwers (The
Boston Globe, Visual 2)” of the BostonGlobe.com. Also “4.9
MM unique visitors (The Boston Globe, Visual 2)” of the
BostonGlobe.com. Overall, there are more BostonGlobe.com
readers than the tangible Boston Gblobe Newspaper readers.
As seen in visual 1 and 2, there are a lot more virtual readers.
The BostonGlobe.com website is greatly used by the readers;
much more than the tangible newspaper. There are more
“women (52%) than men (48%)” that read the tangible Boston

Globe newspaper (The Boston Globe). Also more “women
(57%)” than “men (43%)” read the BostonGlobe.com (The
Boston Globe).
The readers of the BostonGlobe.com use their “desktop (49%)”
more to go on the site. Then they use their “smartphone (37%)”;
lastly, there “tablets (14%)” (The Boston Globe). The age
demographic that uses the BostonGlobe.com is as we predicted
people that are “18-34 years old (36.7%)” (The Boston Globe).
And also as we predicted the least group demographics are
people “70+ (10.6%)” (The Boston Globe) .
The biggest group demographic that reads the tangible
newspaper The Boston Globe are “50-69 years old (37.4%) (The
Boston Globe)”. The demographic group that reads the least
tangible newspapers are “35-49 years old (15.6%) (The Boston
Globe)”. Surprisingly, we thought it would be the “18-34 years
old”.
Conclusion

References
Adams, D. (2015, December). Boston Globe Moving
Headquarters To Downtown Boston.
Retrieved from
https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2015/12/10/boston-
globe-will-move-headquarters-downtown-office-
building/rNleXoeiNm9ZNZcaAJnlhM/story.html
The Boston Globe. Advertising Opportunities. The Boston
Globe. Retrieved from
https://www.bostonglobemedia.com/bostonglobe
The Boston Globe. (Updated 1 year ago). Company
History.Retrieved from
https://customerservice.globe.com/hc/en-
us/articles/360020667931-Where-can-I-find-our-the-history-of-
The-Boston-Globe-
Appendix
Visual 1

Visual 2
Visual 3
Human Systems Management 29 (2010) 205–215
DOI 10.3233/HSM-2010-0716
IOS Press
205
The strategic implications of non-technical
stakeholder acceptance in high technology
system design and implementation
Suzanna Long
Department of Engineering Management and Systems
Engineering, Missouri University of Science
and Technology, 600 W 14th Street, 215 EMGT Building, Rolla,
MO, USA

Tel.: +1 573 341 7621; E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. The introduction of change is frequently met with
resistance, especially if that change involves a re-engineering of
basic work processes and the introduction of high technologies.
This study examines the introduction of a complex software
system to standard work processes within an organization
staffed by a largely non-technical, professional workforce. A
case study
approach will be used to highlight high technology-driven
change management and decision-making at the planning and
early
implementation stages.
Keywords: High technology, technology-driven change
management, sociotechnical system design, strategic planning
Suzanna Long is an Assistant Professor
with the Department of Engineering
Management and Systems Engineering,
Missouri University of Science and
Technology. Prior to joining Missouri
S&T she was an Assistant Professor
in the Departments of Management
and Marketing, Missouri Southern State
University and Coordinator of the
transportation-logistics program. She
holds a PhD and an M.S. in engineer-
ing management, B.S. in physics and a
B.A. in history from the University of
Missouri-Rolla (UMR) and an M.A. in
history from the University of Missouri-St. Louis. Her research
interests include strategic supply chain management,
transportation
management systems, and sustainable change initiatives.

1. Introduction
The introduction of change is frequently met
with resistance, especially if that change involves a
re-engineering of basic work processes and the intro-
duction of high technologies. High technology is
defined as new technology requiring transformational
levels of learning and adaptation of organizational
culture [11, 12]. This study examines the introduc-
tion of a complex software system to standard work
processes within an organization staffed by a largely
non-technical, professional workforce. Existing litera-
ture explores the nature of change management from
the perspective of issues of organizational leadership
and communication. This study examines the bene-
fits of using an integrated approach in the face of
transformational change. It will consider the change
event as a system and explore the impact of non-
technical stakeholder acceptance on high technology
initiatives.
High technology-driven change initiatives are often
difficult to implement and have an approximately 75%
failure rate [2, 4, 10]. Lack of success is often linked
to failures in understanding the change environment
and level of learning required for the high technology,
accounting for human factors in the implementation or
acceptance of the new technology, and failure to adjust
the organizational structure or culture to truly manage
the change process [12].
This paper explores the impact of non-technical
stakeholder acceptance on high technology sociotech-
nical system design and implementation. A case study
approach is used. The case will illustrate technology-

0167-2533/10/$27.50 © 2010 – IOS Press and the authors. All
rights reserved
206 S. Long / The strategic implications of non-technical
stakeholder acceptance in high technology system design and
implementation
driven change management and decision-making at
the planning and early implementation stages for a
high technology initiative at a historically non-technical
national organization. Narrative interviews with key
stakeholders are used to capture opinions and attitudes
associated with emergent high technology and changes
in work patterns. Lessons learned offer insight that may
prove useful to managers and organizations faced with
managing high technology-driven change in organiza-
tions with significant percentages of stakeholders with
non-technical backgrounds.
2. Literature review
Change management requires careful planning and
communication for effective implementation. On some
levels an acceptance of risk may provide an advan-
tage to the organization. The organization may actually
increase its flexibility if it is willing to incorporate
“lessons learned” as part of the change management
process. Most stakeholders do not have high levels
of technical expertise. Sociotechnical systems design-
ers frequently ignore the social learning elements of
change and fail to consider the level of stakeholder
learning associated with complete comfort with the
technology.

The level of learning required for successful imple-
mentation of technology can serve as a change
management guide. This important theme is the
focus of several articles by Zeleny [11, 12]. High
technology-driven change management and transfor-
mational change calls for corresponding changes in
organizational learning and culture. Effective use of
technology must be considered as part of a series
of social, interactive relationships termed a technol-
ogy support net (TSN). The TSN enables the use
of the technology correctly through the creation of
interwoven physical, informational, and socioeconomic
relationships. High technology disruptions in the TSN
lead to change resistance. Individual perceptions of
what the technology means may be determined by
how the systemic rearrangement impacts their daily
schedules or power base. Business processes cannot
remain fragmented or isolated from the change pro-
cess. The TSN must be transformed to embrace new
patterns of work, organizational structures, and cross-
functionality for technology initiatives to fully succeed
[11, 12].
McCarter et al. promotes the need for training
and organizational education for any genuine change
in organizational culture. Integration of supply chain
systems is impossible without establishing appropri-
ate cultural pathways to “manage people”. Integration
is improved by accommodating existing culture and
including these structures as part of the change process.
New cross-functional skill sets are essential for creating
managers capable of leading this type of change [9].
Kontoghiorghes and Hansen examine organizational

dynamics that facilitate change. Sociotechnical sys-
tems that are open and interactive are considered the
most effective. Both the social and technical subsys-
tems are essential to managing the change process.
Modeling change behaviors based only on the technical
aspects results in re-engineering without the produc-
tion of competitive advantage. Redesign of work should
be included. “Change ready” cultures are built on the
visions of the organization’s leadership and the respon-
siveness of the employees and other stakeholders. The
nature of the change involved can offer insight as well.
Developmental change is a “fine tuning” of existing
structures and states. Transitional change involves the
controlled introduction of new processes and technol-
ogy. Transformational change is the emergence of an
unknown from an old state; this frequently requires
a “leap of faith” and occurs when dramatic change
is needed within the organization. An awareness of
the type of change envisioned offers the leadership
team guidance in decision-making and implementation
strategies [6].
Holti discusses change involving information and
communication technology. Known as ICTs, these new
technologies are often perceived as the “cure-all” for
the modern industrial organization. Implementation of
technological-driven change is far from a direct path
and that the possibility of organizational loss is very
real with improper implementation. “Team working” is
discussed as a means of building cooperative structures
for change management. Organizational restructuring
frequently revolves around one of three distinct ratio-
nales: business, which focuses on products produced
and mechanisms for reducing cost while improving
quality; manufacturing systems or technology, which
suggests strategies for achieving flexibility with tech-

nical resources, and motivational, which addresses
harnessing employee competencies and motivation.
The motivational rationale presents the greatest oppor-
tunities for managing change as the human element is
the most difficult to plan over the course of the business
cycle. Human behavior is shaped by myriad influences,
some conscious and some unconscious. These influ-
ences often become clear only after a change initiative
S. Long / The strategic implications of non-technical
implementation 207
has been tried and failed. Change should be managed
at the strategic level in order to maximize success.
Interim reviews and the revisiting of priorities should
be scheduled as part of the strategic choices made by
organizations [5].
The dynamic changes resulting from the implemen-
tation of new technology can impact organizational
culture. Resistance to change may result from sev-
eral factors. Long-standing organizational traditions
and work processes have the benefit of familiarity.
Even if they are no longer effective, the work pro-
cesses are familiar and there is a level of resistance
due to the move outside of organizational norms and
comfort zones. Resistance may also result from fear
of disruption caused by the introduction of the new
technology and its impact on organizational structure
and staffing patterns as stated by Allen. Allen asserts
that organizational communication is a key to man-
aging change. Leadership teams should determine the
nature and timing of this communication and the level

of employee participative decision making. Leader-
ship teams should consider implementing an integrated
communications strategy. This strategy should accom-
plish five objectives: the creation of awareness, the
maintenance of that awareness throughout the process,
a tangible demonstration of leadership commitment,
solicitation of employee support, and the education of
stakeholders [1].
Establishing trust is an essential characteristic for
leading successful change initiatives according to Lines
et al. The freedom to speak out honestly during change
initiatives is determined by existing trust relationships
between managers and non-managers. In part this is
dependent on the managers’ willingness to empower
employees. Risk-taking is evidenced by the level of
freedom given to employees to make decisions and
the amount of “psychological safety” given to alle-
viate employee concerns of failure or personal harm
to their jobs. Suspicious watchfulness is not useful in
establishing this level of trust and does not encour-
age good judgment and appropriate action. Further,
it is difficult to establish the necessary depth of trust
needed for serious levels of change in a stable environ-
ment. Patterns of routine do not facilitate the need for
trust in the same way. In cases where trust levels are
low, change management processes should first under-
take trust-building exercises prior to introducing any
other types of change. This increases the argument that
actively involving stakeholders in meaningful ways is
essential in creating scenarios where positive change is
possible [7].
3. Case study methodology: Narrative
interviews

This case study investigates contemporary events
within real-life contexts. The National Archives and
Records Administration (NARA) provide compre-
hensive information management services to federal
agencies and its constituent contractors. This impres-
sive task includes the identification and preservation
of records of many different origins and media types,
including the myriad forms of electronic information
[8]. NARA is headquartered in the Washington, D.C.
area and has branches throughout the country.
The Electronic Records Archives (ERA) initiative is
intended to expand NARA’s abilities to preserve and
grant access to new forms of electronic information.
This project builds on NARA’s thirty years of experi-
ence in dealing with simple electronic records. NARA’s
attempt to facilitate transformational change as it adopts
a new project-oriented organizational structure illus-
trates that contexts are not always easily distinguishable
from phenomena. NARA has attempted to update its
managerial focus by bringing in talent from outside of
the agency and overlaying project structures onto exist-
ing functional hierarchies. However, the context of a
change in leadership and reporting structures is not nec-
essarily representative of any level of transformational
change. Evaluating the success of change initiatives
within the Electronic Records Archives (ERA) project
is best explored from the richness of method possible
through the case study.
For this case study, a series of twenty four in-depth
narrative interviews were conducted with constituent
stakeholders to determine the effectiveness in project
planning at the social interfaces of the sociotechnical
system. Interviews were conducted during the plan-
ning phase of the project just after the awarding of the

design contract. This allowed an assessment of thresh-
old acceptance and understanding of the project goals
by the major stakeholders. A qualitative approach was
used for the following reasons:
1. ERA is an emergent process using emergent high
technologies. The perceptions of the stakeholders
are most easily captured in an interactive format.
This format allows the history of the project to be
included in the project analysis.
2. Narrative interviews allow the greatest possible
flexibility of questioning and create a venue for
allowing the interview to be refined as information
is presented by stakeholders.
implementation
3. Interviewer background in information logistics
and electronic records management created a nat-
ural rapport with the stakeholders and provided a
mechanism for reducing bias.
As attitudes frequently differ between headquar-
ters and field operations, NARA respondents included
staff from both elements. Internal stakeholders included
members of the ERA leadership team, top and mid-level
managers from within NARA, and non-managers from
affected program units. External stakeholders included
users from federal, state, and research communities.
A summary table of respondent characteristics is pre-
sented in Table 1.

3.1. Narrative interview protocol
Stakeholders were identified as essential constituen-
cies of the ERA virtual management system. These
constituencies included members of the leadership
team, internal staff, and external stakeholders, such
as agency records managers, historians, and other end
users. Such groups provide the basis for generating the
inputs and outputs of the virtual supply chain associ-
ated with ERA. Sample interview questions include the
following:
General, Demographic Information
• Describe your current position? How long have
you worked in this area?
• How long have you worked at NARA?
• What is your background?
Organizational Culture
• Describe NARA’s current organizational structure.
• How often is the organization chart revised?
• How open is NARA staff to change? Are the
changes effective? Why or why not?
Sociotechnical Systems Design
• What is ERA? Why is it unique?
• What is your role with the project?
Table 1

Summary of respondent characteristics
NARA/ HQ/ YRS of Manager/ Stakeholder set Back-ground
Responsibility
Non-NARA Field service Non-Manager
R1 NARA HQ 14 Manager ERA Leadership Tech Tech
R2 Non-NARA HQ 6 Non-Manager External Leadership Non-
Tech Non-Tech
R3 NARA HQ 15 Non-Manager ERA Team Non-Tech Tech
R4 NARA HQ 30 Manager ERA Leadership Non-Tech Non-
Tech
R5 NARA HQ 20 Manager External NARA Tech Tech
R6 NARA HQ 25 Manager NARA Leadership Tech Tech
R7 NARA HQ 19 Manager External NARA Non-Tech Tech
R8 NARA HQ 19 Manager External NARA Non-Tech Tech
R9 NARA HQ 20 Manager NARA Leadership Non-Tech Non-
Tech
R10 NARA HQ 16 Non-Manager External NARA Non-Tech
Non-Tech
R11 NARA HQ 29 Manager ERA Leadership Non-Tech Non-
Tech
R12 NARA HQ 20 Non-Manager ERA Team Non-Tech Non-
Tech

Non-Tech
R14 NARA Field 38 Manager External NARA Non-Tech Non-
Tech
Tech
R16 NARA Field 30 Manager External NARA Tech Non-Tech
R17 Non-NARA Field 20 Manager External Leadership Tech
Tech
R18 Non-NARA Field 20 Manager External Non-NARA Non-
Tech Non-Tech
R19 NARA HQ 20 Manager ERA Leadership Non-Tech Both
Tech
Tech
R22 Non-NARA Field 16 Manager External Non-NARA Non-
Tech Both
Both
Both

implementation 209
• Are you satisfied with ERA’s state of development?
• What impact will ERA have on your daily work-
load?
• What new technologies will be introduced?
• Is there value in developing an integrated system
for this project?
• Would the project be better served if components
were addressed one at a time?
• Did the creation of a systems engineering group
assist in the development of ERA?
High Technology Risk Assessment
• What risks are associated with the project?
• How were stakeholders identified?
• What training will/should be provided to stake-
holders?
• How were ideas communicated?
• What input did stakeholders have?
• What is the feedback process?
• How are changes implemented due to feedback?
Interviews with stakeholders were conducted face
to face whenever possible. When schedules and dis-
tance did not permit, telecommunications strategies
were used employing email and telephone as the

basic modes of communication. Interviews were sched-
uled with respondents in advance and a summary of
research objectives and a copy of the informed consent
form provided during this initial contact. Stakehold-
ers were given the opportunity to ask questions about
the research, its methodology, and any other aspect
of the project prior to the actual interview. Copies
of the signed consent form were provided to respon-
dents at the completion of the interview and permission
for follow-up conversations to clarify and confirm
responses obtained. Respondents were selected to rep-
resent major stakeholder groups from the gamut of ERA
constituencies.
Respondent participation levels were maximized by
confining interviews to 60 minute intervals, with per-
mission for follow-up requested. Respondents were
offered the option of completing the interview with the
door open or closed and were notified in advance that
the interviews would be recorded using a digital voice
recorder. In addition, hand-written notes were taken
during the interviews to emphasize critical points and
provide direction during the coding process. Transcripts
were created from the interviews and accuracy verified
by an independent reviewer trained in transcription.
4. Analysis methodology and limitations
This study used the standard issue-based, general-
ized approach for analysis of the narrative interviews.
Rather than presenting accounts of individuals, com-
mon themes and attitudes were described to maximize
the learning potential from all respondents. Logical
connections were identified between respondents as
they relate to particular areas surrounding the ERA
project. A generalized reporting scheme was used to

add layers of confidentiality necessary to preserve the
anonymity of interviewees.
Responses were coded using broad categories of
issues that examine levels of expertise, collabora-
tion and leadership, communications patterns, and
organizational culture. In addition, coding categories
covering project management, technology risk assess-
ment, and risk mitigation seemed vital for exploring
issues stemming from responses to questions concern-
ing organizational culture.
This study does not address change management in
all environments and may not be generalizable outside
of high technology-driven change management.
Findings may accurately reflect the partnering and
change processes within this particular organization
and project, but may not be indicative of processes in
other situations.
Relationships among stakeholders may be indica-
tive of issues resulting from organizational patterns
other than those associated with change management.
Because many of these groups and individuals have
long-established histories, findings may be linked to
personalities rather than issues. Examples of shared
goals may not illustrate shared values for implemen-
tation strategies or may be linked to questions of gain
and authority levels rather than the benefits of the new
technology.
The relatively small sample size further decreases the
ability to draw broad conclusions. Despite the sweeping
implications for the project, direct stakeholder sets are
limited at this point. Although validity and reliability
constructs have been addressed in the study, statistical

inferences that can be drawn from the results are lim-
ited. The value of the study rests more with identifying
planning horizons and threshold acceptance measures
than with the size of the sample.
This study includes methodological weaknesses
inherent in qualitative studies. The study design is
impacted by researcher biases regardless of attempts
to minimize that bias. One such bias results from a pos-
sible perception by the interviewees of the researcher’s
implementation
“insider” status. The researcher has almost fifteen years
of experience in electronic records management includ-
ing almost four years with NARA. Examples of positive
benefits include the level of contacts within NARA
and other members of the federal information commu-
nity. These contacts provided access to the principle
stakeholders of the Electronic Records Archives (ERA)
and were used to open additional doors. One strong
advantage was the existence of levels of trust with the
leadership team of ERA, as well as key external stake-
holders. The mutual respect facilitated open dialog.
However, there is no question that this impact may have
had negative components as well.
In the same way that those who are resistant to change
may choose to ignore it in the hopes that it will go
away, some interviewees may have found it easiest to
“tell her what she wants to hear” so that the interview
would end or may have mistrusted the motivations for

the study depending on their relationship with the orga-
nization. Perception of an “insider” researcher as a mole
to uncover hidden pockets of resistance was a danger
to the study. This problem was reduced because the
goals of the researcher were strictly based in the com-
pletion of research and did not include any authority
to make changes to the project or its funding levels.
This was fully explained to all interview subjects in
advance of the conversations. In addition, those who
may have hoped to use past connections to paint a
rosy picture of the project, may have tried to steer
the interviews toward or away from certain individu-
als. Cross-checking interviews lists with a variety of
independent sources minimized this possibility.
Respondents comments used in the study were repre-
sentative of the attitudes and opinions of the perceptions
of the interviewees. This was independently verified
through the use of multiple coders to minimize the
impact of researcher judgments and opinions on the
study.
Moreover, assumptions about what “insider status”
means in terms of terminology and current knowledge
base may negatively impact accurate communications
flow and interpretation. Rather than taking comments
at face value, interpretation and assumptions may be
added that place a biased or incorrect assessment
of respondent remarks. Additional study on current
archival theory and practice, along with asking respon-
dents to define terms lessened this possibility.
4.1. Stakeholder perspectives
The ERA project is ambitious and is considered by
some external stakeholders to be the first practical appli-

cation of new technology to existing archival theory
and practice. All stakeholders agree that the change is
necessary and all agree that this change can only be
accomplished with considerable planning and commu-
nication.
This is consistent with the change methodology sug-
gested by the literature. Organizational planning should
include attempts to accurately assess the attitudes and
concerns of all stakeholder groups. NARA and the ERA
team have attempted to accomplish this important task
through a series of “town-hall” meetings and forums
with internal and external stakeholders. Their success
has been limited. Many stakeholders complain of a level
of forced participation and state emphatically that their
voices are either not heard or are silenced with the label
of “trouble-maker” if they raise objections.
This echoes a pitfall presented by Clegg and Walsh
[2]. The ERA team has excellent intentions but are
“pushing” change rather than “pulling” stakeholders
into the process. Stakeholders are not truly assuming
ownership of the change process. The partiality sug-
gested in the literature is clearly evident as stakeholders
hope for the best but expect the worst.
Woodward and Hendry [10] stress that this begins
with top levels of management. Stakeholder comments
reveal a perceived negative bias from the agency lead-
ership team and suggest that these top managers view
themselves as “outside” the project rather than a critical,
integrated component of the change process.
Support at the highest managerial levels is essential
for project success. Even perceptions of negativity or

ambivalence on the part of top managers can shift the
balance in terms of goal acceptance by non-managerial
stakeholders. This perception clearly exists at NARA.
Stakeholders commonly suggest that top management
is publicly supportive, but ambivalent or even com-
pletely antipathetic to the ERA project behind closed
doors. Representative respondent comments are pre-
sented in Table 2.
This reflects an ingrained rigidity based on long-term
association with the agency. Organizational judgment is
frequently reactive rather than proactive in cases where
past criticisms make “recovery from past mistakes” the
order of the day. NARA has been frequently criticized
for its policy concerning electronic records and there
is a real feeling of a “last chance” effort on the part
of the agency with respect to the ERA project and
the attempt to deal with electronic records. Respon-
dent comments suggest that escalating commitment and
high funding levels have added a level of desperation
and encouraged the blame-centered culture discussed
in the literature. This leads to the problems discussed
implementation 211
Table 2
Lack of top management support
Respondent Response
R2 A feeling that efforts are wasted and repeated over and over

reduces credibility Tug of war between different administrative
units
NARA believes they are collaborative but instead of
collaboration, more frequently achieve consensus w/o
foundational support
Long-standing grudges among managers: I won’t work with you
because I don’t like you
R3 Lack of shared vision between ERA team and Top Mgmt in
terms of goals for facilities and systems development
Top management does everything they can to undermine the
ERA team in private forums, not publicly however
R4 Internal NARA environment is not conducive to
collaboration
Turf wars between Project Management Office (PMO) and
NARA leadership has added to the challenge of ERA
R8 Disagreement over priorities and funding levels inside
NARA
R10 Ambiguity of roles and commitment across collaborative
groups
R11 Lack of consistency with top management; based in lack of
common needs and objectives across program lines
R12 Fighting opinions of top management over whether project
is important; still have to do it!
Top management in particular is entrenched and unhelpful;
playing own little turf games

R15 NARA and ERA team did not speak with one voice
Leadership did not send consistent message
above of poor decision channels and the labeling of
dissenters as troublemakers.
Most stakeholders are cautiously optimistic but do
not feel that they have a full understanding of the pro-
cess or how the project will evolve. There is some
concern that top management has conveyed enthusi-
asm, but not necessarily tangible support. Moreover,
the positioning of ERA is telling in terms of NARA’s
understanding of dedicated project teams. The project
management literature suggests that projects of strate-
gic importance should be placed outside of regular
functional units. Their authority and autonomy levels
should increase with relative importance. NARA has
identified ERA as strategically important yet it is posi-
tioned within a functional unit. Authority and autonomy
levels exist in a confusing blend of traditional functional
structures overlaid with aspects of dedicated project
teams. Samples of representative respondent comments
are presented in Table 3.
In essence, NARA has tried to maintain its past
reporting structures and relationships at the expense of
needed new risk-taking management structures it has
tried to adopt. Few non-technical stakeholders outside
of the leadership team have any awareness of systems
engineering or project management principles. Even
when awareness is present, the implementation has
fallen short of proper project management procedures.
Stakeholders clearly understand the importance of

the project and ERA project leaders possess the infor-
mation required for determining project direction.
Other members of the leadership team are best consid-
ered as internal member stakeholders when considering
the technical requirements of the project.
The project has a lengthy planning horizon due to
the technical requirements of the project and the federal
contracting process. This allows adequate time for pre-
planning, group identification, and work processes.
Differences in technical knowledge and expertise
are clearly present in the risk identification process.
The nature of the technology is a cause for great con-
cern among those with engineering backgrounds, but
is rarely addressed by those with non-technical back-
grounds. Most express their fear that the new system
will fail and that NARA will not be given a second
chance, but don’t understand how to prevent this or what
technologies will be introduced.
Stakeholders seem to share project goals for ERA
but not necessarily the full vision presented by the
ERA leadership team. The leadership team consists of
ERA project members and key management personnel
within the agency. The belief that enough information
is not being presented to stakeholders may be rooted
in a lack of understanding of the project interfaces
by external managers with limited technical expertise.
However, it may also reflect a lack of expertise on the
part of the subordinate stakeholders.
Stakeholders with technical experience suggest that
a new, hybrid archivist is needed. The lack of relevant
experience and common vocabulary has increasingly
become a source of frustration. When asked for process

maps and system requirements, long lists of individual
requirements are returned rather than clear definitions
of process and information flows. These stakehold-
ers recommend the creation of a new specialty within
archives education with training in computer science
or computer engineering. Many archivists also hold
implementation
Table 3
Comments showing TSN disconnect for ERA
Respondent Response
R1 Relatively little influx of fresh experience in new
managerial styles
R2 Highest levels of non-appointee leadership need to be more
involved and committed to project
Tug of war between different administrative units
NARA believes they are collaborative but instead of
collaboration, more frequently achieve consensus w/o
foundational support
No collaboration between levels of interface with ERA team and
NARA as a whole
R3 Lack of shared vision between ERA team and Top Mgmt in
terms of goals for facilities and systems development

PMO and ERA team do not speak with one voice; ERA staff
spread out all over the building
NARA doesn’t take advantage of knowledge across functional
units
ERA program management will go away; absorbed into NARA
as a whole
Top management does everything they can to undermine the
ERA team in private forums, not publicly however
R4 Highly entrenched, stove-piped bureaucracy with little
change in attitudes
Organization is not fully behind ERA despite its vitality and
necessity
Internal NARA environment is not conducive to collaboration
Turf wars between PMO and NARA leadership has added to the
challenge of ERA
Mismatch in cultures between NARA (dated business processes)
and Contractor (modern business processes)
No cross-organizational planning; friction between corporate
and project change officers
R5 ERA PMO does not contain all of the admin units and
supports necessary
R9 ERA PMO doesn’t understand that their role is much greater
than building the tool; tend to isolate themselves

CM roles not properly defined at either PMO or NARA level
R10 Oversight groups formed w/in NARA to try to integrate
ERA PMO with agency goals and objectives
Change Management needs to be at agency level, not within
PMO
R12 Why is PMO physically split? It wasn’t originally but now,
some groups seem delegated to the cheap seats
ERA’s physical space illustrates top managements lack of
commitment; PMO director should be more assertive in gaining
visibility
Fighting opinions of top management over whether project is
important; still have to do it!
Top management in particular is entrenched and unhelpful;
playing own little turf games
R11 Lack of consistency with top management; based in lack of
common needs and objectives across program lines
R12 Don’t speak with one voice
R15 NARA and ERA team did not speak with one voice
an MLS (master of library science) and have some
experience with managing information contained in
databases. However, knowledge of how to manipulate
databases is not adequate training for establishing an
equal dialog with technologists. It is hard to ask the
right questions or understand the answers if you don’t
have common experiences, terminology, and reference

bases. These opinions are echoed by those with non-
technical backgrounds as well.
Stakeholders agree that ERA is a welcome change in
the area of electronic records management and believe
that NARA has taken a proactive stance to correct
any real or perceived deficiencies in their electronic
records policies. Approval notwithstanding, all stake-
holder groups express concerns about potential risk and
NARA’s ability to manage these risks. As one ERA team
member stated, there are “risks all over the place”.
The man-machine interface is of prime concern
among these risks. The lack of a common vocabu-
lary between records managers and technical specialists
leads many to speculate that the system design will be
flawed as a result. Moreover, the importance given to
ERA by NARA may not reflect the opinion of agency
stakeholders or agency officials outside of records man-
agement. Put simply, those making the decisions for
ERA may not have the ability to enforce decisions or
have access to the appropriate stakeholders to secure
information needed for high quality decisions in the cor-
rect use of the proposed high technology. Mismatches
in the TSN are presented in Table 4.
In addition to concerns over the man-machine inter-
face of the ERA system, stakeholder risk identification
includes the belief that archivists and information pro-
fessionals use the same vocabulary in different ways.
implementation 213

Table 4
Sample comments on expertise deficiencies for the TSN
Respondent Response
R1 Lack of new types of skill sets needed for dealing with
technology
R3 Need new skill sets to accomplish tasks of the future
R5 Problems of ER are rooted in the hard sciences: physics,
chemistry, computer science; current staff lack skill sets to
understand
and cope with mandate of preserving and granting access
Relies on research created externally w/o an understanding of
how it works
ER staff base judgments on media stability, etc on what they’ve
heard w/o having any genuine understanding of fact
R6 Naïve culture in terms of technology users from IT
application; limited experience with major IT systems
R8 No inside expertise in how to actually build the system; had
to contract
R14 Little relevant expertise exists in the field. No budget
provided for off-setting this deficiency
R17 NARA lacks the breadth of training for high-level
technology projects

Need to create new, hybrid staff: archival engineers capable of
understanding both technology/historian skill sets
R18 Feel unskilled and uncomfortable with the technological
elements of the project
Need new, technically competent archivists
R19 Need new technologies and skill sets to accomplish the task
of dealing with ER
R22 Need new skill sets to manage the challenges of modern ER
Moreover, there is concern that the training may be
inadequate or that the supporting information technol-
ogy professionals may not find the project “interesting
enough” to devote the required time to creating system
interfaces at the agency level.
Records management may be of critical importance
for NARA, but for another agency, it is a legal neces-
sity rather than a primary goal. Decisions on technical
systems are not made to accommodate records manage-
ment functions but to accomplish the work assigned in
the real task environment of the agency. The amount
of time spent on records management will be fluid, as
will the level of participation. It is not important from
the standpoint of the agency’s mission; therefore, solu-
tions are explored in terms of “good enough”, instead
of what is optimal. Known as satisficing, this approach
merely adds to the complexities of records management
for the ERA team [4]. Moreover, this reflects problems
identified in the literature by Dasher [3] and others.
Common sense heuristics are inadequate when proper
understanding of the systems engineering principles
involved does not exist. Concerns exist as well over

the level of training. This training should be adaptable
to the needs of the users at differing points in the ERA
virtual management system.
The feedback process has received mixed results. The
ERA team understands the necessity of open forums,
discussion groups, and other methods of communi-
cating project goals. The willingness or interest of
stakeholders in providing key feedback is uncertain.
Despite monthly meetings and published updates, infor-
mation flows do not adequately cement virtual teams
into cohesive units.
Virtual teams have not been formed to bridge orga-
nizational lines. Task leaders exist, but social leaders
have not emerged to build the required levels of trust
and commitment for risk mitigation. Stakeholders do
not have a common sense of how to accomplish the
tasks ahead or how to manage the interests of the var-
ious groups most efficiently. This is contrary to the
“best practices” presented in the literature [11, 12] for
organizations implementing high technology change
initiatives.
5. Conclusions
People are far more resistant to change when it
involves loss of control over long-standing work pat-
terns or exposing weakness resulting from a lack of
understanding of the proposed change. ERA incorpo-
rates exactly this type of change making understanding
the interfaces of this sociotechnical system critical.
ERA is not confined to one organizational culture. It
crosses organizational culture lines of every federal
agency. There are commonalities involved but differ-

ences as well. These should be understood by the
systems designers and system users alike.
NARA hopes that ERA will be an adaptive system
capable of adjusting to this dynamic environment. ERA
has grown from a series of technological advances over
the past thirty years. Rather than a systemic applica-
implementation
tion of these technologies to records management, each
agency has adapted its own choice of advances from
the numerous sets of solutions. The problems driving
ERA for NARA are a creation of ambiguity in enforce-
ment and interpretation that reflects the level of time and
importance placed on the task environment of records
management. This limited rationality reflects organiza-
tional constraints within the federal government.
NARA’s authority rests on offering a format for
transfer of permanent electronic records, not on their
creation. Agencies postpone questions of how to
achieve this transfer until later in the performance cycle.
These choices are contrary to best practices indicated
for virtual management systems. Rather than a com-
mon series of goals and strategies, solutions emerge
from a set of often previously abandoned choices rather
than deriving from a well-constructed plan. Moreover,
there are no “outs” for unhappy partners, no way to end
relationships. Change management in high technology-
driven processes adds an added level of complexity
because of the technology involved and the difficulties

of determining stakeholder readiness for adoption and
understanding.
There is tremendous potential for communications
disconnect between systems designers and archival
or agency users. The breakdown in information flow
between stakeholders should be addressed. Study
results indicate that additional training will reduce this
disconnect whether it is top-down or down-up direction-
ally. This training should be undertaken immediately
to reduce project risks identified in the change man-
agement plan. This should prove especially beneficial
in addressing the problems of communication between
stakeholders with distinct differences in knowledge of
technology or engineering practices.
Despite the necessity of the change, the form of ERA
is still somewhat vague. The risks are many and require
due diligence to plot their severity against project suc-
cess. The fragility of the high technology used is a
key source of risk for most engineers, but rarely is
considered as important by those with non-technical
backgrounds. It is unclear whether groups are being
used at optimal levels for participative decision mak-
ing. Stakeholder unrest and dissatisfaction are indicated
based on study findings. However, change management
has been built into the project and an understanding
exists of its importance. Modeling the system to pro-
vide access and understanding of the interface points
will uncover the areas with the greatest chances for fail-
ure. This commitment to conscientious management of
change will improve chances of overall project success.
The decision making challenge rests with engag-
ing the stakeholders in a meaningful way to achieve
project goals. Training will help non-technical stake-

holders find a comfort level with terminology and the
system itself. The diversity of the stakeholders can be
used as part of the systems model to manage risk. The
disparate perceptions of system will offer a stronger
risk assessment than would be possible from a team of
stakeholders with the same background. Team-building
exercises can help develop trust and team identity issues
that will guarantee thoughtful, truthful responses to
learning scenarios and potential system problems. Even
the conflict that is inevitable can be harnessed to more
properly model man-machine interface points.
The management of high technology-driven change
initiatives is an area of critical importance in today’s
global environment. Work processes and partnering are
increasingly electronic or virtual in nature. Understand-
ing “best practices” in the face of these changes is vital
in the strategic planning and implementation of the
modern organization. The significant failure rate of high
technology-driven change suggests that organizations
continue to struggle with these issues [2, 10].
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the key stakeholders from
the ERA project who generously gave of their time
and expertise in completing the narrative interviews for
this research. She also expresses sincere appreciation
to Milan Zeleny, Editor, Human Systems Management,
for his insight in the final development of this paper.
References
[1] L. Allen, Using organizational communication to manage
tech-
nical change, The Engineered Communication: Proceedings of

the IPCC 1991 2 (1991), 351–355.
[2] C. Clegg and S. Walsh, Change management: Time for
a change, European Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology 13(2) (2004), 217–239.
[3] G.T. Dasher, The interface between systems engineering
and program management, Engineering Management Journal
15(3) (2003), 11–14.
[4] J. Greenberg and R. Baron, Behavior in Organizations, 8th
edition, Prentice Hall, NJ, USA, 2003.
[5] R. Holti, Corporate changes which involve information and
communication technology, IEE Colloquium on Human,
Organisational, and Technical Challenges in the Firm of the
Future (1996), 3–5.
implementation 215
[6] C. Kontoghiorghes and C. Hansen, Identification of key pre-
dictors of rapid change adaptation, Organization Development
Journal 22(1) (2004), 21–39.
[7] R. Lines, M. Selart, B. Espedal and S. Johansen, The
produc-
tion of trust during organizational change, Journal of Change
Management 5(2) (2005), 221–245.
[8] S. Long and D.G. Spurlock, Motivation and stakeholder
accep-
tance in technology-driven change management: Implications

for the engineering manager, Engineering Management Jour-
nal 20(2) (2008), 30–36.
[9] M. McCarter, S. Fawcett and G. Magnan, The effect of
people
on the supply chain world: Some overlooked issues, Human
Systems Management 24 (2005), 197–208.
[10] S. Woodward and C. Hendry, Leading and coping with
change,
Journal of Change Management 4(2) (2004), 155–183.
[11] M. Zeleny, High technology management, Human Systems
Management 6 (1986), 109–120.
[12] M. Zeleny, Technology and high technology: Support net
and barriers to innovation, Advanced Management Systems 1
(2009), 8–21.
For this Individual Reflection, identify a plan that you would
like to implement within the next few months. Perhaps you are
working on a plan toward achieving a goal in your personal or
professional life, or maybe there is another, more short-term
goal that you need a bit of extra help to achieve. Whether it is
within the workplace or a personal area, consider how an
innovation might span more than one department, function, or
group. Consider your stakeholders as an Innovative Team. There
will be stakeholders who seem willing to support your plan, are
neutral to your plan, and a few who might be resistant to or
against your plan.
Note: Consider the rubric and the expectations for exemplary
work for this and all of your course assignments. Often, an
exemplary level of work is considered innovative in the
workplace. Using this mindset, complete the aspects of this
Individual Reflection as if you are preparing a stakeholder

report for a leader at your company (or a company with which
you are familiar), a mentor, or a community leader.
In the solution development stage of the creative process, you
will be taking your time to analyze and test several alternative
solutions. You will be adjusting and analyzing potential
solutions, all the while moving your team toward convergence.
Using the text, consider Chapters 20 and 21 that includes the
POINt tool and the Stakeholder Analysis tool (Applegate) which
provide ideas and techniques to devise creative solutions. Also
consider Long (2010) who emphasizes the importance of
engaging stakeholders in meaningful ways to achieve project
goals.
Submit your Individual Reflection in which you describe the
plan that you would like to implement, including:
· Your list of the stakeholders whose approval/support will be
necessary for your success. Take the time to ensure your list of
stakeholders is as complete as possible.
· Considering the various stakeholder perspectives, identify
what is important to each of the stakeholders on your list.
· Your assessment of the risks to your plan and impact of
stakeholders with different goals and interests. Explain how you
might manage the impact and address any risks that emerge.
· The specific details of the strategy, or strategies, you will use
to align stakeholder interests in your plan, with your rationale
as to why you think these will be successful based on your
analysis of stakeholder perceptions and interests.
(Hint: Strategies can include team-building exercises, conflict
resolution methods, partnering, change management, best
practices, etc. You will need to provide details to support your
selected strategy or strategies.)
Guidance on Assignment Length: Your Week 4 Individual
Reflection assignment should be 2–3 pages (1–1.5 pages if
single spaced), excluding a title page and references.
Assignment Instructions:

You are required to use these headings. Under each heading
provide your thoughts. The headings will help organize your
assignments and facilitate my prompt marking. I will take off
points if you do not use the headings. All the assignments must
adhere to APA paper requirements and APA compliant
references.
Abstract
Element 1: Description of Plan
Element 2: Stakeholders and their Interests
Element 3: Risks
Element 4: Strategy to Align Stakeholder Interests
References
References:
Long, S. (2010). The strategic implications of non-technical
implementation. Human Systems Management, 29, 205-215

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