Soria 2Victoria Soria Dean WintherEnglish 101 04 Februar.docx

Soria 2
Victoria Soria
Dean Winther
English 101
04 February 2020
Poverty’s Impact on Education in America
Most evidently in America children born or brought up in
poverty are faced with insignificant education, versus a child
with a higher income background. I have chosen this topic for
my research assignment being that an impact of poverty can
affect a child’s academic accomplishments significantly. This
results in them facing challenges such as lacking intellectual
and literary skills. The child readiness for school is reduced by
poverty because it brings forth poor physical health and motor
skills, dwindles the children's ability to concentrate and
remember information, reduces curiosity, attentiveness and
motivation. Children from lower-income families who manage
to complete high school are less likely to proceed to college.
Such children end up not achieving their life goals for lack of
education. The effects of poverty on education for some
children present unique challenges in breaking the cycle of
generational poverty. It further reduces their chances of living
productive and rewarding lives.
Featured Research
Exploring the Job Duties That Impact
School Counselor Wellness: The Role
of RAMP, Supervision, and Support

Nicole M. Randick
1
, Shannon Dermer
2
, and Rebecca E. Michel
3
Abstract
The authors examined the predictive relationship between the
performance of job duties informed by the American School
Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model and overall
wellness of school counselors. We also examined the
relationship
between organizational factors (i.e., Recognized ASCA Model
Program, supervision, and support), the frequency of job duties
performed, and overall wellness. The results revealed a
predictive relationship between some of the job duties school
counselors
perform and wellness. We provide implications for school
counseling practice and training programs.
Keywords
ASCA National Model, organizational factors, school
counselors, wellness
Wellness, defined as a way of life that fosters “the optimum
state of health and well-being that each individual is capable of
achieving” (Myers, Sweeny, & Witmer, 2000, p. 252), is a
central foundation of the school counseling profession. The
American School Counselor Association’s ASCA Ethical Stan-

dards for School Counselors require school counselors to per-
form duties identified by the ASCA National Model (ASCA,
2012, 2016; Standard B.3.c) and to “monitor their emotional
and physical health and practice wellness to ensure optimal
professional effectiveness” (Standard B.3.f). Therefore, school
counselors must balance the dual task of supporting their stu-
dents’ academic, social/emotional, and career development
while also ensuring that their own wellness needs are being
met (ASCA, 2012, 2016; Bryant & Constantine, 2006; Limberg,
Lambie, & Robinson, 2016).
School counselors must balance the dual task of
supporting their students’ academic, social/
emotional, and career development while also
ensuring that their own wellness needs are being
met.
When their job duties are aligned with ASCA National
Model (2012) guidelines, school counselors feel more sup-
ported, have a greater commitment to their work, and experi-

ence increased job satisfaction (Baggerly & Osborn, 2006;
Pyne, 2011; Scarborough & Culbreth, 2008). Increased support
and supervision create a culture of professional wellness and a
more positive work environment for school counselors
(Bernard & Goodyear, 2009). Specifically, school counselors
who received supervision reported feeling more supported in
their role, competent, and empathetic with students (Moyer,
2011; Murphy & Kaffenberger, 2007; Young & Lambie, 2007).
Although school counseling supervision has been shown to
foster a supportive working environment, other organizational
factors make working in a school challenging. For example,
when school counselors have incomplete information about
how to perform their jobs, they experience role ambiguity,
which can result in decreased job satisfaction, stress, impair-
ment, and burnout (Cervoni & DeLucia-Waack, 2011; Leu-
werke, Walker, & Shi, 2009; Wilkerson & Bellini, 2006).
Other challenges include increased demands, unmanageable
caseloads, working in unsupportive systems, high levels of

emotional exhaustion, and receiving little to no supervision
(Culbreth, Scarborough, Banks-Johnson, & Solomon, 2005;
McCarthy, Kerne, Calfa, Lambert, & Guzmán, 2010; Moyer,
2011; Wilkerson & Bellini, 2006).
ASCA encourages programs to align school counselors’
work responsibilities with the ASCA National Model (2012),
and fully aligned programs can apply to receive Recognized
1 Adler Graduate School, Minnetonka, MN, USA
2
Governors State University, University Park, IL, USA
3 DePaul University, Chicago, IL, USA
Corresponding Author:
Nicole M. Randick, EdD, Adler Graduate School, Minnetonka,
MN 55343, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Professional School Counseling
Volume 22(1): 1-11
ª 2019 American School
Counselor Association
Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions

DOI: 10.1177/2156759X18820331
journals.sagepub.com/home/pcx
mailto:[email protected]
https://sagepub.com/journals-permissions
https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X18820331
http://journals.sagepub.com/home/pcx
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1177%2F2156759
X18820331&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2018-12-18
ASCA Model Program (RAMP) designation (Young & Kaf-
fenberger, 2011). School counseling programs that are aligned
with the ASCA National Model have a positive impact on
student academic success (Gruman, Marston, & Koon, 2013;
Salina et al., 2013; Wilkerson, Pérusse, & Hughes, 2013); how-
ever, little is known about such programs’ impact on school
counselors. The purpose of this study was to understand how
school counselors function within their expected roles and what
organizational factors (i.e., RAMP, supervision, and support),
if any, predicted school counselors’ overall wellness.
School Counselor Job Duties
The role of the school counselor has evolved over the past
several decades from one that primarily provided guidance

services to one that administers comprehensive school counsel-
ing programs that target academic, career, and social/emotional
development through leadership, advocacy, collaboration, and
accountability (ASCA, 2012; Education Trust, 2009; Pérusse &
Goodnough, 2001). The ASCA National Model (2003, 2005,
2012) established the framework for how a school counselor
should function within a comprehensive school counseling
environment, specifying both appropriate and inappropriate
roles. Reasonable job duties include a combination of counsel-
ing, consultation, curriculum, and coordination duties (ASCA,
2012; Scarborough, 2005). These roles include providing indi-
vidual and small group counseling services to students, con-
sulting with stakeholders, conducting classroom lessons,
analyzing disaggregated data, designing interventions, and
facilitating school-wide responses for crisis management
(ASCA, 2012; Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Scarborough, 2005).
The ASCA National Model (2012) recommends that school
counselors spend 80% or more of their time in direct or indirect

student services. When secondary school counselors spent
more time engaging in ASCA-aligned duties, they were more
skilled in implementing support systems that directly impacted
student’s academic, social/emotional, and career development
(Olsen, Parikh-Foxx, Flowers, & Algozzine, 2016).
Although the ASCA National Model (2012) clearly speci-
fies appropriate and inappropriate job duties of school counse-
lors, many work within school districts where they are required
to engage in noncounseling duties such as scheduling, main-
taining records, and testing (Hatch & Chen-Hayes, 2008; Leu-
werke et al., 2009; Moyer, 2011; Perera-Diltz & Mason, 2008;
Scarborough & Culbreth, 2008). Some administrators and other
educators may not be aware of school counselors’ training,
appropriate job duties, or how they can make a difference in
students’ lives. Principals may be unaware of the ASCA
National Model or may have different perceptions about the
duties of school counselors (Bringman, Mueller, & Lee, 2010;
Leuwerke et al., 2009; Pérusse, Goodnough, Donegan, &

Jones, 2004). For example, McCotter and Cohen (2013) found
that New Jersey middle school counselors and principals had
differing perceptions about student needs across academic,
social/emotional, and career domains. When administrators,
teachers, and students expect school counselors to engage in
duties misaligned with their expertise, counselors are unable to
complete the duties they were trained to perform (DeMato &
Curcio, 2004; Gruman et al., 2013; Scarborough & Culbreth,
2008). Spending time on these noncounseling activities pre-
vents school counselors from engaging in counseling duties,
which have been shown to have the greatest impact on stu-
dents’ academic, social/emotional, and career outcomes (Carey
& Dimmitt, 2012; Lapan, Gysbers, & Kayson, 2006; Olsen
et al., 2016; Wilkerson et al., 2013; Whiston, Tai, Rahardja,
& Eder, 2011).
Organizational Factors
The changing landscape of school missions, goals of school
counseling programs, and student needs (Gruman et al.,

2013; Olsen et al., 2016), coupled with difficult caseloads
(Lawson, 2007; McCarthy et al., 2010), further increase the
demands put on school counselors. For example, the recom-
mended student-to-school-counselor caseload is 250:1; how-
ever, the average caseload is 482:1, nearly twice the
recommended ratio (ASCA, 2017). Maintaining large case-
loads while being responsible for meeting the academic,
social/emotional, and career needs of all their students can be
overwhelming for school counselors (Gruman et al., 2013;
McCarthy et al., 2010; Salina et al., 2013). One way to contend
with increasing demands and complexity of caseloads is to
support school counselors through professional supervision.
The quality and quantity of supervision contributes to school
counselor wellness. Supervision is recognized as an effective
mediator of stress and work overload for school counselors
(Moyer, 2011; Page, Pietrzak, & Sutton, 2001; Young & Lam-
bie, 2007). When school counselors received supervision based
on the ASCA National Model with clearly defined role func-

tions within a supportive environment, they experienced
reduced stress and increased wellness (Lambie & Williamson,
2004; Moyer, 2011; Young & Lambie, 2007). Baggerly and
Osborn (2006) found that the combination of performing
ASCA National Model school counseling duties and receiving
supervision increased school counselors’ job satisfaction and
decreased attrition. Similarly, school counselors reported
reduced role stress when they felt their job duties matched their
expectations and training and they had peer supervision avail-
able (Culbreth et al., 2005). On the other hand, lack of super-
vision was a predictor for increased feelings of incompetence,
showing frustration with the school setting, and a lack of com-
passion for students (Moyer, 2011; Page et al., 2001; Witmer &
Granello, 2005).
When school counselors are supported in their role, they are
more likely to perform ASCA-aligned duties that foster posi-
tive student outcomes. For example, in their development of a
school-wide student support program, All Hands on Deck, Sal-

ina and colleagues (2013) found the establishment of trust from
administration was a precipitating factor in school counselors’
increased performance of student support services. Similarly,
2 Professional School Counseling
Gruman and colleagues (2013) found the collaboration
between teachers, administrators, and school counselors to be
essential for school counselors to meet the mental health needs
of high school students.
In summary, when counselors lack wellness in their own
lives, they are no longer able to “nurture wellness in others”
(Lawson, Venart, Hazler, & Kottler, 2007, p. 6). Studies on
school counselor wellness have been sparse even though
decreased wellness has been found to reduce the quality of
services that counselors provide (Wilkerson & Bellini, 2006;
Young & Lambie, 2007). Research suggests that when school
counselors work within a comprehensive school counseling
program and perform supervised duties for which they are

trained, they have a greater impact on student outcomes, are
more satisfied at work, experience less stress, report greater
wellness, and remain in their jobs longer (Clemens, Milsom,
& Cashwell, 2009; Salina et al., 2013). However, when schools
do not support a comprehensive school counseling program,
this contributes to role ambiguity, conflict, and stress for school
counselors attempting to navigate the roles they were trained to
perform (Cervoni & DeLucia-Waack, 2011; Curry & Bick-
more, 2012; Page et al., 2001).
Method
The purpose of this study was to investigate how school coun-
selors function within their roles and what organizational fac-
tors (i.e., RAMP, supervision, and support), if any, were most
influential in leading to increased levels of school counselor
wellness. Building from existing literature, we used the follow-
ing questions to guide the research study. First, does a positive
relationship exist between performance of actual counseling
duties (i.e., counseling, consultation, curriculum, and coordina-

tion) and overall wellness functioning among school counse-
lors? Second, does a negative relationship exist between
performance of noncounseling duties (e.g., clerical, fair share,
administrative) and overall wellness functioning among school
counselors? Third, does performance of actual counseling
duties (i.e., coordination, curriculum, counseling, and consulta-
tion) predict overall wellness functioning among school coun-
selors? Fourth, do organizational demographic factors (i.e.,
working at an RAMP school, supervision, and the degree to
which the counselor feels supported) predict overall wellness
and performance of actual counseling duties?
Derived from the above research questions, the following
hypotheses guided the inquiry:
� Hypothesis 1: A positive relationship exists between the
performance of counseling duties (i.e., counseling
[Hypothesis 1a], consultation [Hypothesis 1b], curricu-
lum [Hypothesis 1c], and coordination [Hypothesis 1d])
and overall wellness functioning.
� Hypothesis 2: A negative relationship exists between

performance of noncounseling duties (e.g., clerical, fair
share, administrative) and overall wellness functioning.
� Hypothesis 3: The performance of actual counseling
duties (i.e., coordination [Hypothesis 3a], curriculum
[Hypothesis 3b], counseling [Hypothesis 3c], and con-
sultation [Hypothesis 3d]) predicts overall wellness
functioning.
� Hypothesis 4: Organizational demographic factors (i.e.,
working at an RAMP school [Hypothesis 4a], supervi-
sion [Hypothesis 4b], and the degree to which the coun-
selor feels supported [Hypothesis 4c]) predict frequency
of performing counseling duties (i.e., counseling, con-
sultation, curriculum, coordination).
Participants and Procedures
We invited more than 25,000 school counselor members of the
ASCA via e-mail to voluntarily participate in the study, which
was approved by the institutional review board. We also dis-
tributed a separate e-mail invitation to several state, university,
and professional school counselor listserves. We posted two

follow-up messages requesting participation approximately 1
week and 3 weeks after the initial invitation. Participants were
asked to provide informed consent through the SurveyMonkey
online data collection system and complete the School Coun-
selor Activity Rating Scale (SCARS; Scarborough, 2005), the
Five-Factor Wellness Inventory (FFWEL; Myers & Sweeney,
2005b), and an organizational and descriptive questionnaire.
Of the possible respondents, 124 individuals began the sur-
vey and only 108 successfully completed the survey scales;
these constituted the sample employed for this study. Most
participants worked full-time (n ¼ 98, 90.74%) in elementary
schools (n ¼ 41, 37.96%), middle schools (n ¼ 24, 22.22%), or
high schools (n ¼ 43, 39.81%). Experience levels ranged from
less than 5 years of experience (n ¼ 34, 31.48%), to between 5
and 10 years of experience (n ¼ 37, 34.26%), to more than
10 years of experience (n ¼ 37, 34.26%). Participants identi-
fied as female (n ¼ 103, 95.37%) and male (n ¼ 5, 4.63%), and
race was reported as Caucasian (n ¼ 96, 88.89%), African
American (n ¼ 8, 7.41%), and Hispanic (n ¼ 3, 2.78%); one
participant chose not to report race.
Measures
SCARS. The SCARS (Scarborough, 2005) measures the fre-
quency of how school counselors actually spend their profes-

sional time versus how they would prefer to spend their time
performing professional activities informed by the ASCA
National Model. The 48-item scale was designed to closely
follow the recommendations of best practices found in the
ASCA National Model and the results of a literature review
of the common activities of counselors, including (a) counsel-
ing, (b) consultation, (c) curriculum, (d) coordination, and
(e) other activities (e.g., clerical, fair share, and administrative
duties). Participants rate each item on a Likert-type scale that
ranges from 1 (I never do this) to 5 (I routinely do this). The
Randick et al. 3
SCARS scores can be reported as total or mean scores for both
actual and preferred activities (Scarborough, 2005). For this
study, we used only the actual job duties portion of the scale
to collect frequency ratings. Cronbach’s as for this sample
were as follows: .86 for counseling, .82 for consultation, .94
for curriculum, and .89 for coordination.
Five-Factor Wellness Inventory. The FFWEL measures compo-

nents of wellness in the Indivisible Self Model of Wellness
(IS-Wel; Myers & Sweeney, 2005a). The IS-Wel was devel-
oped based on the Wellness Evaluation of Lifestyle (WEL;
Myers & Sweeney, 2005a), which is a holistic model of well-
ness grounded in Adlerian theory. This includes the idea that
the self is composed of the mind, body, and soul, which
together influence the meaning we give to our experiences
within our social context. Exploratory and confirmatory factor
analyses of the WEL yielded a single-order factor, total well-
ness, 5 second-order factors (i.e., Creative Self, Coping Self,
Essential Self, Physical Self, and Social Self), and 17 third-
order factors (e.g., love, nutrition, self-care).
The FFWEL was designed to be taken in approximately 15
min, with different versions for children, adolescents, and
adults. We used the adult version (FFWEL-A) of the instru-
ment in this study; it includes 7 demographic items and 91
items measuring each of the wellness factors in the IS-Wel.
The first section of the FFWEL consists of items focused

around the areas of wellness. These items elicit information
from individuals about behaviors, emotions, and feelings
relating to one’s health, quality of life, and longevity. The
items appear in random order and each is answered using a
Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to
4 (strongly disagree). Calculating the scores produces a score
in the range of 25–100, with higher scores indicating higher
levels of wellness (Myers & Sweeney, 2005b). For the pur-
pose of this study, we used only the total wellness score
because it encompasses a total score for all the five factors
of wellness, representing the level of wellness for optimal
functioning (Myers & Sweeney, 2005b).
Analysis of consistency (using Cronbach’s a) performed
during the development of the FFWEL supported the overall
wellness score and each of the secondary factors. The authors
of the instrument reported a high degree of construct validity
(Myers & Sweeney, 2005b) and examined internal consistency
again after a 5-year period. Myers and Sweeney (2005b) estab-
lished and reported reliabilities for the subscales as follows:

Total Wellness ¼ .98, Creative Self ¼ .96, Coping Self ¼ .89,
Social Self ¼ .96, Essential Self ¼ .95, and Physical Self ¼ .90.
Organizational and descriptive questionnaire. We developed the
12-item questionnaire based on existing literature, guiding
research questions, and feedback from experts in the field of
school counseling. The choices for most questions were yes,
somewhat, or no. Some items required respondents to choose
from a list of answers. The questionnaire was designed to col-
lect information specific to RAMP, supervision, support, and
training. Table 1 presents the questions and results. The ques-
tionnaire also included questions about grade level, employ-
ment status, years of experience (reported above), and what
activities counselors felt least supported in performing
(reported in results).
Data Analysis
We analyzed the data using SPSS Version 22.0. A preliminary
analysis of the data included identifying (a) if the assumptions
of the analyses were met, (b) reliability and validity of the
measures, (c) distributions of the variables, and (e) the extent

of missing data (Cone & Foster, 2006). We also screened the
data for skewness, kurtosis, and outliers. The sample showed
skewness between �.8 and þ.8 and kurtosis between �2 and
þ2, showing no issues. Missing data analyses found that 16 of
the respondents did not respond to all of the questions; we
discarded those responses, leaving our sample size relatively
small (N ¼ 108). We computed the mean and standard devia-
tion (SD) for the Total Wellness score from the FFWEL and
calculated frequencies and percentages for all descriptive and
organizational variables.
Table 1. Frequencies and Percentages of Organizational
Variables.
Organizational Variable Sample Percent Frequency
Working in RAMP school
Yes 4.63 5
No 95.37 103
Implement ASCA National Model
Yes 19.44 21
Somewhat 58.33 63
No 22.22 24
Training in ASCA National Model
Yes 48.15 52
Somewhat 25 27
No 26.85 29

Familiar with ASCA National Model
Yes 85.19 92
Somewhat 12.96 14
No 1.85 2
School support for ASCA National Model
Yes 25 27
Somewhat 55.56 60
No 19.44 21
Supervision
No 47.22 51
Licensed school counselor 4.63 5
School principal 38.89 42
Teacher 0 0
A faculty member 1.85 2
Other 7.41 8
Supervision based on ASCA National Model
Yes 7.37 7
No 92.63 88
Note. RAMP ¼ Recognized ASCA Model Program; ASCA ¼
American School
Counselor Association.
To answer the first and second hypotheses, we performed a
bivariate correlation by examining participants’ mean subscale
scores from the SCARS (Scarborough, 2005) and the overall

wellness score from the FFWEL (Myers & Sweeney, 2005b).
An analysis of the Pearson correlation coefficients determined
the degree to which the variables were related. We analyzed the
remaining two hypotheses using regression analysis to deter-
mine which variables best predicted the criterion variable. To
determine the distinct contribution of actual counseling duties
from the SCARS (i.e., counseling, consultation, curriculum,
and coordination) on the overall wellness score from the
FFWEL (Myers & Sweeney, 2005b), we used a hierarchal
regression. And to analyze each predictor variable (i.e., RAMP
school, supervision, and support) to determine whether they
contributed any new information in predicting the criterion
variable (Total Score on the Actual Job Duties Scale), we used
a backward stepwise regression.
Results
On the SCARS, school counselors reported the frequency of
performing actual job duties. The job activities reported most
often included coordination duties (M ¼ 37.97, SD ¼ 10.08),

followed by “other” noncounseling duties (M ¼ 30.34, SD ¼
6.96) and counseling duties (M ¼ 29.29, SD ¼ 6.612). The least
reported activities were curriculum duties (M ¼ 24.45, SD ¼
10.078) and consulting duties (M ¼ 24.30, SD ¼ 5.29).
We also collected information on the ASCA National Model
activities in which school counselors felt least supported. The
least supported activities, listed in rank order, were delegating
clerical or noncounseling duties (n ¼ 77, 71.3%), appropriate
use of counselor time (n ¼ 63, 58.3%), ability to carry out
classroom guidance curriculum (n ¼ 41, 38%), collecting and
analyzing data (n ¼ 34, 31.5%), preventive role in school dis-
cipline (n ¼ 33, 30.6%), system support duties (n ¼ 31, 28.7%),
ability to provide individual student planning (n ¼ 20, 18.5%),
and responsive services/interventions (n ¼ 16, 14.8%).
Hypothesis 1
To test the first hypothesis, we conducted Pearson correlations
for each counseling-related subscale of the SCARS (Scarbor-
ough, 2005) and the total wellness score on the FFWEL (Myers
& Sweeney, 2005b). Employing Cohen’s (2008) effect size
cutoffs, we found a small to moderate positive relationship
between counseling and wellness, r(106) ¼ .234, p < .05, thus
supporting Hypothesis 1a. Similarly, a small to moderate pos-
itive relationship between consultation and wellness, r(106) ¼
.216, p < .05, provided support for Hypothesis 1b. With regard

to Hypothesis 1c, we found a small yet significant positive
relationship between curriculum and wellness, r(106) ¼ .013,
p < .05. Finally, we found the strongest relationship in this
sample between coordination and wellness, r(106) ¼ .35, p <
.01, and this moderate positive relationship provided support
for Hypothesis 1d. All in all, our results fully supported
Hypotheses 1a, 1b, 1c, and 1d.
Hypothesis 2
To assess Hypothesis 2, we calculated a Pearson correlation
between total wellness score on the FFWEL (Myers & Swee-
ney, 2005b) and noncounseling duties (i.e., other activities) as
measured by the SCARS (Scarborough, 2005). The total well-
ness score and noncounseling duties were not significantly
related, r(106) ¼ .019, p ¼ .848.
Hypothesis 3
To evaluate Hypothesis 3, we conducted a hierarchical regres-
sion to determine whether any of the four counseling-related
subscales from the SCARS (Scarborough, 2005) could be used
to predict total wellness on the FFWEL (Myers & Sweeney,

2005b). We entered the variables one at a time in the model to
determine predictability and potential changes to the value of
the coefficient of determination. Based on theory, the order of
entry was coordination, curriculum, counseling, and consulta-
tion. The entry of each variable added the controlling effect of
that variable and how the new variable interacted with the
previous to determine overall predictability. The results are
displayed in Table 2.
The first model, which included only coordination, showed
a significant result in determining wellness, B ¼ 0.230, t(107)
¼ 30.38, p < .001. That model accounted for 11.7% of varia-
bility explained in the criterion variable, providing support for
Hypothesis 3a. Adding curriculum to the model increased the
overall variation explained to 13.6%, but curriculum itself was
not shown to be a significant predictor, B ¼�0.131, t(107) ¼
�1.819, p ¼ .072. The third variable, counseling, did not
change the overall value of r
2
, still contributing 13.6% of the
variation explained. The variable itself was not seen to be
Table 2. Prediction of Counseling Duties on Wellnessa From

Regression Analysis.
Model Variable b SE t p r2 p
1 Intercept 70.397 2.317 30.388 <.001 .117 <.001
Coordination 0.230 0.059 3.901 <.001
2 Intercept 71.588 2.384 30.034 <.001 .136 <.001
Coordination 0.283 0.065 4.340 <.001
Curriculum �0.131 0.072 �1.819 .072
3 Intercept 70.128 2.801 25.035 <.001 .136 <.001
Coordination 0.248 0.074 3.350 .001
Curriculum �0.156 0.076 �2.045 .043
Counseling 0.116 0.117 0.993 .323
4 Intercept 70.264 3.031 23.180 <.001 .128 .001
Coordination 0.252 0.080 3.163 .002
Curriculum �0.156 0.077 �2.034 .044
Counseling 0.123 0.129 0.947 .346
Consultation �0.019 0.156 �0.121 .904
aCriterion variable ¼ wellness.
Randick et al. 5
significant, B ¼ 0.116, t(107) ¼ 0.993, p < .323. Last, we
introduced consultation into the overall model; this caused the
overall variance explained to drop to 12.8%. Consultation also
was shown not to be a significant predictor of wellness, B ¼
�0.019, t(107) ¼�0.121, p < .904. Coordination was the only
model shown to be significant and thus fully supported Hypoth-

esis 3a.
Hypothesis 4
To test Hypothesis 4, we used a backward stepwise regression
with an exclusion level of .05 to determine whether any orga-
nizational demographics (i.e., RAMP, supervision, and sup-
port) could be used to predict frequency of counseling duties
(i.e., counseling, consultation, curriculum, and coordination),
as measured by the SCARS (Scarborough, 2005). Table 3 lists
the results of the unstandardized coefficients. The stepwise
modeling showed significance (p < .05) for all subscales. Sup-
port was the only significant variable for all subscales of the
SCARS (Scarborough, 2005). Support was a significant pre-
dictor for counseling, B ¼ 1.08, t(107) ¼ 3.06, p ¼ .003;
consulting, B ¼ 0.74, t(107) ¼ 2.53, p ¼ .013; curriculum, B
¼ 1.87, t(107) ¼ 3.878, p < .001; and coordination, B ¼ 11.22,
t(107) ¼ 5.203, p < .00. Thus, Hypothesis 4b was fully sup-
ported. RAMP was a significant predictor for coordination, B ¼
2.56, t(107) ¼ 2.796, p ¼ .006, and counseling, B ¼ 5.81,
t(107) ¼ 2.02, p ¼ .046, thus providing partial support for
Hypothesis 4a. Supervision did not show any predictability
on the SCARS (Scarborough, 2005) subscales; thus, Hypoth-
esis 4c was not supported. As such, 11% of the variation of the

frequency of performing counseling duties can be attributed to
support and RAMP, 5% of the variation in consultation can be
attributed to support, 12% of the variation in curriculum to
support, and 25% of the variation in coordination to support
and RAMP.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate which factors
predict levels of wellness among school counselors. Partici-
pants reported engaging in the following activities (listed in
rank order) as defined by the SCARS (Scarborough, 2005):
coordination, noncounseling duties, counseling, curriculum,
and consultation. This is consistent with previous reports by
school counselors that they engage in some combination of
ASCA-endorsed and nonendorsed activities (Moyer, 2011;
Perera-Diltz & Mason, 2008) and identify their main role as
coordinating and maintaining comprehensive school counsel-
ing programs that have an impact on student achievement
(Wilkerson et al., 2013). The performance of coordination
duties was the only significant predictor of wellness and the
majority of the participants in this study performed these duties

more frequently than other responsibilities. In general, the
wellness scores from this study were elevated compared to the
general norm group for the instrument, which suggests school
counselors in this study had high levels of overall wellness.
The performance of coordination duties was the
only significant predictor of wellness and the
majority of the participants in this study performed
these duties more frequently than other
responsibilities.
School Counseling Duties
Coordination duties were the most frequently performed duty
and a significant predictor for increased wellness, accounting
for 11.7% of variation in wellness. Although small, this result
warrants further discussion. Coordination duties include activ-
ities such as conducting needs assessments, working with an
advisory committee to analyze needs based on data, coordinat-
ing school-wide efforts to respond to crisis, and informing
parents and stakeholders about the role and function of the

school counselor (ASCA, 2012; Scarborough, 2005). Overall,
coordination duties tend to be self-driven, collaborative, and
action oriented, with immediately visible results, making it
more likely for counselors and others to see the impact of their
work. When school administrators trust and empower school
counselors to coordinate their activities, counselors are able to
meet the academic, social/emotional, and career needs of their
students. Salina and colleagues (2013) concluded that when
school counselors became more autonomous and performed
duties aligned with coordination, such as parent outreach,
teacher and administrator collaboration, and use of data to
make decisions, they were viewed as leaders in the school. The
nature of coordination duties may contribute to overall well-
ness through helping school counselors feel like leaders, com-
petent, and in control. Previous research has indicated that a
lack of control in one’s job may jeopardize one’s wellness
(Culbreth et al., 2005; Young & Lambie, 2007).
We found a small to moderate positive relationship between

counseling duties and wellness and a moderate positive rela-
tionship between consultation duties and wellness. Counseling
duties include those in which counselors performed individual
and small group counseling services to students on personal,
Table 3. Prediction of RAMP, Supervision, and Support on
Frequency
of Counseling Duties.
Predictor Variables
Constant Support RAMP Supervision r2
Counseling 23.53 1.08* 5.81* — .11
Consultation 20.57 0.74* — — .05
Curriculum 14.95 1.87* — — .12
Coordination 24.43 11.22* 2.56* — .25
Wellness — — — — —
Note. RAMP ¼ Recognized ASCA Model Program; ASCA ¼
American School
*Significant at a ¼ .05.
family, and academic issues (ASCA, 2012). Consultation
duties include those duties aligned with consulting with school
staff, community agencies, and administrators concerning stu-

dent behavior, development, and support services (Dinkmeyer,
Carlson, & Michel, 2016). Although counseling and consulta-
tion duties were not the most frequently performed duties,
participants reported receiving a higher level of support for the
associated activities (e.g., preventive role in school discipline,
system support duties, ability to provide individual student
planning, and responsive services). Baggerly and Osborn
(2006) suggested that school counselors might experience frus-
tration when they did not perform socially oriented duties like
counseling and consulting, leading to stress and decreased
career satisfaction. In this study, the performance of counseling
and consultation duties did not predict wellness and was not the
most frequently performed duties. Perhaps if they were per-
formed more often, the results would have been stronger, given
their positive relationships.
Curriculum duties include conducting classroom lessons on
personal growth, personal safety, career development, and con-
flict resolution (Scarborough, 2005); this category had a small

relationship with wellness. Curriculum duties were not shown
to be a significant predictor of wellness. These were second to
last in reports of frequency of duties performed and more than
one third of school counselors (n ¼ 41, 38%) reported a lack of
support to carry out classroom lessons. Time demands, per-
forming noncounseling activities, and lack of support have
been cited as possible reasons school counselors perform cur-
riculum duties less often (Gruman et al., 2013; Moyer, 2011).
Further, the lack of training on conducting classroom lessons
has been linked to higher levels of role conflict and ambiguity
(Culbreth et al., 2005). Training in carrying out activities that
increase student achievement, such as classroom curriculum,
may increase school counselors’ self-efficacy and sense of
importance in their role (Wilkerson et al., 2013; Young &
Kaffenberger, 2015), thus impacting their wellness.
Noncounseling Duties
In reviewing the mean scores from the SCARS instrument,
noncounseling duties were the second most frequently per-

formed duties behind coordination duties. Other studies
(Moyer, 2011; Perera-Diltz & Mason, 2008) also found that
school counselors spend a significant amount of time on non-
counseling duties. The school counselors in this study reported
feeling least supported in delegating clerical work (n ¼ 77,
71.3%) and managing appropriate use of their time (n ¼ 63,
58.3%), which may account for this higher frequency. Even
though the performance of inappropriate duties was higher than
some appropriate duties (i.e., counseling, curriculum, and con-
sulting), and school counselors may prefer to engage in activ-
ities aligned with the ASCA National Model (Scarborough &
Culbreth, 2008), this did not adversely affect the wellness of
the respondents in this study. The majority of participants (n ¼
74, 68.6%) had more than 5 years of experience as a school
counselor, which may have affected their level of comfort with
their job duties. As individuals feel more confident in their
roles, they have greater self-efficacy and self-confidence, lead-
ing to higher overall well-being (Bryant & Constantine, 2006;
Scarborough & Culbreth, 2008). The high level of noncounsel-
ing duties may have more of a negative impact on the wellness

of school counselors with less experience. Furthermore, a sali-
ent part of counselor wellness (Bryant & Constantine, 2006;
Lawson & Myers, 2011) is often related to the perceived ability
to perform duties that make an impact on others, regardless of
the duties being appropriate or not (Baggerly & Osborn, 2006).
Even though the performance of inappropriate
duties was higher than some appropriate
duties, . . . this did not adversely affect the wellness
of the respondents in this study.
Organizational Variables
Although none of the organizational variables were significant
in predicting overall wellness, several organizational variables
were predictive of performing duties aligned with the ASCA
National Model (ASCA, 2012). The degree to which school
counselors felt supported by administration to use the ASCA
National Model was a significant predictor for the increased
performance of all counseling, consulting, curriculum, and
coordination duties. Among survey respondents, 80.56% (n ¼
87) felt supported in their schools to implement the job duties

outlined within the ASCA National Model. Furthermore,
77.77% (n ¼ 84) implemented or somewhat implemented the
ASCA National Model within their work. These results are
consistent with Scarborough and Culbreth’s (2008) finding that
school counselors who attempted to incorporate the national
standards (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) in their practice engaged
in outcome-producing tasks, were supported by others, and
were more likely to perform ASCA National Model duties.
These findings suggest that support is an important variable
in influencing the performance of job duties among school
counselors.
The degree to which school counselors felt
supported by administration to use the American
School Counselor Association National Model was
a significant predictor for the increased
performance of all counseling, consulting,
curriculum, and coordination duties.
Working in an RAMP school was a significant predictor for
performing coordination and counseling duties. As discussed

previously, the performance of coordination duties was found
to predict wellness. From this, we can infer that working in an
RAMP-designated school increased the likelihood of perform-
ing duties found to be predictive of increased wellness. Work-
ing in an RAMP-designated school was also predictive of the
Randick et al. 7
school counselor reporting more counseling duties than school
counselors in non-RAMP schools. Results also support previ-
ous research that school counselors working in RAMP schools
are more often using data to validate their counseling interven-
tions, sharing the results with stakeholders, and providing ser-
vices to bridge achievement gaps (Young & Kaffenberger,
2011). This is not surprising because data-informed decisions
and services have become the cornerstone of working within an
RAMP school (Wilkerson et al., 2013).
With regard to supervision, almost half of the respondents
(n ¼ 51, 47.22%) received no supervision and 38.89% (n ¼ 42)

received supervision from their school principal. As to the
nature of supervision, 92.63% (n ¼ 88) of respondents reported
not receiving supervision based on the ASCA National Model.
Supervision did not predict increased frequency in performing
the duties outlined within the SCARS instrument, nor was it a
predictor for wellness, perhaps because so few participants
were receiving supervision based on the ASCA National
Model. These results are consistent with the literature on the
reported lack of supervision school counselors receive (Moyer,
2011; Page et al., 2001). Other scholars have reported that a
lack of supervision in combination with difficult and stressful
caseloads (McCarthy et al., 2010) increased the demands on
school counselors and impacted their overall wellness (Law-
son, 2007; Young & Lambie, 2007). Although the current study
did not measure for caseloads, we found a pervasive lack of
supervision within this sample of school counselors. The power
differential between principals and school counselors (Arm-
strong, MacDonald, & Stillo, 2010; Lieberman, 2004) and per-
ceptions of appropriate and inappropriate duties (Bringman

et al., 2010; Leuwerke et al., 2009; Pérusse et al., 2004) may
influence the quantity and quality of supervision school coun-
selors receive.
Limitations
These results should be considered within the limitations of this
study. First, the use of self-report instruments does not control
for response bias related to respondents’ actual job duties or
levels of wellness. Moreover, participants who perceive them-
selves as well may have been more willing to take this survey.
Since its implementation, the ASCA National Model has
undergone minor modifications, and the SCARS survey was
based on the original 2003 model so may not account for these
changes. The generalizability of the results of this study also is
limited. School counselors were recruited from professional
organizations and state, university, and professional school
counselor listserves and may answer survey questions differ-
ently than school counselors who are not members of those
groups. The lack of gender and race diversity is also a limita-

tion, with the majority of participants identifying as female
and Caucasian. Future researchers should strive to include a
more diverse sample of participants. Despite these limitations,
the study offered several implications and areas for future
research that school counselors and counselor educators
should consider.
Implications for Practice, Training,
and Research
The results of this study have several implications for improv-
ing school counselor wellness. First, school counselors appear
to enjoy duties that are self-driven, collaborative, action
oriented, and results driven. These characteristics are captured
in coordination duties such as coordination of interventions
with students, parents, teachers, and other significant stake-
holders. These activities may help decrease school counselor
burnout and may help create a more positive school environ-
ment. Having experienced, happier, more satisfied school
counselors in a positive school environment most likely means

students will receive higher quality services.
The results also have implications for training programs.
First, training programs may want to increase training in
wellness-enhancing skills such as taking leadership roles, coor-
dination activities, and increasing skills for performing curri-
culum duties. Participants struggled with curriculum duties and
might benefit from further training and professional develop-
ment on how to develop and implement classroom lessons,
especially in meeting the data-driven needs of students. Sec-
ond, training programs should include the skills school coun-
selors need to be able to identify support systems, evaluate
support levels, and create supportive environments. Investigat-
ing the variables of support (e.g., type, frequency, source) that
school counselors receive would provide additional insight into
the results of this study. School counselor training programs
might consider providing training on peer supervision and how
to support peers in the school setting because this might be the
primary means of support for school counselors. Third, school

counselors in training might consider seeking out more oppor-
tunities within their practicum and internship sites to learn
about data collection strategies, monitoring student progress,
and effectively communicating with administrators, parents,
and stakeholders.
Training programs may want to increase training in
wellness-enhancing skills such as taking leadership
roles, coordination activities, and increasing skills
for performing curriculum duties.
Learning how to collaborate with school administration is
an important skill. Research has indicated that administrative
support impacts a school counselor’s wellness and ability to
engage in ASCA National Model duties (Cervoni & DeLucia-
Waack, 2011; Young & Lambie, 2007). Thus, school counse-
lors must continue to partner with administrators to ensure they
can engage in the counseling duties for which they are trained.
School counselors should follow the ASCA’s (2012) recom-
mendation to complete the use-of-time assessment twice a year

to determine how much time they are spending in each
component of the ASCA National Model. If they find they are
spending less than the recommended 80% in direct or indirect
student services, they should address this with their adminis-
trator and use this information to create the school counselor’s
annual agreement.
Future researchers should continue to explore the potential
relationships among organizational factors, performance of
ASCA National Model duties, and wellness to better under-
stand wellness-enhancing activities. Future research could add
to the knowledge base of school counselor wellness by repro-
ducing this study with a larger population of school counselors
who are and are not implementing the ASCA National Model.
Longitudinal studies across RAMP and non-RAMP programs
could provide insight into what wellness dimensions are most
affected by this designation, especially methods used by school
counselors to make data-driven decisions. Investigating the

effects of school counselor performance and wellness on stu-
dent outcomes is important and would aid the field in under-
standing what school counselor activities increased their
wellness and enhanced student success. Qualitative studies on
school counselor wellness would help expand the meaning and
practice of wellness, including the impact of supervision and
support. Another area for future study is investigation of the
factors that help counselors contribute to the maintenance of
their training. Many of the school counselors in this study
reported not receiving supervision, and of those who received
supervision, the majority were not receiving supervision based
on the ASCA National Model. Principals were the primary
supervisors for the school counselors in this study; therefore,
another potential area of future study would be a survey of
principals on their comfort level with supervising school
counselors.
A study of school counselor self-care activities could pro-
vide insight into the internal variables that lead to increased

wellness, addressing Wilkerson and Bellini’s (2006) sugges-
tion that internal emotional variables impact stress that can lead
to burnout. Studies on the wellness challenges among different
work settings (e.g., elementary, middle, and high school) could
provide information regarding unique organizational stressors
(e.g., caseloads) and influences. This information could help
school counselors develop wellness-enhancing changes and
interventions within each setting. Finally, a crucial topic to
explore is how, despite all the stressors in the educational sys-
tem today, school counselors are able to maintain such a high
degree of overall wellness in their lives.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
author-
ship, and/or publication of this article

References
American School Counselor Association. (2003). The ASCA
National
Model: A framework for school counseling programs.
Alexandria,
VA: Author.
American School Counselor Association. (2005). ASCA
National
Model: A framework for school counseling programs (2nd ed.).
Alexandria, VA: Author.
American School Counselor Association. (2012). ASCA
National
Model: A framework for school counseling programs (3rd ed.).
Alexandria, VA: Author.
American School Counselor Association. (2016). ASCA ethical
stan-
dards for school counselors. Alexandria, VA: Author. Retrieved
from https://www.schoolcounselor.org/asca/media/asca/Ethics/
EthicalStandards2016.pdf
American School Counselor Association. (2017). ASCA releases

updated student-to-school-counselor ratio data. Alexandria, VA:
Author. Retrieved from https://www.schoolcounselor.org/asca/
media/asca/Press%20releases/ASCA-Student-to-SC-Ratios-
Press-
Release-10_2017-Final.pdf
Armstrong, S. A., MacDonald, J. H., & Stillo, S. (2010). School
counselors and principals: Different perceptions of relationship,
leadership, and training. Journal of School Counseling, 8, 2–27.
Retrieved from http://jsc.montana.edu/articles/v8n15.pdf
Baggerly, J., & Osborn, D. (2006). School counselors’ career
satisfaction and commitment: Correlates and predictors. Profes-
sional School Counseling, 9, 197–205. doi:10.1177/2156759X
0500900304
Bernard, J. M., & Goodyear, R. K. (2009). Fundamentals of
clinical
supervision (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Bringman, N. M., Mueller, S. M., & Lee, S. M. (2010).
Educating
future school principals regarding the role of professional
school

counselors. Journal of School Counseling, 8. Retrieved from
http://
jsc.montana.edu/articles/v8n3.pdf
Bryant, R. M., & Constantine, M. G. (2006). Multiple role
balance, job
satisfaction, and life satisfaction in women school counselors.
Pro-
fessional School Counseling, 9, 265–271. doi:10.1177/
2156759X0500900403
Campbell, C. A., & Dahir, C. A. (1997). The national standards
for
school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: American School
Carey, J., & Dimmitt, C. (2012). School counseling and student
out-
comes: Summary of six statewide studies. Professional School
Counseling, 16, 146–153. doi:10.1177/2156759X0001600204
Cervoni, A., & DeLucia-Waack, J. (2011). Role conflict and
ambigu-
ity as predictors of job satisfaction in high school counselors.
Journal of School Counseling, 9, 1–30. Retrieved from
http://jsc.

montana.edu/articles/v9n1.pdf
Clemens, E. V., Milsom, A., & Cashwell, C. S. (2009). Using
leader-
member exchange theory to examine principal-school counselor
relationships, school counselors’ roles, job satisfaction, and
turn-
over intentions. Professional School Counseling, 13, 75–85. doi:
10.1177/2156759X0901300203
Cohen, B. H. (2008). Explaining psychological statistics (3rd
ed.).
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
Randick et al. 9
https://www.schoolcounselor.org/asca/media/asca/Ethics/Ethical
Standards2016.pdf
https://www.schoolcounselor.org/asca/media/asca/Ethics/Ethical
Standards2016.pdf
https://www.schoolcounselor.org/asca/media/asca/Press%20rele
ases/ASCA-Student-to-SC-Ratios-Press-Release-10_2017-
Final.pdf
Final.pdf
Final.pdf

Final.pdf
http://jsc.montana.edu/articles/v8n15.pdf
Cone, J. D., & Foster, S. L. (2006). Dissertations and theses
from start
to finish: Psychology and related fields. Washington, DC:
Amer-
ican Psychological Association.
Culbreth, J. R., Scarborough, J. L., Banks-Johnson, A., &
Solomon, S.
(2005). Role stress among practicing school counselors.
Counselor
Education and Supervision, 45, 58–71. doi:10.1002/j.1556-
6978.2005.tb00130.x
Curry, J. R., & Bickmore, D. (2012). School counselor
induction and
the importance of mattering. Professional School Counseling,
15,
110–122. doi:10.1177/2156759X1201500301
DeMato, D. S., & Curcio, C. C. (2004). Job satisfaction of

elementary
school counselors: A new look. Professional School Counseling,
7,
236–245.
Dinkmeyer, D., Carlson, J., & Michel, R. E. (2016).
Consultation:
Creating school-based interventions (4th ed.). New York, NY:
Routledge.
Education Trust. (2009). The new vision for school counselors:
Scope
of their work. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from https://
edtrust.org/resource/the-new-vision-for-school-counselors-
scope-
of-the-work/
Gruman, D. H., Marston, T., & Koon, H. (2013). Bringing
mental
health needs into focus through school counseling program
trans-
formation. Professional School Counseling, 16, 333–341. doi:
10.1177/2156759X1201600506
Hatch, T., & Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2008). School counselor beliefs
about

ASCA National Model school counseling program components
using the SCPCS. Professional School Counseling, 12, 34–42.
doi:10.1177/2156759X0801200104
Lambie, G. W., & Williamson, L. L. (2004). The challenge to
change
from guidance counseling to professional school counseling: A
historical proposition. Professional School Counseling, 8,
124–131.
Lapan, R. T., Gysbers, N. C., & Kayson, M. (2006). How
implement-
ing all Missouri guidance programs improves academic achieve-
ment for all Missouri students. Jefferson City: Missouri
Department of Elementary and Secondary Education.
Lawson, G. (2007). Counselor wellness and impairment: A
national
survey. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and
Development, 46, 20–34. doi:10.1002/j.2161-
1939.2007.tb00023.x
Lawson, G., & Myers, J. E. (2011). Wellness, professional
quality of

life, and career-sustaining behaviors: What keeps us well?
Journal
of Counseling & Development, 89, 163–171.
doi:10.1002/j.1556-
6678.2011.tb00074.x
Lawson, G., Venart, E., Hazler, R. J., & Kottler, J. A. (2007).
Toward
a culture of counselor wellness. The Journal of Humanistic
Coun-
seling, Education and Development, 46, 5–19.
doi:10.1002/j.2161-
1939.2007.tb00022.x
Leuwerke, W. C., Walker, J., & Shi, Q. (2009). Informing
principals:
The impact of different types of information on principals’
percep-
tions of professional school counselors. Professional School
Coun-
seling, 12, 263–271 doi:10.1177/2156759X0901200404
Lieberman, A. (2004). Confusion regarding school counselor
func-
tions: School leadership impacts role clarity. Education, 124,
552–559.

Limberg, D., Lambie, G., & Robinson, E. H. (2016). The
contribution of
school counselors’ altruism to their degree of burnout.
Professional
School Counseling, 20, 127–138. doi:10.5330/1096-2409-
20.1.127
McCarthy, C., Kerne, V., Calfa, N., Lambert, R., & Guzmán, M.
(2010). An exploration of school counselors’ demands and
resources: Relationship to stress, biographic, and caseload
charac-
teristics. Professional School Counseling, 13, 146–158. doi:
10.1177/2156759X1001300302
McCotter, S., & Cohen, S. (2013). Are middle school
counseling
programs meeting early adolescent needs? A survey of
principals
and counselors. The Journal of Counselor Preparation and
Super-
vision, 5, 6–27. doi:10.7729/51.0015
Moyer, M. (2011). Effects of non-guidance activities,
supervision, and
student-to-counselor ratios on school counselor burnout. Journal

of
School Counseling, 9, 1–5. Retrieved from
http://jsc.montana.edu/
articles/v9n5.pdf
Murphy, S., & Kaffenberger, C. (2007). ASCA National Model
®
: The
foundation for supervision of practicum and internship students.
Professional School Counseling, 10, 289–296. doi:10.1177/
2156759X0701000311
Myers, J. E., & Sweeney, T. J. (2005a). Counseling for
wellness:
Theory, research, and practice. Alexandria, VA: American
Coun-
seling Association.
Myers, J. E., & Sweeney, T. J. (2005b). Manual for the five
factor
wellness inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Mind Garden.
Myers, J. E., Sweeney, T. J., & Witmer, J. M. (2000). The wheel
of
wellness counseling for wellness: A holistic model for treatment

planning. Journal of Counseling & Development, 78, 251–266.
doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb01906.x
Olsen, J., Parikh-Foxx, S., Flowers, C., & Algozzine, B. (2016).
An
examination of factors that relate to school counselors’
knowledge
and skills in multi-tiered systems of support. Professional
School
Counseling, 20, 159–171. doi:10.5330/1096-2409-20.1.159
Page, B. J., Pietrzak, D. R., & Sutton, J. M., Jr. (2001).
National survey
of school counselor supervision. Counselor Education and
Super-
vision, 41, 142–150. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6978.2001.tb01278.x
Perera-Diltz, D. M., & Mason, K. L. (2008). Ideal to real:
Duties
performed by school counselors. Journal of School Counseling,
6, 1–36. Retrieved from
Pérusse, R., & Goodnough, G. E. (2001). A comparison of
existing
school counselor program content with the Education Trust
initia-

tives. Counselor Education and Supervision, 41, 100–110. doi:
10.1002/j.1556-6978.2001.tb01274.x
Pérusse, R., Goodnough, G. E., Donegan, J., & Jones, C. (2004).
Perceptions of school counselors and school principals about
the
national standards for school counseling programs and the
trans-
forming school counseling initiative. Professional School
Counsel-
ing, 7, 152–161.
Pyne, J. R. (2011). Comprehensive school counseling programs,
job
satisfaction, and the ASCA National Model. Professional School
Counseling, 15, 88–97. doi:10.1177/2156759X1101500202
Salina, C., Girtz, S., Eppinga, J., Martinez, D., Kilian, D.,
Lozano, E.,
& Shines, T. (2013). All hands on deck: A comprehensive,
results-
driven counseling model. Professional School Counseling, 17,
63–75. doi:10.1177/2156759X0001700112

https://edtrust.org/resource/the-new-vision-for-school-
counselors-scope-of-the-work/
Scarborough, J. (2005). The school counselor activity rating
scale: An
instrument for gathering process data. Professional School
Coun-
seling, 8, 274–283.
Scarborough, J. L., & Culbreth, J. R. (2008). Examining
discrepancies
between actual and preferred practice of school counselors.
Jour-
nal of Counseling & Development, 86, 446–459. doi:10.1002/
j.1556-6678.2008.tb00533.x
Whiston, S. C., Tai, W. L., Rahardja, D., & Eder, K. (2011).
School
counseling outcome: A meta-analytic examination of interven-
tions. Journal of Counseling & Development, 89, 37–55. doi:

10.1002/j.1556-6678.2011.tb00059.x
Wilkerson, K., & Bellini, J. (2006). Intrapersonal and
organizational
factors associated with burnout among school counselors.
Journal
of Counseling & Development, 84, 440–450.
doi:10.1002/j.1556-
6678.2006.tb00428.x
Wilkerson, K., Pérusse, R., & Hughes, A. (2013).
Comprehensive
school counseling programs and student achievement outcomes:
A comparative analysis of RAMP versus non-RAMP schools.
Pro-
fessional School Counseling, 16, 172–184. doi:10.1177/
2156759X1701600302
Witmer, J., & Granello, P. (2005). Wellness in counselor
education
and supervision. In J. E. Myers & T. J. Sweeney (Eds.),
Counseling
for wellness: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 342–361).
Alex-
andria, VA: American Counseling Association.

Young, A., & Kaffenberger, C. (2011). The beliefs and practices
of
school counselors who use data to implement comprehensive
school counseling programs. Professional School Counseling,
15,
67–76. doi:10.1177/2156759X1101500204
Young, A., & Kaffenberger, C. (2015). School counseling
profes-
sional development: Assessing the use of data to inform school
counseling services. Professional School Counseling, 19, 46–56.
doi:10.5330/1096-2409-19.1.46
Young, M. E., & Lambie, G. W. (2007). Wellness in school and
mental health systems: Organizational influences. The Journal
of
Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 46, 98–
113.
doi:10.1002/j.2161-1939.2007.tb00028.x
Author Biographies
Nicole M. Randick, EdD, is a core faculty member and direc-
tor of assessment and online learning at Adler Graduate School

in Minnetonka, MN.
Shannon Dermer, PhD, is an interim dean of the College of
Education at Governors State University in University Park, IL.
Rebecca E. Michel, PhD, is an assistant professor at DePaul
University in Chicago, IL.
Randick et al. 11
<<
/ASCII85EncodePages false
/AllowTransparency false
/AutoPositionEPSFiles true
/AutoRotatePages /None
/Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Gray Gamma 2.2)
/CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated 050SWOP051 v2)
/sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
/CompatibilityLevel 1.4
/CompressObjects /Off
/CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true
/PassThroughJPEGImages false
/CreateJobTicket false
/DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true
/DetectCurves 0.1000
/ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
/DoThumbnails false
/EmbedAllFonts true
/EmbedOpenType false

/ParseICCProfilesInComments true
/EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0
/EmitDSCWarnings false
/EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576
/LockDistillerParams true
/MaxSubsetPct 100
/Optimize true
/OPM 1
/ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
/PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true
/PreserveEPSInfo true
/PreserveFlatness false
/PreserveHalftoneInfo false
/PreserveOPIComments false
/PreserveOverprintSettings true
/StartPage 1
/SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
/UCRandBGInfo /Remove
/UsePrologue false
/ColorSettingsFile ()
/AlwaysEmbed [ true
]
/NeverEmbed [ true
]
/AntiAliasColorImages false
/CropColorImages false
/ColorImageMinResolution 266
/ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true
/ColorImageDownsampleType /Average
/ColorImageResolution 175

/ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
/ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50286
/EncodeColorImages true
/ColorImageFilter /DCTEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages true
/ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.40
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/ColorImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.76
>>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages false
/GrayImageMinResolution 266
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Average
/GrayImageResolution 175
/GrayImageDepth -1
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50286
/EncodeGrayImages true

/GrayImageFilter /DCTEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages true
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.40
>>
/GrayImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.76
>>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages false
/MonoImageMinResolution 900
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages true
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 175
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50286
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict <<
/K -1
>>
/AllowPSXObjects false

/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox false
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (U.S. Web Coated 050SWOP051
v2)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier (CGATS TR 001)
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName (http://www.color.org)
/PDFXTrapped /Unknown
/CreateJDFFile false
/Description <<
/ENU
<FEFF00550073006500200074006800650073006500200053006
1006700650020007300740061006e006400610072006400200073
0065007400740069006e0067007300200066006f0072002000630
0720065006100740069006e006700200077006500620020005000
440046002000660069006c00650073002e0020005400680065007
30065002000730065007400740069006e0067007300200063006f

006e006600690067007500720065006400200066006f007200200
04100630072006f006200610074002000760037002e0030002e00
20004300720065006100740065006400200062007900200054007
2006f00790020004f007400730020006100740020005300610067
00650020005500530020006f006e002000310031002f003100300
02f0032003000300036002e000d000d0032003000300050005000
49002f003600300030005000500049002f004a005000450047002
0004d0065006400690075006d002f004300430049005400540020
00470072006f0075007000200034>
>>
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames true
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AllowImageBreaks true

/AllowTableBreaks true
/ExpandPage false
/HonorBaseURL true
/HonorRolloverEffect false
/IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false
/IncludeHeaderFooter false
/MarginOffset [
0
0
0
0
]
/MetadataAuthor ()
/MetadataKeywords ()
/MetadataSubject ()
/MetadataTitle ()
/MetricPageSize [
0
0
]
/MetricUnit /inch
/MobileCompatible 0
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(GoLive)
(8.0)
]
/OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false
/PageOrientation /Portrait
/RemoveBackground false
/ShrinkContent true
/TreatColorsAs /MainMonitorColors
/UseEmbeddedProfiles false
/UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true
>>
<<

/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks false
/AddPageInfo false
/AddRegMarks false
/BleedOffset [
9
9
9
9
]
/ConvertColors /ConvertToRGB
/DestinationProfileName (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/DestinationProfileSelector /UseName
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/ClipComplexRegions true
/ConvertStrokesToOutlines false
/ConvertTextToOutlines false
/GradientResolution 300
/LineArtTextResolution 1200
/PresetName ([High Resolution])
/PresetSelector /HighResolution
/RasterVectorBalance 1
>>
/FormElements true
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles true
/MarksOffset 9
/MarksWeight 0.125000
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [

(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
/PageMarksFile /RomanDefault
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /UseDocumentProfile
/UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
]
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [288 288]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
Soria 2
Victoria Soria
Dean Winther
English 101
10 March 2020
RAVENArticle 1 by Theresa Capra (2009).
Reputation. The author is a renowned researcher at Mercer
County Community College who holds a Ph.D. and specializes
in issues of education and children.
Ability to Observe. Being a researcher, the author is in a
position to access reliable evidence from other scholarly
researchers like her. Working as a director in the College also
allows her to observe the effects of poverty on the education of
children.

Vested Interest. Being a researcher, the author has no personal
interest in the topic. Instead, she seeks to inform the general
public about the effects of poverty.
Expertise. The author is an expert in the field of education such
that she is even pursuing her Ph.D. She also refers to scholarly
sources written by experts as evidence in the article.
Neutrality. The author is neutral about poverty and education.
She provides a discussion of the causes, effects, and possible
solutions that can be applied to curb the problem. Article 2 by
Sean Slade (2015)
Reputation. The author is the director of Global Outreach at
ASCD which aims at providing quality education that will grow
children emotionally, physically, psychologically, and socially
(ASCD, 2020). Thus, the author is in a position of authority.
Ability to Observe. The author is in a position that allows him
to access reliable evidence. Being the director of Global
Outreach at ASCD, the author works and interacts with children
and this allows him to observe how poverty can affect their
education.
Vested Interest. The author has some personal interest in the
topic. He is a contributor to news being posted on the website.
Thus, to get more views and reads, the author has to write
something captivating and which will get more reads. This will
increase his image in the online world.
Expertise. The author is not an expert in the field of poverty and
education. Judging from the website, the author is just a
contributor. It is only one evidence that quotes scholarly
research. All the other evidence is from news and politics.
Neutrality. The author is biased about the issue of poverty and
its impact on education. The author decided to focus on the
negative side of poverty only. This painted a bad picture on the
government and rich countries who, it is claimed, are the ones
who cause poverty. Although this is partially true, the author
fails to recognize intervention efforts from these rich countries
that have worked to curb poverty. In this biased state, the
author presents a one-sided argument only. Article 3 by Kelley

Taylor (2017)
Reputation. The author is a contributor to contents on the
Insight website which reports news about various issues facing
the world today. being a magazine website, the source is not in
a position of authority.
Ability to Observe. Being a news reporter, the author is in a
position to access reliable evidence through researching on the
internet and conducting interviews.
Vested Interest. The author has a personal stake in the topic.
Being a reporter, telling the truth or lying will provide the
author with exposure and more clicks to the website.
Expertise. The author is not a specialist in the issue of poverty
and education. The evidence quoted, however, comes from
reliable sources such as directors in institutions that research
child poverty and education.
Neutrality. The author is neutral about the issue of poverty.
Although highlighting its negative impacts, the author also
discusses the possible interventions that can be implemented to
address the impact of poverty on education.
Works Cited
Theresa Capra (2009). Poverty and its Impact on Education:
Today and Tomorrow.
http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/HE/TA09PovertyCapra.pdf
ASCD (2020). Sean Slade-Senior Director of Global Outreach.
http://www.ascd.org/news-media/Sean-Slade-Director-
Outreach.aspx
Kelley Taylor (2017). Poverty Long-Lasting Effects on
Students’ Education and Success.
https://www.insightintodiversity.com/povertys-long-lasting-
effects-on-students-education-and-success/

Soria 2Victoria Soria Dean WintherEnglish 101 04 Februar.docx

Soria 2Victoria Soria Dean WintherEnglish 101 04 Februar.docx

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Soria 2Victoria Soria Dean WintherEnglish 101 04 Februar.docx

Similar to Soria 2Victoria Soria Dean WintherEnglish 101 04 Februar.docx (20)

More from rosemariebrayshaw

More from rosemariebrayshaw (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Soria 2Victoria Soria Dean WintherEnglish 101 04 Februar.docx