This document contains solutions to problems involving the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) and discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT) of sequences:
1) It calculates the DFT of several sequences including (1, 0, -1, 0), (j, 0, j, 1), and a constant sequence.
2) It determines the DTFT of sequences including a sequence involving cosine terms and geometric sequences.
3) It expresses the solutions in terms of standard formulas and properties of the DFT and DTFT, applying concepts like geometric sums to evaluate the transforms.
On Application of the Fixed-Point Theorem to the Solution of Ordinary Differe...BRNSS Publication Hub
We know that a large number of problems in differential equations can be reduced to finding the solution x to an equation of the form Tx=y. The operator T maps a subset of a Banach space X into another Banach space Y and y is a known element of Y. If y=0 and Tx=Ux−x, for another operator U, the equation Tx=y is equivalent to the equation Ux=x. Naturally, to solve Ux=x, we must assume that the range R (U) and the domain D (U) have points in common. Points x for which Ux=x are called fixed points of the operator U. In this work, we state the main fixed-point theorems that are most widely used in the field of differential equations. These are the Banach contraction principle, the Schauder–Tychonoff theorem, and the Leray–Schauder theorem. We will only prove the first theorem and then proceed.
On Application of the Fixed-Point Theorem to the Solution of Ordinary Differe...BRNSS Publication Hub
We know that a large number of problems in differential equations can be reduced to finding the solution x to an equation of the form Tx=y. The operator T maps a subset of a Banach space X into another Banach space Y and y is a known element of Y. If y=0 and Tx=Ux−x, for another operator U, the equation Tx=y is equivalent to the equation Ux=x. Naturally, to solve Ux=x, we must assume that the range R (U) and the domain D (U) have points in common. Points x for which Ux=x are called fixed points of the operator U. In this work, we state the main fixed-point theorems that are most widely used in the field of differential equations. These are the Banach contraction principle, the Schauder–Tychonoff theorem, and the Leray–Schauder theorem. We will only prove the first theorem and then proceed.
EXPERT SYSTEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Project Center For Research in Power Electronics and Power Systems
IEEE 2010 , IEEE 2011 BASED PROJECTS FOR FINAL YEAR STUDENTS OF B.E
Email: expertsyssol@gmail.com,
Cell: +919952749533, +918608603634
www.researchprojects.info
OMR, CHENNAI
IEEE based Projects For
Final year students of B.E in
EEE, ECE, EIE,CSE
M.E (Power Systems)
M.E (Applied Electronics)
M.E (Power Electronics)
Ph.D Electrical and Electronics.
Training
Students can assemble their hardware in our Research labs. Experts will be guiding the projects.
EXPERT GUIDANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS POWER ELECTRONICS
We provide guidance and codes for the for the following power systems areas.
1. Deregulated Systems,
2. Wind power Generation and Grid connection
3. Unit commitment
4. Economic Dispatch using AI methods
5. Voltage stability
6. FLC Control
7. Transformer Fault Identifications
8. SCADA - Power system Automation
we provide guidance and codes for the for the following power Electronics areas.
1. Three phase inverter and converters
2. Buck Boost Converter
3. Matrix Converter
4. Inverter and converter topologies
5. Fuzzy based control of Electric Drives.
6. Optimal design of Electrical Machines
7. BLDC and SR motor Drives
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Computing f-Divergences and Distances of\\ High-Dimensional Probability Densi...Alexander Litvinenko
Talk presented on SIAM IS 2022 conference.
Very often, in the course of uncertainty quantification tasks or
data analysis, one has to deal with high-dimensional random variables (RVs)
(with values in $\Rd$). Just like any other RV,
a high-dimensional RV can be described by its probability density (\pdf) and/or
by the corresponding probability characteristic functions (\pcf),
or a more general representation as
a function of other, known, random variables.
Here the interest is mainly to compute characterisations like the entropy, the Kullback-Leibler, or more general
$f$-divergences. These are all computed from the \pdf, which is often not available directly,
and it is a computational challenge to even represent it in a numerically
feasible fashion in case the dimension $d$ is even moderately large. It
is an even stronger numerical challenge to then actually compute said characterisations
in the high-dimensional case.
In this regard, in order to achieve a computationally feasible task, we propose
to approximate density by a low-rank tensor.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
EXPERT SYSTEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Project Center For Research in Power Electronics and Power Systems
IEEE 2010 , IEEE 2011 BASED PROJECTS FOR FINAL YEAR STUDENTS OF B.E
Email: expertsyssol@gmail.com,
Cell: +919952749533, +918608603634
www.researchprojects.info
OMR, CHENNAI
IEEE based Projects For
Final year students of B.E in
EEE, ECE, EIE,CSE
M.E (Power Systems)
M.E (Applied Electronics)
M.E (Power Electronics)
Ph.D Electrical and Electronics.
Training
Students can assemble their hardware in our Research labs. Experts will be guiding the projects.
EXPERT GUIDANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS POWER ELECTRONICS
We provide guidance and codes for the for the following power systems areas.
1. Deregulated Systems,
2. Wind power Generation and Grid connection
3. Unit commitment
4. Economic Dispatch using AI methods
5. Voltage stability
6. FLC Control
7. Transformer Fault Identifications
8. SCADA - Power system Automation
we provide guidance and codes for the for the following power Electronics areas.
1. Three phase inverter and converters
2. Buck Boost Converter
3. Matrix Converter
4. Inverter and converter topologies
5. Fuzzy based control of Electric Drives.
6. Optimal design of Electrical Machines
7. BLDC and SR motor Drives
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Computing f-Divergences and Distances of\\ High-Dimensional Probability Densi...Alexander Litvinenko
Talk presented on SIAM IS 2022 conference.
Very often, in the course of uncertainty quantification tasks or
data analysis, one has to deal with high-dimensional random variables (RVs)
(with values in $\Rd$). Just like any other RV,
a high-dimensional RV can be described by its probability density (\pdf) and/or
by the corresponding probability characteristic functions (\pcf),
or a more general representation as
a function of other, known, random variables.
Here the interest is mainly to compute characterisations like the entropy, the Kullback-Leibler, or more general
$f$-divergences. These are all computed from the \pdf, which is often not available directly,
and it is a computational challenge to even represent it in a numerically
feasible fashion in case the dimension $d$ is even moderately large. It
is an even stronger numerical challenge to then actually compute said characterisations
in the high-dimensional case.
In this regard, in order to achieve a computationally feasible task, we propose
to approximate density by a low-rank tensor.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
1. Chapter 3: Problem Solutions
Fourier Analysis of Discrete Time Signals
Problems on the DTFT: Definitions and Basic Properties
à Problem 3.1
Problem
Using the definition determine the DTFT of the following sequences. It it does not exist say why:
a) xn 0.5n
un
b) xn 0.5n
c) xn 2nun
d )xn 0.5n
un
e) xn 2n
f) xn 30.8n
cos0.1n
Solution
a) Applying the geometric series
X
n0
0.5n
ejn 1
10.5ej
b) Applying the geometric series
2. X
n0
0.5n
ejn
n1
0.5n
ejn
n0
0.5n
ejn
n0
0.5n
ejn 1 1
10.5ej 1
10.5ej 1
1.5
2. 0.5
c) Applying the geometric series
X
n0
2nejn
n0
2nejn 1
10.5ej
d) Applying the geometric series
X
n0
0.5n
ejn
n0
0.5n
ejn
n0
2nejn does not converge
and the DTFT does not exist;
e) Applying the geometric series
X
n0
2nejn
n1
2n
ejn
n0
2nejn
n1
2nejn does not converge
and the DTFT does not exist;
f) Expanding the cosine, we can write
xn 3
2 0.8n
ej0.1nun 3
2 1.25n
ej0.1nun 1
3
2 0.8n
ej0.1nun 3
2 1.25n
ej0.1nun 1
which becomes
xn 3
2 0.8ej0.1
n
un 3
2 1.25ej0.1
n
un 1
3
2 0.8 ej0.1
n
un 3
2 1.25 ej0.1
n
un 1
Taking the DTFT of every term, recall that
DTFTanun
n0
anejn ej
eja , if a 1
DTFTanun 1
n1
anejn
n0
anejn 1 ej
eja , if a 1
Therefore we obtain
Xw = ejw
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ejw-0.8äej0 .1 p + ejw
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ejw-0.8äe-j0 .1 p - ejw
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ejw-1.25äej0 .1 p - ejw
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅÅ
ejw-1.25äe-j0 .1 p
2 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. Basic Problems on the DFT
à Problem 3.3
Problem
Compute the DFT of the following sequences
a) x 1, 0, 1, 0
b) x j, 0, j, 1
c) x 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1
d) xn cos0.25n, n 0, ..., 7
e) xn 0.9n
, n 0, ..., 7
Solution
a) N 4 therefore w4 ej24 j. Therefore
Xk
n0
3
xnjnk
1 j2k
, k 0, 1, 2, 3. This yields
X 0, 2, 0, 2
b) Similarly, Xk j jj2k
j3k
j j1k
jk, k 0, ..., 3, which
yields
X 1 2j, j, 1 2j, j
c) N 8 and w8 ej28 ej4 . Therefore, applying the geometric sum we obtain
Xk
n0
7
w8nk
1w88k
1w8k 0 when k 0
8 when k 0
since wNN
ej2N
N
1. Therefore
X 8, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0
d) Again N 8 and w8 ej4 . Therefore
4 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
10. Xk 1
2
n0
7
ej
4 nej
4 nk
n0
7
ej
4 nej
4 nk
1
2
n0
7
ej
4 k1n
n0
7
ej
4 k1n
Applying the geometric sum we obtain
X 0, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 4
e) Xk
n0
7
0.9n
ej
4 nk 10.98
10.9ej
4 k , for k 0, ..., 7 Substituting numerically we
obtain
X 5.69, 0.38 0.67 j, 0.31 0.28 j,
0.30 0.11 j, 0.30, 0.30 0.11 j, 0.31 0.28 j, 0.38 0.67 j
à Problem 3.4
Problem
Let X 1, j, 1, j, H 0, 1, 1, 1 be the DFT's of two sequences x and h respec-
tively. Using the properties of the DFT (do not compute the sequences) determine the DFT's of the
following:
Solution
a) xn 14
Recall DFTxn mN wN
kmXk. In our case w4 ej24 j and therefore
DFTxn 14 jk
Xk for k 0, ..., 3
This yields DFTxn 14 1, 1, 1, 1
b) DFTxn 34 j3k
Xk 1, 1, 1, 1
c) Yk HkXk from the property of circular convolution. This yields
Y 0, j, 1, j
Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb 5
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20. a) DFTx3, x0, x1, x2
b) DFT h0, -h1, h2, -h3
c) DFT h≈ x, where ≈ denotes circular convolution
d) DFT x0, h0, x1, h1, x2, h2, x3, h3
Solution
a) DFT x3, x0, x1, x2 = DFT xn - 14 = w4
-k
Xk with w4 = e-j2p4
= - j Therefore
DFT x3, x0, x1, x2 = - jk
1, j, -1, - j = 1, 1, 1, 1
b) DFT h0, -h1, h2, -h3 =
DFT -1n
hn = DFT e-j22 p 4 n hn = Hk - 24 = 1, 1 - j, 0, 1 + j
c) DFT h≈ x = Hk Xk = 0, -1 + j, -1, -1 - j
d) Let y = x0, h0, x1, h1, x2, h2, x3, h3, with length N = 8. Therefore its DFT is
Yk = S
n=0
7
yn w8
nk = S
m=0
3
y2 m w8
2 mk + S
m=0
3
y2 m + 1 w8
2 m+1 k
Yk = Xk + w8
k Hk, for k = 0, ..., 7
This yields
Y = 1, j + 1 + j e- j p
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
4 , -1 - j, - j + 1 - j e- 3 j p
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
4 , 1, j + 1 + j e
3 j p
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
4 , -1 + j, - j + 1 - j e
j p
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
4
à Problem 3.8
Problem
Two finite sequences h and x have the following DFT's:
X = DFT x = 1, -2, 1, -2
H = DFT h = 1, j, 1, - j
Let y = h ≈ x be the four point circular convolution of the two sequences. Using the properties of the
DFT (do not compute xn and hn),
a) determine DFT xn - 14 and DFT hn + 24;
b) determine y0 and y1.
8 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
21.
22.
23. Solution
a) DFT xn - 14 = - jk
Xk = - j-k
1, -2, 1, -2 = 1, 2 j, -1, -2 j. Similarly
DFT hn + 24 = - j2 k
Hk = -1k
1, j, 1, - j = 1, - j, , 1, j
b) y0 = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
4
S
k=0
3
Yk = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
4
1 0 + j 1 + j + -1 1 + - j 1 - j = -3
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
4
and
y1 = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
4
S
k=0
3
Yk - j-k
= 1
ÅÅÅÅ
4
1 0 + j 1 + j - j-1
+ -1 1 - j-2
+ - j 1 - j - j-3
= -1
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
4
à Problem 3.9
Problem
Let x be a finite sequence with DFT
X = DFT x = 0, 1 + j, 1, 1 - j
Using the properties of the DFT determine the DFT's of the following:
a) yn = ejp2 n xn
b) yn = cos p
ÅÅÅÅ
2
n xn
c) yn = xn - 14
d) yn = 0, 0, 1, 0∆ xn with ∆ denoting circular convolution
Solution
a) Since ejp2 n xn = ej2 p4 n xn then DFT ejp2 n xn = Xk - 14 = 1 - j, 0, 1 + j, 1
b) In this case yn = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
2
ej2 p4 n
xn + 1
ÅÅÅÅ
2
e- j2 p4 n
xn and therefore its DFT is
1
ÅÅÅÅ
2
Xk - 14 + 1
ÅÅÅÅ
2
Xk + 14 = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
2
1 - j, 0, 1 + j, 1 + 1
ÅÅÅÅ
2
1 + j, 1, 1 - j, 0. Putting things together
we obtain
Y = 1, 1
ÅÅÅÅ
2
, 1, 1
ÅÅÅÅ
2
c) DFT xn - 14 = e- j2 p4 k Xk = - jk
Xk and therefore
Y = 0, 1 - j, -1, 1 + j
d) DFT xn - 24 = - j2 k
Xk = -1k
Xk = 0, -1, j, 1, -1 + j
Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb 9
24. Problems on DFT: Manipulation of Properties and Derivation of Other
Properties
à Problem 3.11
Problem
You know that DFT 1, 2, 3, 4 = 10, -2 + 2 j, -2, -2 - 2 j. Use the minimum number of opera-
tions to compute the following transforms:
Solution
a) Let
x = 1, 2, 3, 4
s = 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4
y = 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0
Then we can write yn = sn wn, n = 0, ..., 7 where
w = 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0
and then, by a property of the DFT we can determine
Yk = DFT yn = DFT sn wn = 1
ÅÅÅÅÅÅ
N
Wk≈Sk
Let's relate the respective DFT's:
Sk = DFT s = S
n=0
7
sn w8
n k
= S
n=0
3
sn w8
n k
+ S
n=0
3
sn + 4 w8
n+4 k
= S
n=0
3
sn w8
n k + -1k
S
n=0
3
sn w8
n k
= 1 + -1k
S
n=0
3
sn w8
n k
This implies that
10 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
25. S2 k = 2 Xk
S2 k + 1 = 0
and therefore
S = DFT 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4 = 2 X0, 0, X1, 0, X2, 0, X3, 0
Furthermore:
W = DFT w = S
n=0
3
w8
n k =
1--1k
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
1-w8
k if k = 1, ..., 7
4 if k = 0
and therefore
W = 4, 1 - j2 .4142, 0 , 1 - j 0.4142, 0, 1 + j0 .4142, 0, 1 + j 2.4142
Finally the result:
Yk = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
8
S
m=0
7
Sm Wk - m8
= 1
ÅÅÅÅ
8
S
p=0
3
2 Xp Wk - 2 p8
= 1
ÅÅÅÅ
4
S
p=0
3
Xp Wk - 2 p8
where we used the fact that Sm ∫ 0 only for m even, and S2 p = 2 Xp.
The final result is simpler than it seems. In fact notice that W2 = W4 = W6 = 0. This implies that
Y0 = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
4
W0 X0 = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
2
X0 = 10
Y2 = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
4
W0 X1 = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
2
X1 = -2 + 2 j
Y4 = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
4
W0 X2 = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
2
X2 = -2
and we have only to compute
Y1 = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
4
W1 X0 + W7 X1 + W5 X2 + W3 X3 = -0.4142 - j 2.4142
Y3 = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
4
W3 X0 + W1 X1 + W7 X2 + W5 X3 = 2.4142 - j 1.2426
All other terms are computed by symmetry as Y8 - k = Y*k, for k = 1, 2, 3.
b) Let y = 1, 0, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 0. Then we can write
Yk = S
n=0
7
yn w8
n k = S
m=0
3
xm w8
2 m k
since y2 m = xm and y2 m + 1 = 0. From the fact that
w8
2 = e- j 2 p
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
8 2 = w4
Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb 11
26. we can write
Yk = S
m=0
3
xm w4
m k = Xk, k = 0, 1, ..., 7
and therefore
Y = 10, -2 + 2 j, -2, -2 - 2 j, 10, -2 + 2 j, -2, -2 - 2 j
à Problem 3.12
Problem
You know that the DFT of the sequence x x0, ..., xN 1 is
X X0, ..., XN 1. Now consider two sequences:
s x0, ..., xN 1, x0, ..., xN 1
y x0, ..., xN 1, 0, ... , 0
´¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨
¨≠ Æ
¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨
¨
N times
both of length 2N. Let S DFTs and Y DFTy.
a) Show that S2m 2Xm, and S2m 1 0, for m 0, ..., N 1;
b) Show that Y2m Xm for m 0, ..., N 1;
c) Determine an expression for Y2m 1, k 0, ..., N 1. Use the fact that
yn snwn where w 1, ..., 1
´¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨
¨≠ Æ
¨¨¨¨¨¨¨
¨
N times
, 0, ..., 0
´¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨
¨≠ Æ
¨¨¨¨¨¨¨
¨
N times
is the rectangular sequence.
Solution
a) Sk
n0
N1
xnw2Nnk
n0
N1
xnw2NnNk
from the definition of sn. Now
consider that w2N
Nk ej22N2N 1. Also consider that w2N ej22N wN
1
2 . Therefore
we obtain
Sk 1 1k
n0
N1
xnw2Nnk
0 if k is odd
2X k
2 if k is even
b) Y2m
n0
N1
xnw2N2m n
. But again w2N2
wN and therefore Y2m Xm, for
m 0, ..., N 1
c) Since clearly yn snwn for all n 0, ..., 2N 1, we can use the property of the
DFT which states
DFTsn wn 1
2N Sk Wk
where Wk DFTwn
n0
N1
w2Nnk
1w2NNk
1w2Nk . Therefore
12 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
27. Yk 1
2N
m0
N1
Xm Hk 2m2N
where we take into account the result in part a). ie S2m Xm and S2m 1 0.
à Problem 3.13
Problem
A problem in many software packages is that you have access only to positive indexes. Suppose you
want to determine the DFT of the sequence x 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
n0
, 5, 6, 7 with the zero index
as shown, and the DFT algorithm let you compute the DFT of a sequence like
x0, ..., xN 1, what do you do?
Solution
Since x is effectively a period of a periodic sequence, we determine the DFT of one period starting at
n 0, which yields
X DFT4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1, 2, 3
à Problem 3.14
Problem
Let Xk DFTxn with n, k 0, ..., N 1. Determine the relationships between
Xk and the following DFT's:
a) DFTxn
b) DFTxnN
c) DFTRexn
d) DFTImxn
e) apply all the above properties to the sequence x IDFT1, j, 2, 3j
Solution
a) DFTxn
n0
N1
xnwN
nk
n0
N1
xnwN
nk
XkN
b) DFTxnN
n0
N1
xnNwN
nk
n0
N1
xnwN
nk XkN
c) DFTRexn 1
2 DFTxn 1
2 DFTxn 1
2 Xk 1
2 XkN
Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb 13
28. d) DFTImxn 1
2j DFTxn 1
2j DFTxn 1
2j Xk 1
2j XkN
e) DFTxn 1, 3j, 2, j
DFTxnN 1, 3j, 2, j
DFTRexn 1, 2j, 2, 2j
DFTImxn 0, 1, 0, 1
à Problem 3.15
Problem
Let xn IDFTXk for n, k 0, ..., N 1. Determine the relationship between xn
and the following IDFT's:
a) IDFTXk
b) IDFTXkN
c) IDFTReXk
d) IDFTImXk
e) apply all the above properties to the sequence Xk DFT1, 2j, j, 4j
Solution
a) IDFTXk 1
N
k0
N1
XkwN
nk 1
N
k0
N1
XkwN
nk
xnN
b) IDFTXkN 1
N
k0
N1
XkNwN
nk 1
N
k0
N1
XkwN
nk xnN
c) IDFTReXk 1
2 IDFTXk 1
2 IDFTXk 1
2 xn 1
2 xnN
d) IDFTImXk
1
2j IDFTXk 1
2j IDFTXk 1
2j xn 1
2j xnN
e) IDFTXk 1, 4j, j, 2j
IDFTXkN 1, 4j, j, 2j
IDFTReXk 1, j, 0, j
IDFTImXk 0, 3, 1, 3
14 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
29. à Problem 3.16
Problem
Let xn be an infinite sequence, periodic with period N. This sequence is the input to a BIBO stable
LTI system with impulse response hn, n . Say how you can use the DFT to determine
the output of the system.
Solution
Call x x0, ..., xN 1 one period of the signal, and let X DFTx. Then the whole
infinite sequence xn can be expressed as xn 1
N
k0
N1
Xkej k2
N n . Therefore the output
becomes
yn 1
N
k0
N1
XkH k2
N ej k2
N n
We can see that the output sequence yn is also periodic, with the same period N given by
yn IDFTH k2
N Xk, for n, k 0, ..., N 1
à Problem 3.17
Problem
Let xn be a periodic signal with one period given by 1, 2, 3
n0
, 4, 5, 6 with the zero
index as shown.
It is the input to a LTI system with impulse response hn 0.8n
. Determine one period of the
output sequence yn.
Solution
The input signal is periodic with period N = 6 and it can be written as
xn = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
6
S
k=0
5
Xk ej k p
ÅÅÅÅÅ
3 n
, for all n,
where
Xk = DFT 3, -4, 5, -6, 1, -2 =
-3.0, 3.0 + j 1.7321, -3.0 - j 5.1962, 21.0, -3.0 + j 5.1962, 3.0 - j 1.7321
The frequency response of the system is given by
Hw = DTFT 0.8n
un + 1.25n
u-n - 1 = ejw
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ejw-0.8
- ejw
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅÅ
ejw-1.25
Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb 15
30. Therefore the response to the periodic signal xn becomes
yn = 1
ÅÅÅÅ
6
S
k=0
5
Hk Xk ej k p
ÅÅÅÅÅ
3 n , for all n,
with
Hk = Hw w=kp3 = ej k p
ÅÅÅÅÅ
3
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ej k p
ÅÅÅÅÅ
3 -0.8
- ej k p
ÅÅÅÅÅ
3
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ej k p
ÅÅÅÅÅ
3 -1.25
, k = 0, ..., 5
Therefore one period of the output signal is determined as
yn = IDFT Hk Xk, n = 0, ..., 5,
where
Hk = 9.0, 0.4286, 0.1475, 0.1111, 0.1475, 0.4286
Computing the IDFT we obtain
yn = -3.8301, -4.6079, -3.8160, -5.4650, -4.6872, -4.5938, n = 0, ..., 5
The DFT: Data Analysis
à Problem 3.18
Problem
A narrowband signal is sampled at 8kHz and we take the DFT of 16 points as follows. Determine the
best estimate of the frequency of the sinusoid, its possible range of values and an estimate of the
amplitude:
X 0.4889, 4.0267 j24.6698, 2.0054 j5.0782,
1.8607 j2.8478, 1.8170 j1.8421, 1.7983 j1.2136,
1.7893 j0.7471, 1.7849 j0.3576, 1.7837, 1.7849 j0.3576 ,
1.7893 j0.7471, 1.7983 j1.2136, 1.8170 j1.842,
1.8607 j2.8478, 2.0054 j5.0782, 4.0267 j24.6698
16 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
31. Solution
Looking at the DFT we see that there is a peak for k 1 and k 15, withe the respective values
being X1 4.0267 j24.6698, and X15 4.0267 j24.6698. The magnitude is
X1 X15 25.0259. Therefore the frequency is within the interval
k0 1 Fs
N F k0 1 Fs
N
with k0 1. Fs 8kHz and N 16. This yield an estimated frequency
0 F 2 8
16 kHz 1kHz.
à Problem 3.19
Problem
A real signal xt is sampled at 8kHz and we store 256 samples x0, ..., x255. The
magnitude of the DFT Xk has two sharp peaks at k 15 and k 241. What can you say about
the signal?
Solution
The signal has a dominant frequency component in the range 14 8
256 F 16 8
256 kHz, that is
to say 0.4375kHz F 0.500kHz.
à Problem 3.21
Problem
We have seen in the theory that the frequency resolution with the DFT is F 2Fs N, with Fs the
sampling frequency and N the data length. Since the lower F the better, by lowering the sampling
frequency Fs , while keeping the data length N constant, we get arbitrary good resolution! Do you buy
that? Why? or Why not?
Solution
It is true that by lowering the sampling frequency Fs and keeping the number of points N constant we
improve the resolution. In fact by so doing the sampling interval Ts gets longer and we get a longer
interval of data. However we cannot decrease the sampling frequency Fs indefinitely, since we have to
keep it above twice the bandwidth of the signal to prevent aliasing.
Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb 17
32. à Problem 3.23
We want to plot the DTFT of a sequence which is not in the tables. Using the DFT and an increasing
number of points sketch a plot of the DTFT (magnitude and phase) of each of the following sequences:
Solution
For every signal in this problem we need to take the DFT of the following sequence
xN = x0, ..., xN - 1, x-N, ..., x-1
of length 2 N . In other words the first N points correspond to positive indexes, while the last N points
correspond to negative indexes. By increasing the value of the parameter N we observe the conver-
gence of the DFT.
a) xn 1
n un 1
The following figures show the DFT for different lengths N = 27
, 29
, 211
(magnitude and phase):
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
0
5
10
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-2
0
2
N = 27
18 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
33. -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
0
5
10
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-2
0
2
N = 29
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-2
0
2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
0
5
10
N = 211
Notice that at w = 0 the DFT does not converge (the magnitude increases with N ) while it converges
at all other frequencies. As a consequence, we can say that the DFT converges to the DTFT for all
w ∫ 0. This is expected, since the signal xn is NOT absolutely summable.
Also notice the discontinuity in the phase at 0.
b) xn 1
n2 un 1
Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb 19
34. The following figures show the DFT for different lengths N = 27
, 211
(magnitude and phase):
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-2
0
2
N 27
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-2
0
2
20 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
35. N 211
Notice that the DFT converges everywhere, as expected since the signal is absolutely summable.
c) xn 1
n21
The following figures show the DFT for different lengths N = 27, 211 (magnitude and phase):
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
0
1
2
3
4
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-2
0
2
N 27
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
0
1
2
3
4
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-2
0
2
Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb 21
36. N 211
Notice that the DFT converges everywhere, as expected since the signal is absolutely summable.
d) xn 1
n1
The following figures show the DFT for different lengths N = 27, 29, 211 (magnitude and phase):
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
0
5
10
15
20
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-2
0
2
N 27
22 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
38. Notice that at w = 0 the DFT does not converge (the magnitude increases with N ) while it converges
at all other frequencies. As a consequence, we can say that the DFT converges to the DTFT for all
w ∫ 0. This is expected, since the signal xn is NOT absolutely summable.
Review Problems
à Problem 3.26
Problem.
In the system shown, let the continuous time signal xt have Fourier Transform as shown. Sketch
X DTFTxn for the given sampling frequency.
Solution.
Recall that, for a sampled signal,
DTFTxn Fs
k
XF kFs FFs2
with xn xnTs, and Ts 1 Fs .
a) Fs 8kHz. Then clearly there is no aliasing, and therefore
5
.
3
3
5
.
3
3
8
5
.
4
8
5
.
4
)
(F
X
)
( s
F
F
X )
( s
F
F
X
we can write
X FsXF FFs2 , for
In other words we just need to rescale the frequency axis (F 2F Fs ) and the vertical axis
(multiply by Fs ), as shown below. For the "delta" function recall that the value associated is not the
amplitude but it is the area. This implies
F F0 FFs2 Fs
2 0 2
Fs
0
where 0 2F0 Fs .
24 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
39. 8
7
)
(
X
4
3
4
3
8
7
000
,
8
4
4
b) Fs 6kHz. In this case the two "delta" functions are aliased, as shown below
3
k
s
kF
F
X )
(
5
.
2
5
.
3
6
)
(kHz
F
(aliased)
The aliased frequency is at 6-3.5=2.5kHz. The DTFT of the sampled signal is then given in the figure
below.
6
5
)
(
X
000
,
6
4
4
6
5
c) Fs 2kHz. In this case the whole signal is aliased, not only the narrowband component as in the previous
case. In order to make the figure not too confusing, consider the parts of the signal separately.
For the "broadband" component of the signal, the repetition in frequency yields the following:
Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb 25
40. 3 )
(kHz
F
2 5
4
1
1
Then summing all components we obtain the result shown. Just sum within one period (say
1kHz F 1kHz) and repeat periodically.
3
2
3
5
1
1
)
(kHz
F
k
s
kF
F
X )
(
For the "narrowband" component (the two "delta" functions) we obtain the following:
5
.
3
1
1
5
.
3
5
.
0
0
.
2
2
5
.
3
5
.
0
0
.
2
2
5
.
3
)
(kHz
F
2
5
.
1
0
.
2
5
.
3
5
.
1
0
.
2
5
.
3
Finally consider only the interval 1kHz F 1kHz, put the two together and properly rescale the
axis (Fs the vertical axis, and 2 Fs the horizontal axis) to obtain X:
26 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
41. 3
000
,
4
3
000
,
10
2
2
)
(
X
à Problem 3.27
Problem.
The signal xt 3 cos2F1t 0.25 2 sin2F2t 0.3 has frequencies
F1 3kHz and F2 4kHz. Determine the DTFT of the sampled sequence for the given sampling
frequencies:
Solution.
The continuous time signal can be written in terms of complex exponentials as
xt 3
2 ej0.25ej2F1t 3
2 ej0.25ej2F1t
jej0.3
ej2F2t jej0.3
ej2F2t
Therefore its Fourier Transform becomes
XF 3
2 ej0.25F F1 3
2 ej0.25F F1
ej0.2F F2 ej0.2F F2
which is shown below.
)
(kHz
F
3 4
4
3
)
(F
X
25
.
0
2
3 j
e
25
.
0
2
3 j
e
2
.
0
j
e
2
.
0
j
e
a) Fs 9kHz. In this case there is no aliasing, and it is just a matter of computing
X FsXF FFs2 shown below.
Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb 27
42.
3
2
9
8
9
8
)
(
X
25
.
0
3 j
e
2
.
0
2 j
e
2
.
0
2 j
e
3
2
25
.
0
3 j
e
b) Fs 7kHz. In this case there is aliasing as shown:
)
(kHz
F
3 4
4
3
)
(F
X
25
.
0
2
3 j
e
25
.
0
2
3 j
e
2
.
0
j
e
2
.
0
j
e
)
( s
F
F
X
)
( s
F
F
X
2
.
0
j
e
25
.
0
2
3 j
e
25
.
0
2
3 j
e
2
.
0
j
e
Summing the components within the interval 3.5kHz F 3.5kHz we obtain only two "delta"
functions as
k
XF kFs ej0.2 3
2 ej0.25F 3, 000
ej0.2 3
2 ej0.25F 3, 000
Therefore
X 21.9285ej0.2477 6
7 21.9285ej0.2477 6
7
c) Fs 5kHz. The aliased components are computed from the figure below.
28 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
43. )
(kHz
F
3 4
4
3
)
(F
X
25
.
0
2
3 j
e
25
.
0
2
3 j
e
2
.
0
j
e
2
.
0
j
e
)
( s
F
F
X
)
( s
F
F
X
2
.
0
j
e
25
.
0
2
3 j
e
25
.
0
2
3 j
e
2
.
0
j
e
1 2
2
1
Therefore within the interval 2.5kHz F 2.5kHz we can write
k
XF kFs 3
2 ej0.25F 2000 ej0.2F 1000
3
2 ej0.25F 2000 ej0.2F 1000
Therefore
X 3ej0.25 4
5 2ej0.2 2
5
3ej0.25 4
5 2ej0.2 2
5
for .
à Problem 3.28
Problem.
You want to compute the DCT of a finite set of data., but you have only the DFT. Can you still com-
pute it?
Solution.
From the definition of DCT-II,
XIIk
2
N Ck
k0
N1
xncos k2n1
2N
Expanding the cosine term we obtain
Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb 29
44.
k0
N1
xncos k2n1
2N 1
2 ej k
2N
k0
N1
xnejk 2
2N n 1
2 ej k
2N
k0
N1
xnejk 2
2N n
Now form the sequence
x0 x0, x1, ..., xN 1, 0, ..., 0
of length 2N, zero padded with N zeros, and call X0k DFTx0n, for
k 0, ..., 2N 1. Then if the sequence xn is real it is easy to see that
k0
N1
xncos k2n1
2N 1
2 Reej k
2N X0k, k 0, ..., N 1
and therefore
XIIk 1
2N
CkReej k
2N X0k, k 0, ..., N 1.
à Problem 3.29
Problem
In MATLAB generate the sequence xn = n - 64 for n = 0, ..., 127.
a) Let Xk = DFT xn. For various values of L set to zero the "high frequency coefficients"
X64 - L2 =. .. = X64 + L2 = 0 and take the IDFT. Plot the results;
b) Let XDCTk = DCT xn. For the same values of L set to zero the "high frequency coefficients"
XDCT127 - L =. .. = X127 = 0. Take the IDCT for each case, and compare the reconstruction with
the previous case. Comment on the error.
Solution
a) Take L = 20, 30, 40 and set L coefficients of the DFT to zero, as
X64 - L2 =. .. = X64 + L2 = 0 . Call XL
`
k the DFT we obtain in this way, and
x
`
Ln = IDFT X̀Lk. Notice that x
`
Ln is still a real signal, since its DFT is still symmetric around
the middle point.
Plots of x
`
Ln for L = 20, 30, 40 show that x
`
Ln is not a good approximation of xn. As expected the
errors are concentrated at the edges of the signal.
30 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
45. b) Now let XDCTk = DCT xn and set L coefficients to zero, for L = 20, 30, 40, as
XDCT127 - L =. .. = XDCT127 = 0. Notice that in this case a real signal always yields a real DCT
and viceversa. This is due to the basis functions being "cosines" and not "complex exponentials" as in
the DFT. As a consequence we do not have to worry about symmetry to keep the signal real, as we did
for the DFT in a). The inverse DCT obtained for L = 20, 30, 40 are shown below. Notice that the error
is very small compared to the signal itself, and it is not concentrated at any particular point.
Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb 31
46. The DFT and Linear Algebra
à Problem 3.30
Problem.
An N äN circulant matrix A is of the form
A =
a0 a1 ... aN - 1
aN - 1 a0 ... aN - 2
ª ∏ ∏ ª
a1 ... aN - 1 a0
Then, do the following:
32 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb
47. Solution.
a) Verify that Ak, n = an - kN, for n, k = 0, ..., N - 1.
Easy, by inspection. Just notice that the first row (k = 0) is the sequence a0, ..., aN - 1, and the
k - th row is the first row circularly shifted by k.
b) Verify that the eigenvectors are always given by ek = 1, wN
k , wN
2 k, ..., wN
N-1 k
T
, with
k = 0, ..., N - 1 and wN = e-j2pN
By multiplying the matrix A by each vector ek we obtain the k -th component of the DFT of each
row. Since the k -th row is obtained by circularly shifting the first row k times, the DFT of the k -th
row is DFT an - kN = wN
k
Xk, where Xk = DFT an is the DFT of the first row. Therefore
A ek =
Xk
wN
k Xk
ª
wN
N-1 k
Xk
= Xk ek
which shows that ek is an eigenvector, and Xk is the corresponding eigenvalue.
c) Determine a factorization A = E L E*T with L diagonal and E*T E = I .
"Pack" all eigenvectors e0, ..., eN-1 in an N äN matrix E as
E
êê
ê
= e0, e1, ..., eN-1
First notice that E
êê
ê *T
E
êê
ê
= N since
ek
*T em =
0 if k ∫ m
N if k = m
Then the matrix
E = 1
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅ
N
E
êê
ê
= 1
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
N
e0, e1, ..., eN-1
is such that E*T E = I .
Then use the fact that the vectors ek are eigenvectors, to obtain
A E = A 1
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
N
e0, e1, ..., eN-1 = 1
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
N
e0, e1, ..., eN-1
X0 0 ... 0
0 X1 ∏ 0
0 ∏ ∏ 0
0 0 ... XN - 1
which can be written as
A E = E L
with L = diagX0, ..., XN - 1. Since E-1 = E*T we obtain the desired decomposition
Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb 33
48. A = E L E*T
d) Let hn and xn be two sequences of equal length N , and yn = hn≈ xn be the circular convo-
lution between the two sequences. Show that you can write the vector y = y0, ..., yN - 1T
in
terms of the product y = H x where x = x0, ..., xN - 1T
and H circulant. Show how to determine
the matrix H .
From the definition of circular convolution
yn = S
k=0
N-1
hn - kN xk = S
k=0
N-1
Hk, n xk
Therefore
y = HT x
with H being circulant.
e) By writing the DFT in matrix form, and using the factorization of the matrix H , show that
Yk = Hk Xk, for k = 0, ..., N - 1, with X, H, Y being the DFT's of x, h, y respectively.
Decomposing the circulant matrix we obtain HT = E L E*T
T
= E* L ET and therefore
y = E* L ET x
Multiplying on the left by ET we obtain
ET y = L ET x
where L = H0, ..., HN - 1. Now
ET y = 1
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅ
N
e0
T
e1
T
ª
eN-1
T
y = 1
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅ
N
Y0
Y1
ª
YN - 1
, and ET x = 1
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅ
N
e0
T
e1
T
ª
eN-1
T
x = 1
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÅÅÅ
N
X0
X1
ª
XN - 1
where Xk = DFT xn and Yk = DFT yn. Therefore, since L = diagH0, ..., H N - 1 we
obtain
Yk = Hk Xk, for k = 0, ..., N - 1
34 Solutions_Chapter3[1].nb