Sociology
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Sociology is the scientific study of society that focuses on social class, culture, law, health, and deviance through empirical investigation and critical analysis. It aims to understand human social activities and determine laws governing human behaviors by distinguishing them from social processes. Some key contributors include Plato, Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, and Emile Durkheim. Common research methods include quantitative methods like experiments and surveys as well as qualitative methods like observation. Major challenges include addressing subjectivity, inconsistency, and individual differences when studying humans and society.
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The document discusses three main frameworks for sociological investigation:
1) Scientific sociology, which bases knowledge on direct systematic observation using empirical evidence and aims for objectivity.
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It also outlines common sociological research methods like experiments, surveys, interviews, and participant observation.
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There are two categories of social control - formal and informal. Formal social control involves established laws and institutions like the police, courts, and prisons that enforce rules through punishments. Informal social control consists of unwritten social norms enforced through socialization by agents like family, teachers, and peer groups using positive and negative sanctions like praise, acceptance, and disapproval. Social control, whether formal or informal, works to ensure members of a society adhere to its shared norms, values, and laws.
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Chapter 2
Thinking About and Researching the Social World
Classical Sociological Theory
• What is a theory?
• Theory: “A set of interrelated ideas that have a wide range of
application, deal with centrally important issues, and have stood the
test of time” (Ritzer, 2016).
▫ Theories condense concepts in order to organize the social world
▫ Sociologists use theories in order to identify and frame ideas
Influences on the Emergence of Sociological Theory
• The Industrial Revolution
• Political revolutions (French and American revolutions)
• The rise of socialism
• The civil/women’s rights movements
• The growth of science, the replacement of faith by science
Early Theorists
• Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
▫ French philosopher
Originally termed his studies “social physics” he eventually coined the term
“sociology” to distinguish his work from others.
He believed sociology could use science to
understand, predict, and control human behavior for
the welfare of humanity.
The “Religion of Humanity”
Tenets: altruism, order, progress, introduction,
admission, destination, marriage, retirement, separation,
incorporation
Early Theorists
• Harriet Martineau (1802–1876)
▫ Born and Educated in England
Credited with bringing sociology to England
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Including women
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religious life as well as issues of race
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should also act in ways that benefit society
Was active in the women's rights and emancipation movements
Wrote Society in America after extensive travels in the 1830’s
Early Theorists
• Herbert Spencer (1820–1903)
▫ Primarily interested in the root cause of social change, specifically evolution in
the physical, intellectual, and social domains.
▫ Was a polymath
Philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, and political theorist
▫ Coined the term “survival of the fittest”
Believed privileged members of society earned their status and
thus a higher quality of life
Government should not interfere with improving life chances
of individuals – against the natural order
The Big Three
• Karl Marx (1818-1883)
▫ German – born to the middle class
▫ Macro-theorist who focused on the structure of capitalist society
▫ Defined capitalism as an economic system based on the
bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of production)
exploiting the proletariat (the workers).
Wrote in conjunction with Fredric Engles
The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital
The Big Three
• Karl Marx (1818-1883)
• Concepts from Marx
▫ Capitalism as a system based on exploitation
▫ Workers also experience alienation on the job
▫ False consciousness – an erroneous set of beliefs
▫ Class consciousness – a set of beliefs about an individual’s
soci.
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This presentation is prepared as a part of Coursework for my PhD research and was presented at Department of English, Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University, Gujarat, India.
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Ethnography and Historical Research Presentation
Here are the answers to your questions:
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4. The researcher is immersed in the
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Sociology
- 1. Sociology • Scientific study of society • Empirical investigation & critical analysis • Focuses: social class, culture, law, health, and deviance…etc. By: Allen Wang, Fendi Shih, Kevin Lo
- 2. Objectives / Goals Understand human social activities Determine laws governing human behaviors Human behaviors vs. Social processes
- 3. History & Main Contributors Main contributors: 1. Plato – early social analysis 2. Auguste Comte – defined “sociology” 3. Karl Marx – Marxism 4. Emile Durkheim – formal academic sociology History: 1780: coined by the French Auguste Comte 1875: 1st sociology course in Yale 1895: 1st sociology department 1897: the book Suicide structural functionalism
- 4. Methods of Inquiry 1. Quantitative: Popular Designs: Ex: Experiments 1. Cross-sectional: 2. Qualitative: participants of different Ex: Survey, Observation ages 2. Longitudinal: same individuals repeatedly 3. Cross-sequential: tests cross-sectional sample more than once
- 5. Major Problems Humans & society: Subjectivity Inconsistency Individual differences In qualitative researches: Distortion Generalization difficulties
- 6. Outsiders (1963) – Chicago Dance Musicians Howard Saul Becker (1963) Labeling Theory Aim: examine the formation of deviant cultures to support his Labeling Theory
- 7. Design Participant observation Participants: Chicago dance musicians (30~40 yrs old) Variables: N/A Materials: N/A Procedures: (direct overt observation) Day: family life Night: musician
- 8. Findings Dance musicians consider themselves as "outsiders” Conform to the subculture Isolated themselves as a deviant culture
- 9. Significance Contributes to the labeling theory Recognized as a prevailing social approach Today’s study of deviance One of the first Bbooks supporting the labeling theory
- 10. Critical Evaluation/Critique Participant observation: Researcher bias Subjectivity Unethical: Labeled as a deviant subculture Culturally biased Difficulty in generalization Labeling Theory: Untestable (Ridlon 1988)
Editor's Notes
- -the scientific study of society -a social science that uses methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis - Focuses include: social class, culture, religion, law, deviance, health, and even the Internet.
- -to develop a descriptive understanding about the human social activities-to determine the laws governing human behaviour in social contexts -examines how human behaviour can be influenced by social processes
- Plato:Earliest social analyistAuguste Comte : defined the diciplineKarl Marx : MarxismEmile Durkheim : Formal academic sociology
- Outsiders: explain what this is (say it’s Becker’s book notable for the idea of his labeling theory.)Labeling Theory: the idea that a social deviant is not an inherently deviant individual, rather they become deviant because they are labeled as such.Deviance:the fact or state of departing from usual or accepted standards, esp. in social or sexual behavior.