SOC 463/663 (Social Psych of Education) - Intro & Theories

Week 1:
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Introductions
Melanie Tannenbaum
Sociology 463/663
Spring 2015

This Week
Who are you?
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What will this class be like?
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Theoretical Approaches/Overview
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This Week
Who are you?
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On Your Small Index Card…
Name
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Major/Concentration
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Why are you taking this class?
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One defining and/or interesting fact about yourself.
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About Me
Name: Melanie Tannenbaum
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Background: I’m originally from NY. I graduated from Duke with a B.A.
in psychology (concentrating in educational psychology) in 2009, and
I’m about to receive my Ph.D. in social psychology from UIUC (I’m
defending my dissertation this semester). I’ve researched
achievement goals, persuasion, motivation, and the use of “scare
tactics” in behavior change.
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Interesting Fact: This isn’t all I teach! I’m also a group fitness instructor
in my free time; I teach PiYo (Pilates/Yoga), Zumba, and SurfSet. I also
like competing in mud runs ☺ I’ve done 2 5Ks, 3 Super Spartans, 3
Tough Mudders, and participated in the TM Beta Test this year to pick
the new obstacles for 2015!
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This Week
Who are you?
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Goals
Take a moment to reflect on why
you are taking this class.
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Do you want to be a teacher?
Do you want to go into policy?
Do you want to go into research?
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Even if you are taking this class
because of a requirement, you
should never only be taking a
class because it’s a requirement.
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Take advantage of this
opportunity to build your skillset,
improve your own life, and
maximize your own educations.

Goals
I really want you to reflect on
what YOU want to get out of this
course, and keep those goals in
mind with every choice that you
make throughout the class.

Readings
Yes…there is a lot of reading.
Do I want you to do all of it? Of
course!
However…
I will emphasize (in class) which
readings are “most important” for
the coming week and which ones
can be skimmed.
Reading response papers do not
have to address all of the readings
for that week.
Before the midterm/final exams, I will
make sure you know what concepts
you need to feel comfortable with.
It’s up to you to read/study the
materials appropriately.
You have freedom in writing your
essays to choose which topics you
want to focus on.

Readings
There are two books required for
this class. They are both short,
easy reads, but I strongly
recommend you try to fit them in
throughout the semester rather
than the week they are assigned.
!
The Stupidity Epidemic is
available at the UNR bookstore.
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The Learning Gap is available on
Amazon for very cheap.
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Other than these 2 books, the
readings are all articles or book
chapters that will be posted on
WebCampus.

Reactions
You have to submit ten reaction
papers via email by 5 PM on the
Monday of the week in which we
will be discussing those papers.
There are 13 weeks of content in
class, so this allows you to skip 3
weeks.
There is no length minimum or
maximum — I expect around 1
page, double spaced.
Undergraduates must discuss at
least 2 of the readings. Graduate
students must discuss at least 3 of
the readings. (Unless it’s a week
with only 2 readings. Then, 2
readings. Just use your head.)

Reactions
What makes a good response paper?
Keep in mind what the goals are.
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Keep you accountable/on track
with the readings.
Provide us with discussion material,
questions, concerns, connections,
etc. for class so we don’t sit around
awkwardly silent for an hour.
Let me know ahead of time what
people in the class found
confusing, interesting, upsetting,
intriguing, etc. so I can tailor our
class discussion or prepare to
answer any specific questions
ahead of time.

Reactions
They will be graded from 0-10.
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For the most part…
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0 = Didn’t send it in.
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5 = Sent it in late or only discussed 1
reading, that sort of thing.
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10 = Fulfilled requirements (discussed
2-3 readings), clearly read the
material, put in a good faith effort.

Essays
Because this is a capstone
course, you are required to do at
a significant amount of writing
over the course of the semester.
You will have to turn in three
essays in order to pass this class.
Essays should be double spaced
with 12-point Times New Roman
font and 1” or 1.25” margins.
Each essay should be between
2,200 and 2,800 words long
(roughly 9-12 pages).

Essays
What makes a good essay?
Keep in mind what the goals are.
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Demonstrate relative knowledge.
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Understand, integrate, and draw
connections between assigned
(and other) materials.
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Show that you have taken a
topic from the course that you
find interesting and really explored
it in depth.

Exams
There will be two exams — one
midterm & one final.
Most likely, they will be short
answer questions. I may include
multiple choice, matching, or
true/false questions.
The main focus of these exams
will be getting you to think, make
connections, and synthesize/
analyze the information on your
own. I want to know what you
think and what you have learned
& retained.
So, the exams will likely not be a
strict regurgitation of information
we’ve covered in class — but if
you have a good grasp of the
material, it should all make sense.

Attendance 10% of your grade is “class
participation,” which basically
just means attendance.
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I don’t want to penalize
people for using the drop/add
period, so I will start taking
attendance on February 3.
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You will get 3 “free” absences.
After 3 absences, I will subtract
2 points from your participation
grade (out of a possible 100)
for each subsequent absence.

This Week
Who are you?
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Important Points
Sociology
Functionalist Theory
Conflict Theory
Symbolic Interactionism
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Psychological Sociology
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Social Psychology
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Other Important Concepts

Society is like a machine;
parts interact to produce the
energy to make society work

Education gives people
common, shared values &
socializes them into roles to
maintain social order.

Émile Durkheim Talcott Parsons

Émile Durkheim
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Industrialization, urbanization,
and modernization led to the
breakdown of traditional rituals &
methods of social control.
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This led to the breakdown of
social solidarity & cohesion.
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Anomie: Normlessness in society.

“Society can survive only if there exists among its members a sufficient
degree of homogeneity; education perpetuates and reinforces this
homogeneity by fixing in the child, from the beginning, the essential
similarities that collective life demands.”
26
Émile Durkheim

“But, on the other hand, without a certain diversity all cooperation would
be impossible; education assures the persistence of this necessary
diversity by being itself diversified and specialized.”
27
Émile Durkheim

“Education is, then, only the means by which society prepares, within the
children, the essential conditions of its very existence…We come, then,
to the following formula: Education is the influence exercised by adult
generations on those that are not yet ready for social life. Its object is to
arouse and to develop in the child a certain number of physical,
intellectual, and moral states which are demanded of him by both the
political society as a whole and the special milieu for which he is
specifically destined.”
28
Émile Durkheim

Émile Durkheim
Education
Shared Values
Peaceful Cohesion

Talcott Parsons
Order & stability in society are the
result of the influence of certain
values (not a certain structure)
Stable, supportive families are the
key to successful socialization
Sexual Division of Labor
Families will operate most
efficiently with clear-cut sexual
divisions of labor
Women should perform
expressive (care/security) roles,
and men should perform
instrumental (breadwinner)
roles.

Talcott Parsons
Education
Good, Moral Values
Peaceful Cohesion

All of society hangs together organically
Different institutions fulfill different functions
Everything is in the service of maintaining the existing social order
Education = Societal Reproduction
Provides society with the workforce/labor it needs
Creates the mindset that keeps society together
Provides training to make people useful members of society

Stability
Education trains the next generation
Existing inequalities are reproduced because they function well
Democracy
Education as the “great equalizer”
Generates potential for innovation
Allows social mobility & opportunity

Problems
The relationship between schooling, skills, and jobs is not as
rational as functionalists suggest
!
The role of schools in providing equality of opportunity is more
problematic than functionalists suggest
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Large-scale research casts doubt on the idea that more
schooling brings about more meritocracy

Conflict Theory
The class system separates
owners from workers (the
proletariat), and workers from
the benefits of their own labor.

Conflict Theory
Class struggle is inevitable; in
the end, the proletariat
(working class) will rise up
and overthrow the capitalists.

Conflict Theory
Karl Marx Max Weber

Conflict Theory
Karl Marx
Didn’t write much about
education, but intellectual
founder of conflict theory.
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The class system makes class
struggle inevitable.
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Critique of modern capitalism;
the proletariat (working class) will
eventually rise up and overthrow
the capitalists, and establish a
socialist society.
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Dominant groups impose values/
ideas on subordinate groups.

Conflict Theory
Max Weber
Power relations between dominant &
subordinate groups structure societies,
BUT class differences alone can’t
capture & explain everything.
!
Status Groups derived from…
Class ($$)
Power
Culture (Race, Education, Religion,
Ethnicity…)
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Education is used as a “marker” of
having the right values (i.e., the values
that the existing high-status/high-
power people want you to have).

Conflicting interests of the “haves” and “have nots”
Economic (Marx)
Economic, Cultural, Prestige, or Political (Weber)
Dominant groups want to maintain hierarchy through education
Marx: Economic Structure ! Culture ! Action
Education reproduces inequality (to advantage the powerful)
Weber: Economic Structure ! Action | Culture ! Action
“Status Culture”
Cultural ideas (independent of economic structure) shape who is
awarded prestige & power
Conflict Theory

Code Theory
Basil Bernstein
Language
Credentialism
Randall Collins
Earned Status Markers
Cultural Capital
Pierre Bourdieu
Participation in High Status Culture
Modern Conflict Theories

The language people use in everyday conversation both reflects
and shapes the assumptions of a certain social group.
Relationships established within the social group affect the way that
group uses language, and the type of speech that is used.
Restricted vs. Elaborated Code
Restricted: Speak using “insider” knowledge; phrases interjected
into the middle or end of a thought to confirm understanding.
“You know,” “You know what I mean,“ “Right?”
Elaborated: Longer, more complicated sentence structure.
Complete thoughts providing all necessary details.
Restricted = More common in lower- and working-class backgrounds;
impacts ability to do well in school, especially language subjects.
Modern Conflict Theories: Code Theory

Democratic society has competition between different groups
Social Classes
Professions
Educational requirements help groups maintain power
Keep control with the professional (high status) group
Gatekeeping
“We decide who joins”
The higher the entrance requirements, the higher the prestige
Does it really matter that you went to Harvard/Yale/Princeton, or does it
just matter that you have the “name brand” on your resume?
Modern Conflict Theories: Credentialism

“Capital” includes much more than just money.
Economic Capital ($$)
Social Capital (Networks, friends, family members, peers)
Cultural Capital (Educational attainment, knowledge, attitudes)
Cultural Capital includes…
Embodied (Language style, personality, way of thinking, character)
Objectified (Scientific instruments, works of art, books, classy stuff)
Institutionalized (Academic credentials, qualifications)
There are a lot of “things” that we can possess that make us higher/lower
status, higher/lower class, etc. that aren’t just our bank accounts.
Modern Conflict Theories: Cultural Capital

Evidence for
Conflict Theories
45

46
Less Than HS
HS Degree
Post-HS Vocational
Some College
College Degree
Graduate Degree
1937
Unskilled Professions
Less Than HS
HS Degree
Post-HS Vocational
Some College
College Degree
Graduate Degree
1967
Less Than HS
HS Degree
Post-HS Vocational
Some College
College Degree
Graduate Degree
1937
Semiskilled Professions
Less Than HS
HS Degree
Post-HS Vocational
Some College
College Degree
Graduate Degree
1967

47
Less Than HS
HS Degree
Post-HS Vocational
Some College
College Degree
Graduate Degree
1937
Skilled Professions
Less Than HS
HS Degree
Post-HS Vocational
Some College
College Degree
Graduate Degree
1967
Less Than HS
HS Degree
Post-HS Vocational
Some College
College Degree
Graduate Degree
1937
Clerical Jobs
Less Than HS
HS Degree
Post-HS Vocational
Some College
College Degree
Graduate Degree
1967

48
Less Than HS
HS Degree
Post-HS Vocational
Some College
College Degree
Graduate Degree
1937
Managerial Jobs
Less Than HS
HS Degree
Post-HS Vocational
Some College
College Degree
Graduate Degree
1967
Less Than HS
HS Degree
Post-HS Vocational
Some College
College Degree
Graduate Degree
1937
Professional Jobs
Less Than HS
HS Degree
Post-HS Vocational
Some College
College Degree
Graduate Degree
1967

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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1965
% 17 Year Olds with HS Diploma
% of 18-21 Year Olds in College
% 15-24 Year Olds with BA Degree
% 25-34 Year Olds with MA Degree

50
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1965
% 17 Year Olds with HS Diploma
% of 18-21 Year Olds in College
% 15-24 Year Olds with BA Degree
% 25-34 Year Olds with MA Degree
Why is education
becoming more
necessary in society?

Technical-Function Theory
The skill requirements of jobs in industrial society are always
increasing because of technological change.
The proportion of low-skill jobs goes down.
The proportion of high-skill jobs goes up.
The same jobs get upgraded in skill requirements.
Formal education provides the training (specific skills & general
capacities) necessary for higher-skilled jobs.
Educational requirements for employment are always rising, and
more of the population must spend more time in school.
51

The proportion of low-skill jobs goes down.
The proportion of high-skill jobs goes up.
The same jobs get upgraded in skill requirements.
52
Serious issues with this
explanation.

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This only accounts for a little bit of the educational rise.
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15% of the increase in education of the US labor force during the
20th century can be attributed to shifts in occupational structure.
!
The other 85% occurred within job categories.
53

!
Better educated employees are not generally more productive, and are
sometimes actually less productive (Berg, 1970)
!
Graduates of vocational programs are no more likely to be employed
than HS dropouts (Plunkett, 1960; Duncan, 1964)
!
Most skilled manual workers acquire skills on the job or casually; formal
retraining is used only for a small number of jobs (Collins, 1969; Bright, 1958)
54

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Even in nonmanual jobs, there is questionable utility for school.
!
Only a small percentage of knowledge people gain in courses is
retained through next few years (Learned & Wood, 1938)
55

Credentialism
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Randall Collins
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Educational credentials (like college diplomas) serve more
importantly as status symbols than indicators of real achievement.
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Society isn’t becoming more expert; education is just being used
more and more by the dominant groups to secure more
advantageous places in society for themselves & their children.

Institutional Theory
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John Meyer
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Democratic belief that “civilized societies” have expansive, highly
developed educational systems.
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Educational expansion often precedes labor market demands.

Interactionist Theory
George H. Mead Erving Goffman

Focus on Human Agency
Social structure shapes individual action, BUT…
Individual action also shapes social structure
Focus on Self; “Social Construction of Reality”
Everything is a function of active individual & societal meaning-
making & interpretation.
Nothing just “is.”
Inequality is created and reproduced through individual action and
interpretation.
Interactionist Theory

Individual Action & Social Construction
Cognitive Interpretation
Subjective Meaning
Socialization, Everyday Encounters
Empathic Understanding of Social Actors
Not much emphasis on causality
Qualitative, not Quantitative
Participant Observation, Ethnography
http://youtu.be/jFQIIM8IRZU

Power of the Situation
Proximal Forces Distal Forces
• Here & Now
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• Immediate Situation
!
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• Perceptions/Construal
!
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• Perceiving/reacting to
immediate situation
• Removed in Time
!
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• Culture/Socialization
!
!
• Evolution
!
!
• Shapes behavior on a
broader scale

Construal: Interpretations & inferences about stimuli or situations.
!
What is this symbol?
The Role of Construal

Many times, the actual situation itself is not as important as
how you interpret it.
!
!
Construals determine how we perceive and judge the world around us
& social situations.
The Role of Construal

Example: Race & gender as “social constructs.”
People’s assumptions about race/gender impact how they
interact with others.
!
Teachers call on & praise boys more often (Jones & Dindia, 2004)
!
When teachers think that students are smart, they spend more
time with them, call on them more often, and praise them more
when they are correct (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968)
66

!
Development of gender roles within
classroom interactions
!
Teachers’ expectations of pupils’ abilities
impact how much they actually learn.
!
Social interactions that occur within
schools shape how children are
socialized and impact society on a much
broader level.
67

68
Functionalism Conflict Theory Symbolic Interactionism
Education socializes
children & prepares them
for life in society.
Education produces &
reproduces societal
inequality.
Focuses on interactions
during schooling & their
outcomes.
Teaches knowledge &
also values, ethics, beliefs,
habits, and norms.
Requiring certain
credentials can be a tool
for discrimination.
Subjective meanings
people put on objects,
events, & behaviors.
Education provides
occupational training.
Education can confer
status, “upper class”
culture, etc.
People behave based on
what they believe, not
just “truth.”
Education keeps kids “off
the streets” and out of
trouble; provides social
control.
Educational is often used
to signal having the
“right” attitudes/values.
In the process of social
interaction, people
develop & rely on
subjective meaning.

Wide-Spread Approach
Individual characteristics as a function of position in social structure
Correlational
A B B A
A
B
C
? ?
? ?

Working Class
Middle Class
Trait
%SelectingTraitasMostDesirable
Melvin Kohn
Parental values
depend on
social class

Individual Focus
Social Cognition, Perception, Motivation, Attitudes, Stereotypes…
!
Intra- and Inter-Individual Processes
“How do stereotypes influence social judgment?”
!
Individual = Cognitively Limited but Motivated Actor
!
Quantitative Methods & Experiments
Social Psychology

Experiments
Manipulate independent variable (A), keeping all else constant
Observe effects on dependent variable (B)
Random assignment to experimental conditions
Allows for causal conclusions
Variation in A causes variation in B
Potential Problems
May be too contrived, artificial
Generalizability from college students?
Social Psychology

“In short, psychology needs something real to study, and education
provides it; education needs a scientific methodology for addressing its
problems, and psychology provides it.”
75
Mayer (2001)

Hypothesis: Children need to have phonological awareness (awareness
that words can be broken down into sound units & sound units can be
combined to form words) in order to learn how to read.
Evidence:
1. Students who have difficulty learning to read also score lower on tests
of phonological awareness.
2. Students who lack phonological awareness when they enter
elementary school are also less likely to be strong readers later on.
3. 5- and 6-year-olds who received specialized phonological awareness
training for 2 years were 5 times more likely than a control/comparison
group to be able to read words containing 2 or 3 sounds after the training.
76
Mayer (2001)

Hypothesis: People understand passages about history by relating the new
material to relevant prior knowledge.
Evidence:
“In 1763, Britain & the colonies ended a 7-year war with the French & Indians.”
Most students lack useful/relevant background knowledge to really understand
this passage, what it means, or why it’s important.
By re-writing the passage to clarify that Britain and France both wanted the same
piece of land in North America, which resulted in the conflict known as the
French & Indian War, students were able to activate their conflict schema — prior
knowledge that conflicts occur when two people want to own the same thing.
Students who read the revised passage scored over 50% higher on an essay test.
77
Mayer (2001)

Overview of Research
Methods/Understanding
Experiments

Correlation
Correlation Coefficient: A statistical value that indicates how well you can
predict one variable using another
A number between -1.00 and +1.00
!
All of these correlation coefficients COULD have come from a
correlational design or an experimental design.
!
Also... CORRELATION DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION!
The ability to say one variables CAUSES the other comes from the type
of research design, not the type of results.
79

Understanding Correlations
Magnitude
The size of the correlation
0.8 is “stronger” than 0.2
Correlation between IQ and final grade: 0.8
Correlation between SAT score and final grade: 0.2
Final grade & IQ have a stronger correlation than final grade & SAT score
Direction
Whether the correlation is positive or negative
-0.8 is negative; 0.8 is positive
Correlation between IQ and final grade: -0.8
Having a higher IQ is related to having a lower final grade
Correlation between IQ and final grade: 0.8
Having a higher IQ is related to having a higher final grade
80

Understanding Correlations
!
Magnitude
How strong is the relationship?
How closely are the two variables related to each other?
Doesn’t matter if one goes up when the other goes down.
!
Direction
Do the variables go in the same direction (as one gets bigger, the
other gets bigger) or do they go in opposite directions (as one
gets bigger, the other gets smaller)?
81

Problems with Correlations
!
Reverse Causality
X may cause Y
Y may cause X
!
!
Third Variable Problem
X and Y may BOTH be caused by some unmeasured variable Z
82

Causality
We should only make causal claims (“X causes Y”) if we have
conducted an experiment that includes:
Manipulation of Independent Variables
Random Assignment
Control Conditions
!
These factors take care of concerns with both reverse causality and
third variable problems.
83

Experimental Design
Independent Variable (IV)
The variable that is manipulated by the researcher
Hypothesized to cause changes in the DV
Assignment to different levels must be random.
!
Dependent Variables (DVs)
The variable(s) that are measured — Grades, scores, etc.
84

Experimental Design
Control Condition
A group assigned to some inherently meaningful level of an IV
Often “0” (the absence of the IV) but sometimes not
Used as the comparison group
!
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to different groups such that they are just as
likely to be placed into one group as another.
85

Random assignment to a manipulated independent variable (IV) is
the hallmark of experimental design.
This ensures that people are evenly distributed across conditions.
“Cancels out” pre-existing differences between subjects.
!
Allows us to conclude that different levels of the IV actually cause
differences in the DV.
No longer need to worry about reverse causality or third variable
problems.
86
Importance of Random Assignment

Hypothesis: Being in an accelerated class increases motivation.
87
Motivated
Students
Unmotivated
Students
Initial group
Accelerated Class
Basic Class

○ Without Random Assignment:
Accelerated Class
Basic Class

○ With Random Assignment:
Accelerated Class
Basic Class

Does random assignment solve all of our concerns?
No!
You can still get biased samples for various reasons.
It’s important to replicate findings (ideally with different subject
populations and different measures).
!
Overall, if a result replicates while using random assignment and
manipulating IVs, we’re comfortable making claims about causality.
!
Causal logic should not be a black-and-white “yes/no” decision.
90

Other Useful Concepts for
Understanding Research

Reliability & Validity
Reliability
Does the measure consistently give you the same
assessment of the underlying variable?
If you take an IQ test four times over a year, will you get the
same results (or pretty close) each time?
!
Validity
Does the measure accurately capture the variable?
Is an IQ test the best way to capture everything important
that we want to know about intelligence?
92

Weighing yourself on a scale…
You “really” weigh 150 pounds
You weigh yourself every day for 1 week
!
Scale #1: Reliable but not valid
120, 121, 119, 120, 120, 123, 117
Consistent, but nowhere close to 150
!
Scale #2: Valid but not reliable
150, 140, 160, 145, 165, 130, 170
Averages out to 150, but very inconsistent
94

Example: Intelligence & IQ
!
If IQ is a reliable measure, you should get (roughly) the same IQ
score every single time you take an IQ test.
!
If IQ is a valid measure, it should correlate very strongly & positively
with your GPA, SAT/ACT scores, teacher evaluations, and scores on
other intelligence tests, like the Cognitive Reflection Test.
95

Social Structure
Relatively stable patterns of social interaction that characterize
human social life
Micro Structures
Status
Social Roles
Macro Structures
Social Institutions
Social structures are created by individuals and
Individuals are shaped by social structures.

Social Interaction
Basis of social structure
Critically important for psychological life
Characteristics
Social Structure
Dynamic
Mutual Influence
Behavioral & Cognitive Aspects
Situational/Environmental Factors
Expectations

The Thomas Theorem
If people define situations as real, they are real in their
consequences.
Objective
Reality
Subjective
Understanding
Subjective
Response
Individual
Behavior

Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev (Study 1)
Is women’s math performance affected
by the presence of men?
!
If so, how?

Women’sAccuracy
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Math Scores Verbal Scores
Women do worse on math
(but not verbal) tests
in the presence of men

Women’sMathPerformance
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1 woman
2 men
2 women
1 man
3 women
0 men

Important Points
Sociology
Conflict Theory
Intra- and inter-individual processes as a function of position within society
Social Psychology
Intra- and Inter-individual processes
Other Important Concepts
Social Interaction
Social Structures

104
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
Functionalism Conflict Theory Symbolic Interactionism
Do you think that you
are learning skills in
college that you will
use in your job
someday?
In your opinion, what is
the value of a college
degree? Why did you
go to college? Why do
you think most people
go to college?
What do you think are
some examples of
classroom objects/
situations that students
might interpret
differently?
Do you think that some
majors teach more
practical skills than
others? If so, how?
Other than the
examples already
discussed, can you
think of any more
examples of non-
monetary “capital”?
How & why do you
think teachers form
expectations of
students?
What are some
examples of things
learned in the
classroom that help
society function well/
effectively?
Which groups benefit
the most from the
current higher
education system?
How could this be
changed?
What are some “big
things” other than
gender roles that might
be socialized through
classroom interactions?

SOC 463/663 (Social Psych of Education) - Intro & Theories

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