Smoking And Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Smoking and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Smoking rates are particularly high among patients diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), a mental health condition triggered by a traumatic event (Hawkins & Cougle, 2013).
Although the literature recognizes the trends in smoking rates in such patients, few researchers have
examined the effects of nicotine on PTSD symptoms. This literature review focuses on the particular
effects of nicotine on memory and attention that serve to increase specific symptoms of PTSD. One
of the hallmark symptoms of PTSD is the presence of intrusive memories, also known as intrusions.
Nicotine's effects on memory and attention focus lead to increases in the frequency of intrusions in
PTSD patients. The study of intrusive memories after traumatic events has significant clinical
implications for treatment and sheds light on the development and severity of PTSD.
NICOTINE AND PTSD 3 Smoking rates are particularly high among patients diagnosed with
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a mental health condition triggered by a traumatic event
(Hawkins & Cougle, 2013). Most research on the relationship between PTSD diagnoses and
smoking rates usually consider the disorder to be uniform in nature with a comprehensive symptom
diagnosis. On the contrary, the disorder involves a multi–dimensional compilation of cognitive and
behavioral manifestations (Greenberg et al., 2012). The inappropriate diagnostic generalization has
hindered the examination of specific symptoms that could be
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Essay on Women Dealing with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
This article is based on a study comparing the ethnic differences in Posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), among the women's population of non–Hispanic Whites, African American, and Hispanic.
The population of Hispanics and African American female's veterans, in terms of gender, experience
a higher symptom of PTSD than male veterans. The study is aimed at providing analysis
demographic characteristics, diagnostic validity, and the normative sampling, among the three
ethnic populations of women who experienced treatment for PTSD compared to servicemen
veterans.
Harrison, J. P., Satterwhite, L. F., & Ruday, J. (2010). The Financial Impact of Post–Traumatic
Stress Disorder on Returning US Military Personnel. Journal of Health Care Finance, ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The majority of the participants, were Caucasian, male, disabled veterans, and severity scores from
military personnel who served in Korean, Vietnam, and Gulf war. This article focuses on the future
researchers aiming on the conflicts in Afghanistan, and Iraq, and improving therapy techniques, and
social functioning impacting veterans of PTSD.
Savitsky, L. (2009). Civilian Social Work: Serving the Military and Veteran Populations. Social
Work, 54(4), 327–339. This article reveals some of the challenges civilian social workers faces
while offering interventions for veterans that served in the military, and their families. Social
workers specialized in treating service members who experience psychological issues such as
PTSD. Also, social workers are well–educated to help victims of domestic violence, substance
abuse, and the deployment of both male and females. Many military veterans need social support
because of family issues, unemployment, and lack of medical care. The Veteran Administration
estimated over 400,000, a year is reported homeless from the veteran population. Social workers
works with this population of veterans who served in military, in providing the financial benefit and
addressing the intervention needs for their families.
Tsai, J., Harpaz–Rotem, I., Pietrzak, R. H., & Southwick, S. M. (2012). The Role of Coping,
Resilience, and Social Support in Mediating the Relation Between PTSD and Social Functioning in
Veterans Returning from

Dreaming and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: The Connection
Introduction According to the dictionary diagnosis in PsychCentral, Post–Traumatic Stress Disorder
is defined as a "debilitating mental disorder that follows experiencing or witnessing an extremely
traumatic, tragic, or terrifying event" (PTSD Info & Treatment, 2013). While this definition
describes the general definition of PTSD, the DSM–IV states that the criteria for being diagnosed
with PTSD varies between a person who "experienced, witnessed, or was confronted with an event
or events that involved actual or threatened death or serious injury, or a threat to the physical
integrity of self or others" and/or "the person's response involved intense fear, helplessness, or
horror" (DSM–IV, Appendix E). Such experiences can include various situations such as military
involvement for veterans, domestic abuse, and even divorce, as will be refereed to throughout this
paper. It is stated that once a person experiences a traumatic event, PTSD can develop as a
combination of varying symptoms. When diagnosing possible PTSD patients, clinicians use the
DSM–IV as a guide in "understanding clusters of symptoms" (Staggs, para. 1). Some of these
symptoms include "recurrent and intrusive" recollections of the situation, "including images,
thoughts, or perceptions; acting or feeling as if the traumatic event were recurring; intense
psychological distress" to symbols representing trauma; and "recurrent distressing dreams of the
event", or nightmares/terrors (DSM–IV, Appendix E). While all

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies for Posttraumatic Stress...
Cognitive–Behavioral Therapies for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) is classified as an anxiety disorder that can develop after an individual has observed and/or
experienced an extreme traumatic event that involved actual or threatened death or serious injury to
one's self or another (APA, 2000). An extreme traumatic event can include, but is not limited to,
military combat, terrorist attacks, natural or manmade disasters, sexual assault, physical assault,
robbery, and torture (APA, 2000). The type of traumatic event could influence the way in which
medical and mental health care professionals assess, conceptualize, and subsequently treat the
individuals with a PTSD diagnosis. For this reason, sexual ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The purpose of psychoeducation is to legitimize the traumatic reaction, to help the client develop a
formulation of her or his symptoms, and to establish a justification for treatment (Harvey, Bryant, &
Tarrier, 2003). Prolonged Exposure and/or In Vivo Exposure Prolonged exposure requires that the
client repeatedly, in a systematic manner, relive the memories of the traumatic event over an
extended period of time (Foa, Dancu, Hembree, Jaycox, Meadows, & Street, 1999; Foa & Rauch,
2004; Harvey, Bryant, & Tarrier, 2003). In prolonged exposure, the client is expected to (a) vividly
call to mind the traumatic event, with as much detail as possible, (b) recount the memory of the
traumatic event to the therapist in the present tense, and (c) have constant exposure to the memory
until the distress decreases (McDonagh, McHugo, Sengupta, Demment, Schnurr, Friendman, Ford,
Mueser, Fournier, & Descamps, 2005). The therapist's role, in prolonged exposure, is to help the
client identify "hot spots" or the most distressing aspect of the memory. The therapist and the client
then develop a hierarchy of memories to address, from least to most distressing. These memories are
addressed one at a time until habituation of anxiety to the memory occurs, which is determined by

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ( Ptsd )
Posttraumatic Growth in Relation to Resilience Trauma is common but not all survivors experience
posttraumatic stress disorder(PTSD). In the National Comorbidity Survey, trauma exposure rates
exceeded 50%, yet lifetime PTSD was estimated at 7.8% (Kessler, Sonnega, Bromet, Hughes, &
Nelson,1995). These ﬁndings have been replicated and found to be consistent suggesting that most
people exposed to trauma can retain a stable equilibrium without reactive psychopathology
(Bonanno, 2004; Bonanno,Galea, Bucciarelli, & Vlahov, 2006). Some researcher convey this
phenomena as resilience, which is an individual 's successful adaptation to trauma (Wang et al.
2010), suggesting that resilient people have the ability to adjust and cope successfully in ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What Science Tells Us Resilience as a Trait Researcher define resilience as a broad cluster of
personal characteristics that facilitate the ability to manage despite trauma. These characteristics
include hardiness, optimism, self–enhancement, repressive coping, positive affect, and a sense of
coherence (Agaibi & Wilson,2005; Bonanno, 2004; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Collectively, these
characteristics permit such people to emerge from trauma with less psychological wounds and
relatively unchanged. Resilience has been defined at least by three ways (Lepore & Revenson,
2006) that include: recovery, resistance and reconfiguration. An element of resilience is hardiness
refers to resistance to change in following adversity and the commitment for future stable emotional
responses to obtain a sense of achievement given similar traumatic events (Benight & Bandura,
2004). Another component of resilience is self–esteem. High self–esteem is associated with high
confidence, tools and skills for coping with the changes. A third component is suppressed overall
response tendency to avoid thoughts, unpleasant emotions and memories associated with the
traumatic event. The first two components – hardiness and self–esteem are related to cognitive
processes. In contrast, the third component – a suppressed response – is related to the limbic system
associated with emotions (Bonanno, 2005). If so, the quality of resilience refers to a cognitive–
emotional trait before experiencing trauma,

Symptoms Of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ( Ptsd )
Diagnosis: Matt, a retired police officer, presents with symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
(PTSD). Two major events seemed to impact Matt. First, Matt's partner John, who was known to be
prejudiced against Hispanics, shot and killed a suspect that posed no real danger to the officers.
Years later, Matt's new partner Sam was found bludgeoned to death floating in the river (Criterion
A3). Matt saw Sam's body in the morgue (Criterion A4). Matt began to have several intrusion
symptoms following Sam's death. He had recurring nightmares about Sam's dead body (Criterion
B2). Also, the large Hispanic clientele he encountered at his new job triggered flashbacks to the
Hispanic male that his partner shot (Criterion B3). Additionally, arguments with his wife triggered
anxious feelings about his wife's safety which caused him to insist upon driving her to and from
work (Criterion B4). The arguments with his wife resembled the arguments Matt had with Sam prior
to his death. Before Sam died, Matt refused to retire. He was adamant about remaining a homicide
detective despite the strain it put on his marriage. However, Sam's death made retirement seem like
the best solution. He was leaving his job to avoid the distressing cognitions related to Sam's death
(Criterion C2). Matt displayed noticeable alterations in his mood and thoughts. He began to blame
himself after dreaming that some missed message from Sam could have saved his life if Matt had
heard it (Criterion D3). His

Abstract Individuals that show to have Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) are significantly
affected both mentally and emotionally due to the exposure to a traumatic event. PTSD is a life–
long disorder that is being seen diagnosed more and more among returning soldiers and sexually–
violated individuals. Because of its increased detection, the importance of constructing effective
treatments for individuals living with PTSD is becoming increasingly recognized. Although
effectively treating PTSD has shown to be rather difficult and complicated, there have been
potential breakthroughs, and a large amount of research is still being devoted to discovering
treatments for this disorder. The purpose of this paper is to review the literature that ... Show more
The first criterion, exposure to a traumatic event, is central to PTSD. One has to be exposed, either
directly or indirectly (e.g. learning about a traumatic event), in order for them to acquire PTSD.
Only being exposed to a traumatic event is not enough to acquire this disorder, though, indicating
that the acquisition of this disorder is associated with both environmental and genetic causes. The
rest of the criteria for PTSD are direct consequences of this first criterion (Friedman, 2013).
Intrusion symptoms are those such as recurring memories, dreams, and flashbacks of the traumatic
event that are distressful and unwanted. Intrusion symptoms also include psychological and
physiological responses when exposed to reminders of the traumatic event (Friedman, 2013).
Avoidance symptoms are the avoidant actions an individual takes to counter the intrusion
symptoms. Since these intrusion symptoms are of a distressful nature, an individual might
consistently and determinately attempt to avoid all things (memories, dreams, flashbacks,
environmental reminders) related to the traumatic event (Friedman, 2013). The fourth criterion,
negative alterations in cognitions and mood,

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ( Ptsd ) Essay
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a prevalent trauma and stress related disorder (Narrow, et al
2002). In Australia, 7.2% of population who belong to the 16–85 years old group have suffered from
PTSD (McEvoy, et al 2011). A statistic also revealed that 4.6% of males and 8.3% of females have
been suffering PTSD for over 12 months (Australia Bureau of Statistics 2007), hence, it is obvious
that PTSD is a serious mental disorder. This essay is going to explore the diagnostic criteria of
PTSD, including its four symptoms, and three contributing factors also will be analyzed, namely:
occupational factor, interpretation of threat and social support. The following diagnostic criteria
mainly derive from "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder 5" (DSM–5), published
by America Psychiatric Association (APA 2013). PTSD needs to involve the direct or indirect
experience of the traumatic event is the first diagnostic criterion, such as severe injury, actual death
or threatened death and sex related violence. Moreover, if people are witnessing the event, learning
it from intimate people, or exposing to the traumatic information constantly, they are experiencing
the traumatic event indirectly (APA 2013, p. 271). The second criterion contains four symptoms of
PTSD (Michael & Ronald 2015). The intrusion thought is the first symptom, which happens when
the traumatic dreams or memories repeat in an uncontrollable manner. This makes people relive
these experiences, in the

The Penn Inventory Vs. Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale
The Penn Inventory vs. Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale
Trauma is something that can affect anyone at any time depending on the circumstance, no matther
whether young or old (Briere, 1997). Trauma has been called "irritable heart" and "shell schock" but
after a large amount of soldiers coming home from wars were all experiencing similar symptoms,
the American Psychological Association started to identify it as a specific disorder many could
potentially have; Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). There were many causes that were said to
have caused PTSD, some that were identified in Psychological Assessment of Adult Posttraumatic
States were: disasters, war, rape, sexual assault,large–scale, transportation accidents, emergency
worker exposure to trauma, spouse or partner battery, torture, child abuse (1997). Like stated above,
PTSD is not only for war victimes, it turns out that it started having different levels that was
associated to children as well. This then caused for a creation of various assessments that could be
administered depending on the age as well as the form of trauma. Sticking to adult testing, one
specific test that is being used for adults with PTSD is the Penn Inventory for Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder (Penn Inventory) (Hammarberg, 2014) created in 1992 by Melvyn Hammarberg (Norris &
Hamblen). The Penn Inventory was first made to test veterans but the questions had a barnum effect,
meaning that they were applicable to a varity of people. To get the

Twenty percent of all American adults who experience traumatic events this year will go on to
develop Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. It is estimated that 31 million United States citizens are
suffering from the disorder at any given moment. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is one of the world's
most prominent psychological issues, despite the fact that several people are not even familiar with
its name. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder that may occur after
experiencing traumatizing events or being involved in life–threatening situations. There are several
warning signs that a victim of PTSD may omit that range from subtle to very intense, including–but
not limited to–avoidance of certain people, objects, or places, negative thoughts and moodiness, and
changes in emotional behavior. Fortunately, there are ways to prevent the onset of Posttraumatic
Stress Disorder altogether. For example, one can try to detect the disorder early, and seek help
immediately following a traumatizing event. However, if PTSD does happen to be diagnosed, it can
be managed via various types of psychological therapy and rehabilitation as well as medically
prescribed aliments to combat the potential issues that may arise. These treatments are beneficial to
society as a whole when taking into consideration just how many of its members suffer from this
disorder. Many people deal with PTSD, but the presence of this pandemic can be moderated through
consciousness of causation,

Posttraumatic stress disorder, also known as PTSD, is a psychological problem that according to
Nebraska Department of Veterans' Affairs, in 2007, 7.8 percent of Americans will experience at
some point in their lives. Posttraumatic stress disorder has a range of symptoms that affects the life
of the person who suffers from the disorder and close friends and family. However, there is hope for
the person suffering from PTSD and six different theoretical models to choose from. Posttraumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder in which fear and related symptoms continue to be
experienced long after a traumatic event (Comer, 2011). Symptoms of Posttraumatic stress disorder
are re–experiencing the traumatic event, avoidance, reduced responsiveness, increased arousal,
negative emotions, and guilt. Re–experiencing the traumatic event may include the person having
recurring thoughts, memories, dreams, or nightmares, connected to the event; a few relive the event
so vividly in their minds (flashbacks) that they think it is actually happening again (Comer, 2011).
Avoidance is when the person avoids people, places, or activities, conversations, or feelings, that
might remind them of the traumatic event. Reduced responsiveness is when the person with PTSD
loses interest in activities that once brought enjoyment or detaching themselves from other people.
Some experience symptoms of dissociations, or psychological separation: they feel dazed, have
trouble remembering things,

The Negative Effects of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Essay
Posttraumatic stress disorder is one of the most common and most life altering stress disorders in the
world (Seedat, 2013). After going through traumatic events, many children, teenagers and elderly
people show symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. It is caused by a traumatic event that alters
a person's every day life. The people suffering from this disorder start to show symptoms with small
things that bother them from day to day such as getting angry and taking it out on their family,
having a short temper, etc. They can also begin to re–live the traumatic event that shocked them,
have nightmares about it or have flashbacks of it as well (Seedat, 2013). People with posttraumatic
stress disorder are generally always anxious, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Later, they started being unable to feel certain emotions. They started to feel numb and this
prevented them from doing things that they usually would have and from living their lives normally.
Finally, they experienced hyper arousal which interfered with their sleeping patterns, caused them to
get irritated and annoyed easily, to have a short fuse and to have outbursts and to have difficulty
concentrating (King et al.,).
Originally, PTSD was published as a disorder in the DSM–III in 1980 and it was mostly studied in
the veteran's from the Vietnam War. Back then, they thought that PTSD was only associated to
combat–related stress. Today, we know that PTSD affects people of all ages who go through many
different kinds of stress (Karner, 2008). However, studying PTSD in the Vietnam veteran's is how
they came to find that after combat, some of these men were suffering from Delayed Stress
Syndrome (Wilson, 1980). Delayed Stress Syndrome is the symptoms that occurred right after
combat and some that occurred long after. This has proven the severity of this disorder and has
caused psychiatrists to take it more seriously. Also, they figured out that it was not only veteran's
returning from combat that suffered from this disorder but that anyone could. Now that they have
improved their research, they have given these patients a better quality of life.
Posttraumatic stress disorder

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder In Young Children: A...
Blank, M. (2007). Posttraumatic stress disorder in infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. BC Medical
Journal, vol. 49. Retrieved from https://www.Bcmj.org./sites/default/files/
MCMJ_49_Vol3_articles_posttraumatic_stress.pdf This article is written by Myles Blank, there are
minimal studies regarding the occurrence of post traumatic stress disorder in young children.
Children of the ages 0–6 months have been seen with the symptoms of hypervigilance, exaggerated
startle response, withdrawal and irritability. By the ages of 24–36 month, infants have had
symptoms of increased anxiety, sleep disorders, angry reactions, nightmares as well as symptoms
seen in older children as described in the DSM. This article states the different treatments to help ...
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This city is full of refugees from the Khmer Rouge, who are extremists that destroyed Cambodia's
economy. A clinic in central Lowell, 95% of the Cambodians who go there to get help are diagnosed
with PTSD. The author speaks about her experience when visiting the clinic. She speaks about the
different traumatic events she had seen. Children who witnessed and experienced their parents going
through a traumatic event. The author says that children of traumatized parents may be born to
metabolize stress, they may be born vulnerable to PTSD, expressed in their molecules, neurons,
cells and genes. Yehuda a psychologist at the Veterans Affairs Hospital in the Bronx, came up with a
thesis that post traumatic stress disorder could be passed on from parent to child. "Studies of twins
have showed that a propensity for PTSD after trauma is about 30 to 35 percent heritable." Which
means that parents who go through a traumatic event and get PTSD, it could get passed down to the
children. There is biological PTSD, which means biologically there is a percentage of a mother
passing down PTSD to her children. The stakeholders of this article are parents and children. The
strength of this article is that it explains biological PTSD very specifically and it is very interesting
as the author writes about his personal stories of going to this clinic and seeing the

The Treatment Of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
The family will typically sacrifice their own needs to take care of the veteran who has returned.
When a family member begins to place the veteran's health, welfare and needs before their own,
they can lose contact with their own needs, desires, and sense of self: becoming co–dependent
(Mental Health America). The family has good intentions by taking care of the veteran who is
experiencing difficulty, but the caretaking becomes compulsive and defeating. Co–dependents often
take on a martyr's role. The problem is that these repeated rescue attempts allow the needy
individual to continue on a destructive course and to become even more dependent on the unhealthy
caretaking of the family. As this reliance increases, the co–dependent ... Show more content on
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Group interventions for trauma–related psychoeducation and social support may also provide a
benefit (Defense Centers of Excellence, 2015). The first line of treatment for PTSD should include
an evidence–based psychotherapy (i.e., talk therapy) and/or psychopharmacology (the study of
drug–induced changes in mood, thinking, and behavior). The psychotherapies with the most
evidence typically include one or more of several productive therapeutic approaches including
exposure to traumatic memories, stimuli or situations; cognitive restructuring of trauma–related
beliefs; and stress reduction techniques. "The table below summarizes effective PTSD
psychotherapy approaches detailed in Department of Veterans Affairs and Department of Defense
(VA/DoD) clinical practice guidelines. These treatments should be considered the first line of
treatment for patients with PTSD" (Defense Centers of Excellence, 2015)
Therapy Approach Therapeutic Elements Examples
Exposure–based Therapies Includes in–vivo, imaginal, or narrative (oral and/or written) exposures
to traumatic memories, situations, or stimuli. These therapies also generally include elements of
cognitive restructuring (e.g., evaluating the accuracy of beliefs about danger) as well as relaxation
techniques. Prolonged Exposure Therapy
Brief Eclectic Psychotherapy
Narrative Therapy
Cognitive–based Therapies Emphasizes cognitive restructuring strategies including

Posttraumatic Stress Traumatic Stress Disorder
Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Sacle: A Review Within the human experience, there has always
been a risk of exposure to both physical and psychological trauma. The threat of violence, personal
tragedies, and economic and social catastrophes are all possible triggers for an onset of Post–
Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). What was once reserved as a diagnosis for veterans has been
found to affect both young and old. The development of various assessment tools have been used in
diagnosing PTSD and one of the most commonly used tests is the Post–Traumatic Stress Diagnostic
Scale. It is an assessment that was developed and validated by Edna Foa to provide a brief but
reliable self–report measure of PTSD for use in both clinical and research settings (Zalta, Gillihan,
Fisher, Mintz, McLean, Yehuda, & Foa, 2014). The Post–Traumatic Diagnostic Scale is an
assessment instrument deigned to be taken by adults with at least an eighth grade reading level. This
review of will evaluate the hits, misses, false positive errors, and false negative errors of this
instrument and how to each area is applied in interpreting the construct measurement of this
assessment tool. Although the Post Traumatic diagnostic Scale has consistently ranked high with
clinicians and researchers, in self–reporting the definition of trauma can potentially become
subjective and compromise the reliability of the assessment tool. The Assessment Instrument: Post
traumatic Diagnostic Scale The Post Traumatic

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder In today society, many people go through many tragic events in a life
time. One of the most common disorders is posttraumatic stress disorder. This disorder is can be
exposed to violent events such as rape, child abuse, war, domestic violence. This disorder thought to
be only on war veterans who have been involved in combat. But this disorder is not only limited to
soldiers but to any person. Anybody can go through posttraumatic stress disorder who has had
horrible traumatic events in their life span. PTSD is a disorder that many individuals go through
without even knowing it. PTSD can cause many health and social issues. What is important is how
it is treated and how early it can be detected. PTSD can be treated with the proper intervention and
treatments. Psychologists have carefully researched material that is necessary for the treatment of
this posttraumatic stress disorder.
Descriptive Component PTSD is a well known disorder that has many symptoms and affects.
Anybody can suffer from this disorder like adults, children, and adolescents. The symptoms of this
disorder are intense fear and feelings of helplessness, recurrent and intrusive recollections,
flashbacks, and dreams of the events, physiological reactivity when exposed to cures the symbolize
the events, avoidance of stimuli associated with the event, numbing of feelings, inability to recall
aspects of the event, feelings of detachment, pessimism about the future, sleep

Symptoms And Diagnosis Of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Introduction Posttraumatic stress disorder is a mental illness most commonly associated with
soldiers, this is due to the fact that it is an illness triggered by immense trauma such as experiencing
a war. However why does everyone that go to war or experience something traumatic not obtain
posttraumatic stress? I believe that there are neurological abnormalities prior to experiencing the
trauma that makes certain individuals more susceptible to obtaining posttraumatic stress. These
abnormalities may be located on or near the hippocampus, amygdala, and/or the medial prefrontal
cortex as those three areas of the brain all play important roles in posttraumatic stress (Bremner,
2006). To understand the primary causes of posttraumatic stress ... Show more content on
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It is not uncommon for people to experiencing symptoms of anxiety, fear, dissociation, or distress
(Bremner, 2006). If the symptoms continue to get worse or last for multiple months that one may
have posttraumatic stress, however if with time and care the symptoms improve then they do not
have posttraumatic stress (Mayo Clinic, 2015). It is assumed that symptoms of posttraumatic stress
represent the behavioural indication of stress–caused changes to the brain (Bremner, 2006). Some if
not all of these symptoms may lead to the use and/or abuse of substances such as drugs and/or
alcohol (Bremner, 2006)
Diagnosis DSM–5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition) is a term
often used when discussing mental illness; this is in light of the fact that it re–categorized what
illnesses fall into what category and in this case it re–evaluated the criteria to be diagnosed with
posttraumatic stress disorder. The DSM–5 re–categorized posttraumatic stress disorder from a
branch under general Anxiety to the specialized category of Trauma and Stressor Related Disorders.
DSM–5 states that someone is suffering from depression if "the person was exposed to one or more
of the following events: death or threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or
threatened sexual violation" (Calhoun et al., 2012). As well the individual must be experiencing
intrusive symptoms such as random or relevant

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder(commonly known as PTSD) is disorder that occurs after an event
which has had a traumatizing effect on an individual. A traumatizing event would include life
threatening events, emotionally traumatic events, terrifying events, and even rape. The effects of
PTSD are anxiety, violent rages, consistent nightmares, and terrifying flashbacks. Symptoms of
PTSD usually emerge after 3 months after the incident, but symptoms can also be evident even
years later. Individuals that experience a traumatic event are most likely to develop PTSD. There are
five different types of PTSD. These types include: Normal Stress Response, Acute Stress Disorder,
Uncomplicated PTSD, Comorbid PTSD, And Complex PTSD. Normal Stress Response(NSR) can
occur in adults who have been in a single traumatizing event. Examples can include divorce, loss of
job, and loss of a loved one. People with NSR often experience feelings of unreality, numbing of
emotions, and stress. Typically, these people tend to push away others. This type of PTSD can be
easily overcome by engaging in small groups and having positive conversations.
The second type of PTSD is Acute Stress Disorder(ASD). This type of PTSD usually occurs within
a month of a severe traumatic stressor. For example, it could be a death of a loved one, a threat of
some kind to the individual, whether it be to oneself or another. The symptoms of this type can
range from feeling numb to insomnia and even having flashbacks.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Essay
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can be a very serious and debilitating condition that occurs
after a person has been exposed to a terrifying event or ordeal in which grave physical danger
happened or was threatened. The kinds of traumatic events triggering PTSD in people include
violent personal assaults (rape, mugging), natural disasters (hurricanes, tornadoes), man–made
disasters (bombings), accidents or military combat. People who suffer from PTSD often relive the
experience through nightmares and flashbacks, have difficulty sleeping, and feel detached or
estranged, and these symptoms can be severe enough and last long enough to significantly impair a
person's daily life. PTSD is a complicated ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Rates of PTSD are much higher in post–conflict settings such as Algeria (37%), Cambodia (28%),
Ethiopia (16%), and Gaza (18%)(de Jong et al., 2001).
The first stressor criterion specifies that a person has been exposed to a catastrophic event involving
actual or threatened death or injury. The second criterion, or intrusive recollection, includes
symptoms that are distinctive and easily identified of PTSD. These emotions manifest in daytime
fantasies, traumatic nightmares, and psychotic reenactments know as flashbacks. The third criteria,
avoidant/numbing, consists of symptoms that reflect behavioral, cognitive, or emotional strategies
the PTSD patients use in an attempt to reduce the likelihood that they will expose themselves to
trauma–related stimuli. The fourth criteria, hyper–arousal, most closely resembles those seen in
panic and generalized anxiety disorders. While symptoms such as insomnia and irritability are
generic anxiety symptoms, hyper–vigilance and startle are more characteristic of PTSD. The fifth
criteria, duration, specifies how long symptoms must persist in order to qualify for a PTSD
diagnosis. The last criteria, functional significance, specify that the survivor must experience
significant social, occupational, or other distress as a result of these symptoms. Since 1980, there
has been a great deal of attention devoted

Description Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is defined as "a condition that generates waves of
anxiety, anger, aggression, depression and suspicion; threatens a person's sense of self; and
interferes with daily life functioning" (Smeltzer, Bare, Hinkle & Cheever, 2010, p. 99). As human
beings, we are built with different type of emotions and feelings that can endanger us or benefit us.
When faced with a traumatic life event, an individual will either overcome the event and become
stronger from the experience or that event can hinder the person causing them to experience the
signs and symptoms of PTSD. According to Carrion and Kletter (2012), (as cited in Gabbay, Oatis,
Silva & Hirsch, 2004) "epidemiological studies indicate that ... Show more content on
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The study revealed that "internalizing symptoms may play an even more important role in
predicting delinquency than youths' level of risk for maltreatment" (Bender et al., 2011, p. 83).
According to Bender 2011, child abuse and neglect are among the high risk factors in the
development of post traumatic stress disorder. In the United States for instance, there have been
millions of cases reported for child abuse and neglect (Bender et al., 2011, p. 81). Cognitive–
Behavioral Therapy: Individual Therapy Studies has shown that the most used treatment for
adolescents with PTSD is cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) . According to Rezvan, Baghban,
Bahrami, & Abedi (2008), CBT acts by trying to replace disgusting memories and recurring fears
with multiple adaptive coping responses (p. 309). A study was conducted by Allen, Oseni, and Allen
(2012), on a 16 year–old Caucasian male called Adam, who presented with symptoms of Post
traumatic stress disorder that came from him witnessing his brother's death. His brother got into a
car accident which left him in critical condition and sadly pass away shortly after being admitted to
a hospital (p. 633). Adam presented with experiencing feelings of sadness and sense of
hopelessness, chest pains, lightheadedness, difficulty sleeping, nightmares, episodes of anger and
other symptoms of panic attacks. Adam completed six months of CBT therapy sessions which was
conducted by a clinical

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder And Its Holocaust
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and its ' Victims
By: Madeline Fox
Dr. Kappas
PSY A345
November 29,2014
Abstract Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is a very common condition in which the client shows
certain symptoms. The condition is based off of traumatic experiences and if not treated properly
can have some very serious life threatening issues. Also it is important to note that this condition can
occur to anyone at any point in their lives. All it takes is one little mishap and depending on the
outcome or the person, they can develop the symptoms that can potentially hurt them even worse
than the event that occurred hurt.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and its ' Victims Posttraumatic Stress Disorder(PTSD) ... Show more
PTSD can happen to people of all ages, there is no set number in determining when someone will
develop it. There are however certain factors that may increase ones probability of the condition
being reached. These factors include: experiencing long lasting trauma, experiencing other trauma
earlier in life, such as child abuse or neglect, having a job that exposes more traumatic events than
normal jobs do, having mental health problems, a lack of support from family and friends, and
having blood related family who have mental health problems. (Help Guide, 2014) Researchers are
working on what genes cause fear and have turned up some great results. They found that Stathmin,
a protein that forms fear memories, cause mice to "freeze" which is a survival technique. The mice
that they tested during their study were more willing to go into open spaces than normal mice were.
GRP signals the brain during emotional events. As researchers found, it helps mice to control fear. A
version of 5–HTTLPR gene is known to control serotonin levels. The overall findings done on
genes linked to PTSD is that there are many that are at work in PTSD. (The National Institute of
Mental Health, 2014). The most common types of traumatic events that people with PTSD have
lived through

A Look At Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Introduction: In this paper we will take a look at posttraumatic stress disorder (from here on referred
to as PTSD) in adults, aged 18 years and older, who have been victimized by sexual abuse as a
child. In every case of childhood sexual abuse there are always lingering effects from the trauma.
While some victims have a positive network and receive the help needed to cope with traumatic
events such as this, others are left to suffer in silence, which in turn causes a variety of long term
crisis's. One such issue that may arise in the area of psychiatric health is posttraumatic stress
disorder. PTSD is a mental health condition triggered by a terrifying event, generally coincides with
two emotions, guilt and shame, expressed by the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
An adult who functions inappropriately in society victimizes a childhood sexual abuse victim. When
the victim spirals into shame and guilt related to PTSD, as a child or an adult, their emotions and
actions will affect the society they come into contact with. What is hoped to be understood is that
childhood sexual abuse does not only effect the short term. Those that do not have a healthy
relationship to turn to in order to disclose the abuse will come to an end where their daily life is
consumed by guilt and shame.
Literature Review: The Mayo Clinic defines PTSD as, "a mental health condition that is triggered
by a terrifying event." These events can be personal inflicted on the person or witness by a person.
For anyone who experiences a traumatic event readjustment can be difficult and a long process but
those that receive help can make a recovery. For those that the have lasting symptoms or have
symptoms that get worse they may be diagnosed with PTSD. The symptoms of PTSD are intrusive
memories, avoidance, negative changes in thinking and mood, and/or changes in emotional
reactions. Reminders or stressors of the traumatic event can lead to intensity in PTSD symptoms.
There are 5 most common kinds of traumatic events that could lead to PTSD, two of which are child
neglect and abuse and sexual abuse.

Symptoms And Treatment Of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (...
An estimated 5.2 million adults will suffer from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) every year.
Every PTSD victim encounters different experiences and symptoms that coincide with their trauma.
Many forms of treatment and coping mechanisms have been attempted in the past decade to produce
relief. There have been a few successful forms or treatment and there have also been treatment
routes that have been detrimental to the success and overcoming of victims' symptoms. Eye
Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) is a new treatment option that is available to
PTSD victims. "While the treatment has met with skepticism, meta–analyses have indicated that
EMDR is superior to most other treatments and is as effective as the best alternative treatment, i.e.,
cognitive–behavioral therapy. EMDR is now advocated as a treatment of choice for PTSD in many
Western countries" (Van den Hout 177–178). EMDR gives PTSD victims long–lasting relief from
their symptoms and ensures them the best chance at regaining normalcy in their lives.
There are many reasons that people can acquire forms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and
there is an array of symptoms that individuals can suffer from. Some of the most common reasons
that people suffer from PTSD are military experiences, both physical and sexual abuse, car
accidents, and any other kind of traumatic experience. There is a very large population of Americans
who suffer from PTSD and do not understand that the struggles that

Effects Of Stress On Children Suffering Of Posttraumatic...
Section B:
1. Considering the trauma Tony had faced at 8 years old and especially taking into consideration the
injuries of his family that occurred from their house burning down we can relate it to the difficulties
Tony is now facing. Of this incident, Tony can no longer remain on his own, as he tends to be
irritable and hyperactive as well as experiencing difficulty during the night as it often contains
frightening nightmares of being trapped. Therefore, this has the result to Tony refusing to sleep on
his own he must be accompanied by both parents. However, based on these emotional difficulties
Tony has been experiencing he is experiencing a Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). In reference
to his terrifying nightmares of feeling ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In regards, of Tony's emotional difficulty in terms of suffering from PTSD this can contribute to
further emotional or psychiatric difficulties. Firstly, this can result of one to also experience a
generalized anxiety which relies on a heavy concern of worrying of events and activities which
could trigger for Tony as he already can not tolerate being alone. Next, can also contribute to
separation anxiety, which tends to describe youths who suffer from a significant amount of anxiety
when separating from a parent as noticed in Tony's circumstance he can't sleep without both parents
being present. Also, another factor could result of panic which consist of a sense of fear or terror
(Wicks–Nelson & Israel, 2013). In association to Tony, we already witness horrifying nightmares
about being trapped. However, depression is often as well an associated symptom, which consist of
a person undergoing a very dark moment conflicting ones ability of functioning which can be highly
reflected upon Tony as he has been referred to as not doing well. Lastly, ADHD is also a concern
that consist of one who to have difficulty sustaining focus, and leading one to be fidgety where this
has been apparent in Tony as he has been

The Treatment Of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
The family has good intentions by taking care of the veteran who is experiencing difficulty, but the
caretaking becomes compulsive and defeating. Co–dependents often take on a martyr's role. The
problem is that these repeated rescue attempts allow the needy individual to continue on a
destructive course and to become even more dependent on the unhealthy caretaking of the family.
As this reliance increases, the co–dependent develops a sense of reward and satisfaction from "being
needed" (Mental Health America). The family will begin to feel helpless in the relationship, but are
unable to break away from the cycle of behavior that causes it: viewing themselves as victims.
Clinicians have several treatment options to consider in the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The psychotherapies with the most evidence typically include one or more of several productive
therapeutic approaches including exposure to traumatic memories, stimuli or situations; cognitive
restructuring of trauma–related beliefs; and stress reduction techniques. "The table below
summarizes effective PTSD psychotherapy approaches detailed in Department of Veterans Affairs
and Department of Defense (VA/DoD) clinical practice guidelines. These treatments should be
considered the first line of treatment for patients with PTSD" (Defense Centers of Excellence, 2015)
Therapy Approach Therapeutic Elements Examples
Exposure–based Therapies Includes in–vivo, imaginal, or narrative (oral and/or written) exposures
to traumatic memories, situations, or stimuli. These therapies also generally include elements of
cognitive restructuring (e.g., evaluating the accuracy of beliefs about danger) as well as relaxation
techniques. Prolonged Exposure Therapy
Brief Eclectic Psychotherapy
Narrative Therapy
Cognitive–based Therapies Emphasizes cognitive restructuring strategies including challenging
beliefs connected to the traumatic event. Also includes relaxation techniques and discussion of the
traumatic event either orally or through writing. Cognitive Processing Therapy
Cognitive Therapy
Stress Inoculation Training Especially emphasizes breathing retraining and muscle relaxation. May
also include

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research by Essay example
In the research paper of "Examining the Interactive Effect of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Distress
Tolerance, and Gender on Residential Substance Use Disorder Treatment Retention" which is
written by Matthew T. Tull, Kim L. Gratz, and Scott F. Coffey, University of Mississippi.
Researchers conducted a research about how PTSD–SUD diagnosis affect on residential SUD
treatment completion(Tull, 2012;Gratz, 2012;Coffey,2012 p.763). Aside from the researches leaded
by professors at University of Mississippi, there are previous researches showing the co–occurrence
of PTSD among SUD patients is clinically relevant, because there are more server negative
cilinnical outcomes among SUD patients with(vs. without) PTSD, including quicker ... Show more
The age of the participants are in the range from 18 to 61, with a average age of 36. Among these
participants, 55% were white, 36% were black/African American, 5% were Native American, and
4% were another races.(Tull, 2012;Gratz, 2012;Coffey,2012 p.765) The majority of the participants
were single, which is 70% of the participants. And 47% of the participants have a annual income
below $10,000. With regard to their educational backgrounds, 27% did not complete high school or
receive a GED, 35% had completed high school or received a GED, 39% had attended at least some
college or technical school which 7% of them had successfully graduated. Researchers assessed
participants with the Clinician–Administered PTSD Scale(CAPS;Blake et al.,1990.) in order to
establish current PTSD diagnoses. They were also interviewed with SCID–IV (First et al., 1996) to
provide an assessment of current Axis I disorders (other than PTSD), and the borderline personality
disorder (BPD) module of the Diagnostic Interview for DSM–IV Personality Dis– orders (DIPD–
IV; Zanarini, Frankenburg, Sickel, & Young, 1996) to assess the presence of current BPD symptoms
(Zanarini et al.,2000). Researchers also used the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task–
Computerized Version(PASAT–C) to assess DT. During the PASAT–C, numbers shows up on a
computer screen, and participants are instructed to add the most recent number with the previous
number. After providing

Symptoms And Treatment Of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
In the study, the participants were sampled for convenience, there were a total of 31 subjects. These
subjects were patients that were in a major New York hospitals Cardiac Intensive Care Unit, the
reason they were in the unit was so that they could be treated for their acute myocardial infarction.
These subjects were patients in the Cardiac Intensive Care Unit between August and December of
2006. The subjects who were selected to take part in this study were selected bases on certain
criteria. The criteria that was used to select the subjects included the ability of the subject to speak
English, there being evidence of their myocardial infarction, the stability of the patient, the ability of
the subject to give informed consent for the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These follow–up interviews were done over telephone. The procedures were approved by the IRB
and HIPAA. In the baseline interviews the clinicians assessed the social demographics of each
participant, asked questions about the subjects medical history, used the CES–D to check for
symptoms of depression, checked with the CCI for any comorbidity, and asked about how much
support the subject felt they had. Likert scale responses were developed to asses some of the
symptoms like pain, anxiety, and other symptoms. Variables in how severe each patient's myocardial
infarction was were collected from the review of each subject's medical records. Left ventricle
ejection function was used to estimate just how severe the damage was to the myocardial muscle.
The SCID was used to evaluate each subject for preexisting Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
symptoms. In the follow up interviews the SCID and the IES–R were used to assess the
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the patients. When it came to studying the independent variables
and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, linear regression was used. The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
symptoms were said to be continuous variables. When it came to studying predictors there was a
two–step process to conduct that research. Independent t tests were used to study the

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating psychiatric disorder that may occur in some
people following a traumatic event. PTSD and depression often coexist due to the similar
characteristics of PTSD and depression as well as the nature of a traumatic event inducing PTSD as
well as depressive symptoms per DSM–5 guidelines. PTSD has been noted to coexist with diabetes
as well in several research studies. The etiology, prevalence, and symptoms of PTSD, depression
and PTSD associated with Type 2 diabetes will be presented. Research evidence of PTSD and the
association of diabetes as well as integrative therapy will be discussed. Post Traumatic Stress
Disorder, Depression, and Diabetes Posttraumatic stress disorders are the result ... Show more
The DSM 5 criteria for diagnosis of PTSD for children over age 6 and adults includes exposure to
actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence by directly experiencing a traumatic
event, witnessing the traumatic event, learning of the traumatic event occurring to a close family
member or friend or experiencing exposure to aversive details of a traumatic event not media related
unless job related (Sadock, Sadock & Ruiz, 2015). The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, (2014)
concludes the following for diagnosis per the DSM–5 criteria: Diagnostic criteria for PTSD includes
a history of exposure to a traumatic event that meets specific stipulations and symptoms from each
of the four symptom clusters included in the DSM–5: intrusion, avoidance, negative alterations in
cognition and mood, and alterations in arousal and activity. The sixth criterion concerns duration of
symptoms; the seventh assesses functioning; and, the eighth criterion clarifies symptoms as not
attributable to a substance or co–occurring medical condition. Etiology of PTSD The etiology of
PTSD includes a stressor or traumatic event, as a causative factor of PTSD, which does not
guarantee PTSD will occur as many people deal with stressful life events differently. Factors
increasing the risk of developing PTSD include the presence of childhood trauma, a personality
disorder diagnosis, a poor support system, female gender,

Assessment And Treatment Of Combat Related Posttraumatic...
Assessment and Treatment of Combat–Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder The number of
veterans returning from the Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF),
and Operation New Dawn (OND) conflicts that are afflicted with posttraumatic stress disorder is
estimated to be in the hundreds of thousands (Kip, et al., 2013, p. 1298), demonstrating the
importance of the social worker to be knowledgeable of the symptoms and treatment of this
disabling trauma. The purpose of this literature review is to address the issue of posttraumatic stress
disorder (PTSD), address the symptoms linked to PTSD, and the methods used in the assessment of
posttraumatic stress disorder with emphasis on military combat–related PTSD. In addition, the
literature review will identify the interventions by social work, if any, when addressing PTSD and
the role social workers may play when assisting those with combat–related posttraumatic stress
disorder.
Assessment
Posttraumatic stress disorder is caused by "exposure to a traumatic stressor or bearing witness to
such an event" (Peterson, Luethcke, Borah, Borah, & Young–McCaughan, 2011, p. 166). Patients
cannot develop PTSD without this exposure. Risk factors for a client 's development of combat–
related PTSD can be divided into three main categories: the trauma 's type and severity, the
individual 's factors, such as age, socioeconomic status, and psychiatric and previous history, and
external environmental factors (Peterson, et al.,

Essay on What Does Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Truly Means?
To better analyze this story, it is firstly important to understand what PTSD, short for Posttraumatic
Stress Disorder truly means. The exact definition is, "an anxiety disorder that may develop after
exposure to a terrifying event or ordeal in which severe physical harm occurred or was threatened"
(Psychologytoday). Embedded in this short story are clear–cut symptoms that Seymour, the main
character experiences. He endures lack of interest, difficulty in concentration, eating disorder,
hopelessness, episodes of detachment, altered perception, and most importantly a sense of having no
future. A Perfect Day for Bananafish is based off of this man Seymour Glass who is a returning
veteran from WWII. He comes home to a wife who has ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He had given up on his appearance, shamed of his "tattooed" body, and mortified by his adult–like
thoughts. In order to repress his pain, he sought out his last attempt to live by the company of a
child. A Perfect Day for Bananafish is commonly known as A Perfect Day to Die. Seymour put his
life in the hands of a child. The story time he shared with Sybil was his final attempt to believe the
world was not so malice, to believe he had a reason to overcome his obstacles, and yet he was so
disenchanted it led him to suicide. Imagine a distinguished man stumbling around with a matted
robe, stringy hair, oily complexion, sunk in cheekbones, bags under his eyes, and pale legs. Then
imagine a perfectly manicured wife who seems to be on the phone waiting to reap benefits.
Seymour had not one soul to comfort his tattered mind and soul. He spent his days ashamed
covering himself in that old robe because, "he [didn't] want a lot of fools looking at his tattoo" (pg
6). This is one of the symptoms he suffered from, an altered perspective. Everyone thought Seymour
was insane because he did not have a tattoo. However, the tattoo was not on his physical body, it
was a mental scar. Just as the famous Hispanic artist Joan Sebastian sang, "Tatuajes de tus besos
llevo en todo mi cuerpo, tatuados sobre el tiempo que te conoci" (Sebastian). When translated the
singer says he has permanent tattoos of every

Link Between Learned Helplessness to Posttraumatic Stress...
Link Between Learned Helplessness to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Depression in Battered
Woman
Summary:
Bargai,Ben–Shakhar, and Shalev (2007) designed a study to test the hypothesis that learned
helplessness (LH) intervenes the relationship between violence severity and mental disorders in
battered women, particularly posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depression (MDD).
They also hypothesis that the severity of LH, PTSD, and MDD is positively correlated with the
severity of violence. Lastly, it was hypothesized that here is a significant correlation between LH
and the invested background factors such as child abuse, socioeconomic and male–dominated
backgrounds. The sample consisted of 102 battered woman from eight ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
An independent sample t–test was done to compare battered women with PTSD and those without
PTSD. LH scores in PTSD–positive participants were significantly higher than those whom are
non–PTSD. This suggest that there is a strong association between high levels of LH and PTSD in
battered women. Furthermore, it was discovered that LH is strongly associated with early cultural
influence, especially in male–dominated backgrounds. Women who are raised in cultures and
educational background that promote female submissiveness and prejudice against women are more
likely to develop PTSD and depression as a result of male violence. Depression is especially highly
correlated with PTSD. Sexual violence was the strongest predictor of PTSD, whereas physical
violence alone wasn't significantly correlated. History of child abuse increases LH and therefore,
increasingthe risk of depression and PTSD. In conclusion, this study suggests that LH in battered
women is associated both with prolonged exposure to violence and other risk factors outside of the
abusive relationship, and that the LH mediates the contribution of violence exposure to PTSD and
MDD in this population.
Critique
Overall this study was well designed to test the main hypothesis on learned helplessness
contribution on the severity of violence as well as PTSD and MDD symptoms. To say that is
experiment is valid is to say that the researchers measured what were

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Depression in Battered...
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Depression in Battered Women
Summary
Barbai, Ben–Shakhar and Shalev (2007) conducted a research study to investigate the role that
learned helplessness (LH) played in the length and severity of violence towards the female
population as well as the severity of symptoms and diagnosis of major depression (MDD) and Post
Traumatic Stress disorder (PTSD) on women who had been exposed to domestic violence for a long
period of time. The study took place with 101 battered women who reside at different shelters in
Israel.
Out of the eleven shelters for battered women the researchers visited eight over the course of 18
months. 140 women were asked to participate in the study. Out of the initial approached only 102 ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It was organized by extent of injury and times of occurrence. The participants signed informed
consent and where financially compensated for their participation.
In conclusion, about eighty percent of the women that had been diagnosed with PTSD have co
morbid clinical disorders (35% had MDD, 13% pain disorder, 12% specific phobias, and finally
10% had Body Dysmorphic Disorder). Substance abuse was found to not be a frequent diagnosis.
Women in the PTSD group score highly in depression symptom severity, LH, total, sexual and
verbal violence. The population in the same group that had a lower education level had a high
measurement in a male dominant background, abuse during childhood, abuse–related stress, total
trauma–related stress, total number of life traumas, number of ER visits and amount of smoking.
This is study is an example of a correlational research because the research did not manipulate or
influenced the variables. The only thing that was done was to record the experiences of battered
women or non–battered women to get to a conclusion whether battered women are more susceptible
to learned helplessness. In this case the independent variable of the research was whether the
women had been abused or not and the dependent variable was the diagnosis of PTSD, MDD and
other clinical disorders.
Critique
It seems like the authors correctly interpreted their

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Case Study
Determine if an individual has a stress reaction that can be diagnosed as acute stress disorder or
PTSD. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a disorder that can be overly diagnosed or
underdiagnosed. According to James and Gilliland (2013), individuals must meet some certain
criteria to meet the criteria for PTSD. The first criteria the person must have been faced with some
kind of serious trauma. Second the person must relive the trauma event. For example, an individual
could relive that trauma in a dream or flashbacks, then third the client must meet three criteria of
avoiding stimuli. They must insistently avoid stimuli. Then the client must meet the fourth criteria
and that is, the client must have increase arousal of the nervous system.

Symptoms And Symptoms Of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Introduction Posttraumatic stress disorder is classified as an extreme anxiety disorder that has
characteristics of both mood and personality disorders. Symptoms are brought on after an individual
experiences a traumatic event. Though not everyone that experiences a traumatic event goes on to
develop PTSD, seven to eight percent of the U.S. population will experience PTSD at some point in
their lives. Symptoms of PTSD include four main categories of symptoms: reliving, avoidance,
hyper arousal, and Negative changes in beliefs and feelings. Reliving the event can include
nightmares, flashbacks, occurrence of triggers which are things that a person may hear, see, or smell
that causes an individual to relive the event. A person experiencing ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The individual may experience changes in their feelings towards their self and others (PTSD: How).
Diagnosis PTSD is diagnosed using the DSM–IV. Individuals must first and foremost experience or
witness an event in which actual or threatened harm is involved (Nathan). This includes but is not
limited to: physical or sexual assault, serious accidents, child sexual or physical abuse, combat
exposure, terrorist attack and natural disasters. Such events can bring on an "intense fear,
helplessness or horror" (Nathan). Symptoms discussed above meet the criteria B through D
according to the DSM–VI for PTSD. Criteria E is that the symptoms must be present for at least one
month and show clinical impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functionality (criteria
F) (Nathan). Statistics An estimated eight percent of U.S. citizens have PTSD at any given time
(Guess). Seventy percent of adults in the U.S. have experienced some type of traumatic event at
least once in their lives and up to 20 percent go on to develop PTSD (PTSD: How). It is estimated 1
out of 10 women develops PTSD; women are about twice as likely as men (PTSD: How). Almost 50
percent of all outpatient mental health patients have PTSD. One study conducted on numerous
college campuses found that one

Victims Of Crime With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Victims of crime with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is an important topic to the field of
psychology because it occurs in many victims. It is also important to the field because through
research its causes and etiology are able to be discovered, treatments are able to be developed and
tested for those with the disorder, and ways are found to prevent the disorder in victims. PTSD is a
severe anxiety disorder and is recognized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The diagnostic criteria for PTSD include, "a
history of exposure to a traumatic event meeting two criteria and symptoms from each of three
symptom clusters: intrusive recollections, avoidant/numbing symptoms, and hyper–arousal
symptoms," (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Interest in PTSD in victims of crime is the
reason for this literature. More interests include prevalence, differences in gender, and treatment
options for those who are victims of crime experiencing trauma (sexual and non–sexual), as well as
the measures taken to aide these victims. The following paper will discuss different aspects related
to victims of crime with PTSD. The gender differences and treatment types for victims of crime
with PTSD will be examined.
The prevalence of PTSD is shown that women develop the disorder at a rate twice of that of men,
despite other factors (Simmons, 2010). As stated in the National Comorbidity Survey, total lifetime
prevalence of

Ptsd And Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
PTSD or Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is a growing concern with our returning soldiers. As
technology is advancing, battles are becoming more and more gruesome. The scars from defending
your country are not only physical. Some scars may not be visible, but are even more dangerous.
The trauma imbedded in these men and women's heads will cause pain for them and their entire
family. The dictionary definition of PTSD is a serious condition that can develop after a person has
experienced or witnessed a traumatic or terrifying event in which serious physical harm occurred or
was threatened. It has also been called battle fatigue or shell shock. It may be everlasting and it is
devastating to the person's mental health. Some of the more ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The events seen by these brave people are what cause the terrible side effects. PTSD can be directly
correlated to what is viewed during battle. Fellow soldiers and friends are being brutally killed. It is
expected with war, but it takes a toll on the fighters. Constantly seeing death and serious injury can
leave one scared. The everyday sights for people who serve over seas in places like Iraq and
Afghanistan greatly improve the chances of them having PTSD effects after returning home. A study
was performed on Iraq/Afghanistan soldiers to see the effects of PTSD and how common it was in
these certain employments. The three following questions were looked at as the main focal points in
the research:
"(1) How do the rates of PTSD among all active duty enlisted personnel differ by service and
deployment location?
(2) How do deployment location and length of deployment affect the probability of being diagnosed
with PTSD?
(3) Is there an interactive effect between a deployment 's length and location?" (Shen, Arkes, Kwan,
Tan, Williams, 2010). Previous studies have failed to see the comparison between PTSD rates and
the different services of employment. The research focused on active solders and the duration of
their specific enlistments. Two wars were the focal points of studies, which include Iraq and
Afghanistan. Said by Shen et al. (2010) "Recent research suggests that the wars in Afghanistan and
Iraq, also

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a type of anxiety...
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a type of anxiety disorder that is developed from
witnessing or exposure to traumatic events that is threatening or creates a horrific fear, horror and
sense of helplessness in a person. It is common among service men and women, especially those
returning from overseas, who have been actively engaged in combat operations overseas. Although
PTSD is not limited to solely service men and women, it can occur in children and civilians, who
encounter tragic circumstances, such as those related to sexual trauma, physical assault, serious
accidents and terrorist attacks, like the individuals who witnessed firsthand, the September 11th
terrorist attack on the world trade center. In any case, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
and have extreme difficulties integrating in a society that is not threating. This is one of the biggest
factors impeding in reintegrating in society, called "turning it off" which is simply trying to
transition from one extreme to the other after prolonged exposure. Many factors hinder the
transition, such as hyper vigilance; always scanning for threats and on the edge, anticipating
something negative is going to happen. There are many "triggers" that Veterans associate their
traumatic experiences with, and these include certain smells, sounds, sights, and so on. These
triggers act as a reminder of the horrific events that occurred in the past, and remind the person of
the event, and even re–live the event as if it is taking place in real time. These are only a few
examples of what most Veterans experience and live with on a day–to day basis, as the list and
conditions can go on and on. Because PTSD typically occurs soon after the traumatic event occurs,
early intervention needs to take place. A common means of early intervention for persons suffering
from PTSD is known as psychological debriefing (PD). PD attempts to lessen or prevent
psychological damage by utilizing specialized debriefing methods. This tries to target the triggers
causing PTSD to

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can be defined as " a complex disorder in which a person's
memory, emotional responses, intellectual process, and nervous system have been disrupted by one
or more traumatic experiences"(Swan & Persis, 2016). It is trauma and stressor related, a disorder
that depends on a factor outside a person. Types of events that can lead to the development of PTSD
include physical assault, rape and sexual assault, military combat, torture, mass violence, natural
disasters, transportation or workplace disasters, explosions and fires, life–threatening epidemics and
radiation. Repeated traumas or being exposed to long duration of traumas may also cause symptoms
of PTSD. There are biochemical, physiologic, sociocultural, together with occupational factors and
personal variables involved in the development of PTSD (Swan & Persis, 2016). Health risks
associated with PTSD include cardiovascular, digestive musculoskeletal and respiratory disorders.
Also cancer, infectious diseases, suicide, homicide and drug overdose (Heavey, 2014).
In accordance with Sabella (2012), approximately seven point seven million people from ages
eighteen and above suffer from PTSD in the United States. From every one hundred people, about
seven or eight Americans will have PTSD at some point at their lives. A traumatic event possibly
involving an assault is more likely to result in PTSD on both woman and child than with a man;
which may result in long standing debilitating

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in In Country by Bobbi Ann...
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in "In Country" by Bobbi Ann Mason
Many Vietnam veterans suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder. Typically, such individuals have
flashbacks, dreams, and are constantly haunted by their war memories. The mental stress can lead to
further complications, even physically injuring or paralyzing the human body. The book In Country
by Bobbi Ann Mason portrays a prime example of such a victim. The difference? The subject is a
seventeen–year–old girl in the early nineteen–eighties who never saw the war.
Posttraumatic stress disorder affects an estimated 30.9% of male Vietnam veterans and 26.9% of
female Vietnam veterans, according to a survey by the National Center for PTSD (National Center
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She thinks that he has contracted Agent Orange, which is a constant source for concern as she thinks
"it could turn into cancer" (Mason 70). He has had several mental episodes, including the time he
lost feeling in his legs because he was "identifying with the paraplegics" (Mason 234). Several of
Emmett's old war buddies have similar issues. Although one attempted to marry and lead a normal
life, that too failed. Tom, a mechanic who sold Sam her Volkswagen, was left impotent because of
what he calls "mind over matter" causing him "[to go] where he doesn't want to go" (Mason 128).
These are the things that fill Sam's head, things caused by "a war which ended when she was but a
child" but are still "the center of her life" (Stewart 1). They have been "banned from public
consciousness," but not from hers (Morrissey 1). Her obsession can be traced to her father who was
killed during the war. She felt that she should have lived in the sixties, saying "[they] were a lot
more fun than now," because the sixties gave her a link to him (Mason 234). Never knowing her
father, it has been her conquest to bring him back, if not physically then at least in spirit. Perhaps it
is because her mother never talked about him, maybe it is just a link she feels she is missing, but
most definitely it has left a

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