This document provides an overview of smart grid physical protection. It discusses system reliability analysis and failures in protection mechanisms. For system reliability analysis, it describes methods to ensure reliability of distributed generation, measurement infrastructure, and the network before implementation. It also discusses empowering substations with decision-making abilities. For failures in protection mechanisms, it covers predicting and preventing failures, as well as identifying, diagnosing, and recovering from failures. The document provides examples of research in these areas and their approaches to improving smart grid reliability and protection.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
Real-time monitoring of the prototype design of electric system by the ubido...IJECEIAES
In this paper, a prototype DC electric system was practically designed. The idea of the proposed system was derived from the microgrid concept. The system contained two houses each have a DC generator and load that consists of four 12 V DC lamps. Each house is controlled fully by Arduino UNO microcontroller to work in Island mode or connected it with the second house or main electric network. House operating mode depends on the power generated by its source and the availability of the main network. Under all operating cases, the minimum price of electricity consumption should satisfy as possible. Information between the houses about the operating mode and the main network state was exchanging wirelessly with the help of the RFHC12. This information uploaded to the Ubidots platform by the Wi-FiESP8266 included in the node MCU microcontroller. This platform has several advantages such as capture, visualization, analysis, and management of data. The system was examined for different cases to verify its working by varying the load in each building. All tested states showed that the houses transfer from one mode to another automatically with high reliability and minimum energy cost. The information about the main grid states and the sources of the houses were monitored and stored at the Ubidots platform.
Importance of Measurements in Smart GridIJERD Editor
- The need to get reliable supply, independence from fossil fuels, and capability to provide clean
energy at a fixed and lower cost, the existing power grid structure is transforming into Smart Grid. The
development of a smart energy distribution grid is a current goal of many nations. A Smart Grid should have
new capabilities such as self-healing, high reliability, energy management, and real-time pricing. This new era
of smart future grid will lead to major changes in existing technologies at generation, transmission and
distribution levels. The incorporation of renewable energy resources and distribution generators in the existing
grid will increase the complexity, optimization problems and instability of the system. This will lead to a
paradigm shift in the instrumentation and control requirements for Smart Grids for high quality, stable and
reliable electricity supply of power. The monitoring of the grid system state and stability relies on the
availability of reliable measurement of data. In this paper the measurement areas that highlight new
measurement challenges, development of the Smart Meters and the critical parameters of electric energy to be
monitored for improving the reliability of power systems has been discussed.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
Real-time monitoring of the prototype design of electric system by the ubido...IJECEIAES
In this paper, a prototype DC electric system was practically designed. The idea of the proposed system was derived from the microgrid concept. The system contained two houses each have a DC generator and load that consists of four 12 V DC lamps. Each house is controlled fully by Arduino UNO microcontroller to work in Island mode or connected it with the second house or main electric network. House operating mode depends on the power generated by its source and the availability of the main network. Under all operating cases, the minimum price of electricity consumption should satisfy as possible. Information between the houses about the operating mode and the main network state was exchanging wirelessly with the help of the RFHC12. This information uploaded to the Ubidots platform by the Wi-FiESP8266 included in the node MCU microcontroller. This platform has several advantages such as capture, visualization, analysis, and management of data. The system was examined for different cases to verify its working by varying the load in each building. All tested states showed that the houses transfer from one mode to another automatically with high reliability and minimum energy cost. The information about the main grid states and the sources of the houses were monitored and stored at the Ubidots platform.
Importance of Measurements in Smart GridIJERD Editor
- The need to get reliable supply, independence from fossil fuels, and capability to provide clean
energy at a fixed and lower cost, the existing power grid structure is transforming into Smart Grid. The
development of a smart energy distribution grid is a current goal of many nations. A Smart Grid should have
new capabilities such as self-healing, high reliability, energy management, and real-time pricing. This new era
of smart future grid will lead to major changes in existing technologies at generation, transmission and
distribution levels. The incorporation of renewable energy resources and distribution generators in the existing
grid will increase the complexity, optimization problems and instability of the system. This will lead to a
paradigm shift in the instrumentation and control requirements for Smart Grids for high quality, stable and
reliable electricity supply of power. The monitoring of the grid system state and stability relies on the
availability of reliable measurement of data. In this paper the measurement areas that highlight new
measurement challenges, development of the Smart Meters and the critical parameters of electric energy to be
monitored for improving the reliability of power systems has been discussed.
The presented lectures are related to the Distribution generation and smart grid. Further,suggestions are highly welcomed for the modifications of the lecture.
These slides present the possibility of cloud computing application to smart grid. Later other technologies like IOT and bigdata applications will be discussed.
Power Quality Improvement in Off-Grid Renewable Energy Based Power System usi...ijtsrd
The increasing trend in integrating intermittent renewable energy sources into off-grid power system presents major challenges from the viewpoints of reliable operation and control. In this paper, the major problems and challenges in off-grid power system control are discussed, and a review of control strategies and trends is presented. A general overview of the main control is also included. The paper classifies power quality improvement strategies into three levels: primary, secondary, and tertiary, where primary and secondary levels are associated with the operation of the off-grid power system itself, and tertiary level pertains to the coordinated operation of the power system. Each control level is discussed in detail in view of the relevant existing technical literature Irfan Khan | Ameen Uddin Ahmad"Power Quality Improvement in Off-Grid Renewable Energy Based Power System using Different Method" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-6 , October 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd2533.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/2533/power-quality-improvement-in-off-grid-renewable-energy-based-power-system-using-different-method/irfan-khan
Advantages and recent advances of smart energy gridjournalBEEI
Smart grid is widely recognized technology used to improve the stability and losses of the electric power system. It is encouraging reliability, efficiency, and effective control of the supply of electrical energy. However, it is a hot topic for recent publications and still has a limited understanding among researchers. This review work is to provide insight and support to the beginner researchers since this topic needs a multidisciplinary background knowledge. The conventional electric transmission system and distribution networks struggle to provide resilient performance and reliable service and real-time data. Also, smart grid id a promising network maneuver to stabilize the system once any disturbances break out by using the distributed renewable energy generators, while the conventional networks lack for flexibility to integrate with renewable energy generators or microgrids. This comprehensive work is conducted to map previous controbution in a coherent manar, including the specifications, features, and fundamentals that are presented to benefit the interested readers interested in smart grid development.
since our electrical system consists of many interconnections .in order to have a proper transmission we need grid if we incorporate some sensors it results in smart grid .today grid system consists of all interconnection tapping points
An efficient and improved model for power theft detection in PakistanjournalBEEI
This paper describes an improved model for the monitoring of power used by a party such as household users and different industries in Pakistan. The power theft detection was done using the intelligent internet of things (IoT) service system for calculating the user's power simultaneously. The power meter catches a theft detection device that is instantly transmitted to the central system which compares both the data by means of microcontroller and if there is any difference found, it informs the power utility about the hooking, meter relief or theft activities happen. Information of the theft detection through the global mobile communications system is transmitted and notified theft is displayed on the terminal monitor or won. As a result, although consumers continue to use excess fuel, the customer's power supply is cut in the electricity boards segment. The general radio package module system sends central circuit and meter data via an internet protocol address to a web server. GSM's IoT based perception is used to monitor the power supply and billing information calculated with a microcontroller continuously with the determination of the electricity table area. With this unit, the duplicate user can be located at the rear of the electricity office with the power meter status.
The report gives the complete in view of smart grid technology. This document is about the smart grids and its infrastructure. It describes the smart grid’s vision and the framework. It also briefs about the smart grids initiatives and platforms. It presents the current standards and how well are they implemented in the real system.
Increased demands on the nation's electrical power systems and incidences of electricity shortages, power quality problems, rolling blackouts, electricity spiked prices have caused many customers to seek other sources for high-quality and reliable electricity. Distributed Energy Resources (DER) small-scale power generation resources located close to where the electricity is used (e.g., a house or commercial sectors), provide an alternate source of energy. DER is a faster and less expensive option for the construction of large and central power plants and also high-voltage transmission lines. They offer consumers the potential for lower cost, higher service reliability, high power quality, increased energy efficiency, and energy independence. The use of renewable distributed energy generation technologies and "green power" such as wind, photovoltaic, geothermal, biomass, or hydroelectric power can also provide a significant environmental benefit.
Electricity is a necessity in the modern world. In the traditional power system, electricity is being generated and transmitted through a one-way transmission and distribution system called the grid. The smart grid is an intelligent power grid designed to handle distributed resources using communication technology employing smart meters and control system. It promises more efficient, secure and climate friendly power system.
The energy grid is currently undergoing a historical change of state from the traditional structure where a utility owns the generation, transmission and distribution services into an integrated smart grid in a monopolistic market which introduce consumers as active players in managing and controlling the power. This report provides an analysis of the methods applicable to smart grid interoperability tests. A systematic approach for developing smart grid interoperability tests was adopted by analyzing a house and an industries looking at the analysis of their active power. This analysis of active power gives the exact idea to know the range of maximum permissible loads that can be connected to their relevant bus bars. This paper presents the change in the value of Active Power with varying load angle in context with small signal analysis using wind, solar and generator grid . The result obtained showed that, consumers can then choose the cheapest energy to be consumed. Makinde Kayode | Owolabi Balikis Omowunmi | Lawal Olawale Kazeem "Analysis of Smart Grid Interoperability" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-5 , August 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd50629.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/50629/analysis-of-smart-grid-interoperability/makinde-kayode
The presented lectures are related to the Distribution generation and smart grid. Further,suggestions are highly welcomed for the modifications of the lecture.
These slides present the possibility of cloud computing application to smart grid. Later other technologies like IOT and bigdata applications will be discussed.
Power Quality Improvement in Off-Grid Renewable Energy Based Power System usi...ijtsrd
The increasing trend in integrating intermittent renewable energy sources into off-grid power system presents major challenges from the viewpoints of reliable operation and control. In this paper, the major problems and challenges in off-grid power system control are discussed, and a review of control strategies and trends is presented. A general overview of the main control is also included. The paper classifies power quality improvement strategies into three levels: primary, secondary, and tertiary, where primary and secondary levels are associated with the operation of the off-grid power system itself, and tertiary level pertains to the coordinated operation of the power system. Each control level is discussed in detail in view of the relevant existing technical literature Irfan Khan | Ameen Uddin Ahmad"Power Quality Improvement in Off-Grid Renewable Energy Based Power System using Different Method" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-6 , October 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd2533.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/2533/power-quality-improvement-in-off-grid-renewable-energy-based-power-system-using-different-method/irfan-khan
Advantages and recent advances of smart energy gridjournalBEEI
Smart grid is widely recognized technology used to improve the stability and losses of the electric power system. It is encouraging reliability, efficiency, and effective control of the supply of electrical energy. However, it is a hot topic for recent publications and still has a limited understanding among researchers. This review work is to provide insight and support to the beginner researchers since this topic needs a multidisciplinary background knowledge. The conventional electric transmission system and distribution networks struggle to provide resilient performance and reliable service and real-time data. Also, smart grid id a promising network maneuver to stabilize the system once any disturbances break out by using the distributed renewable energy generators, while the conventional networks lack for flexibility to integrate with renewable energy generators or microgrids. This comprehensive work is conducted to map previous controbution in a coherent manar, including the specifications, features, and fundamentals that are presented to benefit the interested readers interested in smart grid development.
since our electrical system consists of many interconnections .in order to have a proper transmission we need grid if we incorporate some sensors it results in smart grid .today grid system consists of all interconnection tapping points
An efficient and improved model for power theft detection in PakistanjournalBEEI
This paper describes an improved model for the monitoring of power used by a party such as household users and different industries in Pakistan. The power theft detection was done using the intelligent internet of things (IoT) service system for calculating the user's power simultaneously. The power meter catches a theft detection device that is instantly transmitted to the central system which compares both the data by means of microcontroller and if there is any difference found, it informs the power utility about the hooking, meter relief or theft activities happen. Information of the theft detection through the global mobile communications system is transmitted and notified theft is displayed on the terminal monitor or won. As a result, although consumers continue to use excess fuel, the customer's power supply is cut in the electricity boards segment. The general radio package module system sends central circuit and meter data via an internet protocol address to a web server. GSM's IoT based perception is used to monitor the power supply and billing information calculated with a microcontroller continuously with the determination of the electricity table area. With this unit, the duplicate user can be located at the rear of the electricity office with the power meter status.
The report gives the complete in view of smart grid technology. This document is about the smart grids and its infrastructure. It describes the smart grid’s vision and the framework. It also briefs about the smart grids initiatives and platforms. It presents the current standards and how well are they implemented in the real system.
Increased demands on the nation's electrical power systems and incidences of electricity shortages, power quality problems, rolling blackouts, electricity spiked prices have caused many customers to seek other sources for high-quality and reliable electricity. Distributed Energy Resources (DER) small-scale power generation resources located close to where the electricity is used (e.g., a house or commercial sectors), provide an alternate source of energy. DER is a faster and less expensive option for the construction of large and central power plants and also high-voltage transmission lines. They offer consumers the potential for lower cost, higher service reliability, high power quality, increased energy efficiency, and energy independence. The use of renewable distributed energy generation technologies and "green power" such as wind, photovoltaic, geothermal, biomass, or hydroelectric power can also provide a significant environmental benefit.
Electricity is a necessity in the modern world. In the traditional power system, electricity is being generated and transmitted through a one-way transmission and distribution system called the grid. The smart grid is an intelligent power grid designed to handle distributed resources using communication technology employing smart meters and control system. It promises more efficient, secure and climate friendly power system.
The energy grid is currently undergoing a historical change of state from the traditional structure where a utility owns the generation, transmission and distribution services into an integrated smart grid in a monopolistic market which introduce consumers as active players in managing and controlling the power. This report provides an analysis of the methods applicable to smart grid interoperability tests. A systematic approach for developing smart grid interoperability tests was adopted by analyzing a house and an industries looking at the analysis of their active power. This analysis of active power gives the exact idea to know the range of maximum permissible loads that can be connected to their relevant bus bars. This paper presents the change in the value of Active Power with varying load angle in context with small signal analysis using wind, solar and generator grid . The result obtained showed that, consumers can then choose the cheapest energy to be consumed. Makinde Kayode | Owolabi Balikis Omowunmi | Lawal Olawale Kazeem "Analysis of Smart Grid Interoperability" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-5 , August 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd50629.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/50629/analysis-of-smart-grid-interoperability/makinde-kayode
Running head: SMART GRID 1
SMART GRID 2
SMART GRID 1
CSIA 459: Evaluating Emerging Technologies
Technology Review #2: Emerging Application of Technology in a Critical Infrastructure
Annotated Bibliography for Smart Grid
11/25/2018
Introduction
The Smart Grid is the evolution of our current electric grid, using new technologies to optimize power conservation and delivery. The “Grid” refers to the electric grid, a network of transmission lines, substations, transformers and more that supply our homes or businesses with electricity from the power plant. The digital technology that enables two - way communication between the utility and its customers and the transmission line sensing is what makes the grid smart. Like the Internet, the Smart Grid consist of controls, computers, automation and new technologies and equipment working together, but in this case, these technologies work with the electrical grid to meet our rapidly changing electrical demand digitally. The Smart Grid is a unique opportunity to transform the energy industry into a new era of efficiency, affordability and reliability that will add value to our society.
Today, the demand for power continues to grow rapidly using more electronic devices than ever before and the current electrical system is outdated and totally depends on equipment nearing the end of its lifetime of use. Smart grids update this infrastructure to ensure that safety issues are addressed, and power is consistently delivered and that the system is managed competently. Without intelligent grid improvements, the old system, which is already close to capacity, will not be able to meet the future challenges. Cybersecurity solutions for critical energy infrastructure are essential in order to deliver reliable energy. In today's increasingly connected world, where cyber threats are highly sophisticated, it is unwise to think that energy supply systems are isolated or immune from compromise, but the Smart grid offers so many fundamental changes in human intelligence, prevention, management and recovery that, despite the introduction of new vulnerabilities, it essentially makes the electrical system safer.
Annotated Bibliography for Smart Grid
1. Pesesky, J. L. (2016). The vulnerabilities of the advanced metering infrastructure in the smart grid (Order No. 10154802). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1836799165). Retrieved from http://ezproxy.umuc.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.umuc.edu/docview/1836799165?accountid=14580
Justine Pesesky in his dissertation, talks about how the intelligent grid uses innovative technology to improve the experience of the consumer. The intelligent grid features allow intelligent appliances and smart meters to transmit information wirelessly to electrical utilities, and how the confident.
Smart grid will become the next-generation electrical power system to provide reliable, efficient, secure, and cost-effective energy generation, distribution, and consumption. To achieve these goals, communications infrastructure and wireless networking will play an important role in supporting data transfer and information exchange in smart grid. There has been a desire for a long time to increase the efficiency of the way in which power is generated and delivered to customers. The technology currently in use by the grid is outdated and in many cases unreliable. There have been three major blackouts in the past ten years. The old technology leads to n systems, costing unnecessary money to the utilities, consumers, and taxpayers.
To upgrade the grid, and to operate an improved grid, will require significant dependence on distributed intelligence and communication capabilities. To address the challenges of the existing power grid, the new concept of smart grid has emerged. The smart grid can be considered as a modern electric power grid infrastructure for enhanced efficiency and reliability through automated control, high-power converters, modern communications infrastructure, sensing and metering technologies, and modern energy management techniques based on the optimization of demand, energy and network availability ,and so on. For the system, we explore various failure protection mechanisms which improve the reliability of the Smart Grid, and explore the security and privacy issues in the Smart Grid. .
A Comprehensive Review on Smart Grid Ecosystem.pdfssuser793b4e
A smart grid is an intervention technology for the massive energy demand of the world today. It combines cyber-physical technologies, information communication technology, and electrical power networks from the generating company stations to the end-users while ensuring bidirectional communication among the actors. The smart grid is a complex growing technology that is yet to reach its maturity state. This paper seeks to examine the literature on the state of the art of smart grid technology both from the industry perspective and from academia. To this end, a literature review with a qualitative deductive approach built on the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) guideline and the simplified International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) five-domain model were used as a guide to this research. Furthermore, the paper reviewed Smart Grid data centre topologies and identified prospects in spine-leaf architecture as a promising architecture that can be adapted in a smart grid ecosystem data centre design. The literature was searched from the databases: IEEE Xplore Digital Library, Springer Link Digital Library, and Google Scholar, IET Digital Library, Frontiers Library, ACM Digital Library repositories resulting in 151 papers after several exclusions. The work reviewed relevant literatures published from 2002 to 2021 and grouped the reviewed papers according to the key domains of the NIST/ITU-T model. Based on the evaluated literature, the need for more built-in predictive learning curves in smart grid systems and robust Smart grid architecture with enhanced data centre design for Smart grid systems is observed and recommended
A transient current based micro grid connected power system protection scheme...IJECEIAES
Micro-grids comprise Distributed Energy Resources (DER’s) with low voltage distribution networks having controllable loads those can operate with different voltage levels are connected to the micro-grid and operated in grid mode or islanding mode in a coordinated way of control. DER’s provides clear environment-economical benefits for society and consumer utilities. But their development poses great technical challenges mainly protection of main and micro grid. Protection scheme must have to respond to both the main grid and micro-grid faults. If the fault is occurs on main grid, the response must isolate the DER’s from the main grid rapidly to protect the system loads. If the fault ocuurs within the micro-grid, the protection scheme must coordinate and isolates the least priority possible part of the grid to eliminate the fault. In order to deal with the bidirectional energy flow due to large numbers of micro sources new protection schemes are required. The system is simulated using MATLAB Wavelet Tool box and Wavelet based Multi-resolution Analysis is considered. Wavelet based Multi-resolution Analysis is used for detection, discrimination and location of faults on transmission network. This paper is discussed a transient current based micro-grid connected power system protection scheme using Wavelet Approach described on wavelet detailed-coefficients of Mother Biorthogonal 1.5 wavelet. The proposed algorithm is tested in micro-grid connected power systems environment and proved for the detection, discrimination and location of faults which is almost independent of fault impedance, fault inception angle (FIA) and fault distance of feeder line.
Smart Grid Data Centers Distributed & ICTs Sustainability on Generation Energ...IJMTST Journal
Smart grid has modernized the way electricity is generated, transported, distributed, and consumed by integrating advanced sensing, communications, and control in the day-to-day operation of the grid. Electricity is a core utility for the functioning of society and for the services provided by information and communication technologies(ICTs). Several concepts of the smart grid, such as dynamic pricing, distributed generation, and demand management, have significantly impacted the operation of ICT services, in particular, communication networks and data centers. Ongoing energy-efficiency and operational expenditures reduction efforts in communication networks and data center shave gained another dimension with those smart grid concepts. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive survey on the smart grid-driven approaches in energy-efficient communications and data centers, and the interaction between smart grid and information and communication infrastructures. Although the studies on smart grid, energy-efficient communications, and green data centers have been separately surveyed in previous studies, to this end, research that falls in the intersection of those fields has not been properly classified and surveyed yet. We start our survey by providing background information on the smart grid and continue with surveying smart grid-driven approaches in energy-efficient communication systems, followed by energy, cost and emission minimizing approaches in datacenters, and the corresponding cloud network infrastructure. Through a communication infrastructure, a smart grid can improve power reliability and quality to eliminate electricity blackout.
http://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/us/en/smart_grid/article/cyber_security.html?cmp=agus_cxosp2gridsec-20100426&cm=c&csr=endsecurity&cr=slideshare&ct=usbrb401&cm_mmc=agus_cxosp2gridsec-20100426-usbrb401-_-c-_-endsecurity-_-slideshare
IBM End-to-End Smart Grid Security Involving IT Security and Enterprise Asset Management
1. International Journal of Energy, Information and Communications
Vol. 4, Issue 4, August, 2013
43
Smart Grid – The Present and Future of Smart Physical Protection:
A Review
Lee-Cheun Hau, Jer-Vui Lee, Yea-Dat Chuah and An-Chow Lai
Faculty of Engineering and Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
leejv@utar.edu.my
Abstract
Smart grid is regarded as the next generation power grid, which provides bi-directional
flow of electricity and information, with improving the power grid reliability, security, and
efficiency of electrical system from generation to transmission and to distribution. As smart
grid continues to develop, realization of a reliable and stable system is necessary. This article
reviews on the current state-of-art technology in physical protection. This article also focuses
on the system reliability analysis and failure in protection mechanism. In addition, the
challenges of both the topics are also presented along with the suggested solution.
Keywords: Smart grid, physical protection, system reliability analysis, failure in protection
mechanism
1. Introduction
Reliable and affordable electrical power is essential to the modern society. The
modern electrical power systems cater the demands in wide range of areas which
include the major components such as generators, transformers, transmission lines,
motors and etc. The availability of new advanced technologies has made a smarter,
more efficient and sustainable grid to ensure a higher reliability of electrical power
supplied to mankind. Regarded as the next generation power grid, smart grid has
transformed the interconnected network between electricity consumers and electricity
suppliers. The smart grid system involves transmission, distribution and generation of
electricity. In a smart grid, the operation of power systems infrastructure has evolved
into a dynamic design instead of a static design. The overview of smart grid is
discussed in Section 2.
As smart grid technology and its adoption are expanding throughout the world,
realization in smart grid protection is important. Protection plays an important role to
ensure realization of power grid reliability, security, and efficiency in generation,
transmission, distribution and control network. It is a subsystem of Smart Grid which
provides advance grid reliability and security analysis in physical protection and
information protection services. In view of the enhanced capability of Smart Grid with
its smart infrastructure and management, the role of Smart Grid in a protection system
which supports the failure protection mechanisms effectively and efficiently. In Section
3, the physical protection in smart grid is discussed, along with the review of the
current-state-of art. Section 4 is the discussion on the protection in general. Finally,
Section 5 makes the conclusion.
2. International Journal of Energy, Information and Communications
Vol. 4, Issue 4, August, 2013
44
2. Smart Grid Overview
Smart grid is defined as an intelligent grid which provides bi-directional flow of
electricity and information, with improving the power grid reliability, security, and
efficiency of electric system from generation to transmission and distribution. It is
driven by the need to provide a more robust, flexible and efficient electric system to
overcome the increasing demand of electricity, uprising treat from green house gases
emission, depletion of energy resources and other rising issues in traditional grid [1, 2].
With comparing to a traditional power grid [1, 3], smart grid enables the (i) integration
of renewable energy resources (such as PV, wind turbine and etc.) at distribution
network, (ii) supervisory control and real-time status monitoring on the power network,
(iii) self-monitoring and (iv) self-healing feature, adaptive response to fault and etc.
2.1 Smart Grid Structure
A typical smart grid structure is illustrated in Figure 1. It contains four subsections
which are generation, transmission, distribution and control network [1]. Each network
interconnected from various locations, information exchange and communicates
through smart communication subsystem such as an access point with wired or wireless
communication infrastructure. Raw information on the network healthiness or
performance is obtained from smart information subsystem such as a smart meter,
sensor and phasor measurement unit (PMU). Real time network monitoring,
management and control are performed at the control network such as the electric utility
control center. Besides that, a distribution network can be an individual when dispersed
generation (DG) (renewable energy resources) is embedded, that allowing electricity
supply from both DG and utility.
Figure 1. Typical smart grid structures
2.2 Smart Grid Characteristic
This subsection describes three smart grid characteristics namely grid self healing
ability, formation of Microgrid system and enable embedded distributed generation
(DG).
3. International Journal of Energy, Information and Communications
Vol. 4, Issue 4, August, 2013
45
2.2.1 Grid Self-Healing Ability: According to the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), the ability to “self-heal” in the event of failure which is an
important characteristic of Smart Grid [5]. Self healing is the ability of allowing the
grid to reconfigure itself or restore automatically to permit an uninterrupted power flow
during occurrence of outage [6]. However, it does not mean that the grid can repair by
itself. An effective approach for self-healing is to divide the power grid into a small and
autonomous islanded network like Microgrid, which can work well in normal operation
as well as during outages.
2.2.2 Formation of Microgrid System: Microgrid is an emerging paradigm for smart
grid in distribution network [4]. It has two boundary namely normal and islanded
operations. A Microgrid is connected to the electric utility network during normal
operation, whereas in islanded operation Microgrid operates on its own, with electricity
supply from DG or storage devices. It has the ability to operate during loss of main,
islanded operation and isolate Microgrid from electric utility disturbance. Thus it
provides a reliable electricity supply. This characteristic allow smart grid to be able to
maintain its stable operation and deal with emergency problems [7].
2.2.3 Enable Embedded DG: Smart grid has the characteristic for DG which has been
embedded into distribution network. This characteristic encourages the use of green
energy sources from renewable and also enables customer interaction. In addition, DG
also serves as the main supply during islanding operation for Microgrid.
2.3 Smart Grid Standard
According to the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA) and
Cabinet-level National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) report [5], the
standards for Smart Grid help to ensure that the investments in the Smart Grid remain
valuable in the future which include to catalyze its innovations, to support consumer
choice, to create economies of scale to reduce costs, to highlight best practices and to
open global markets for Smart Grid devices and systems. Smart Grid standards are
developed by groups of experts, namely as standards-setting organizations (SSOs) or
standards development organizations (SDOs). These groups of experts from each
industry come together from different nation to discuss, to develop new standards and
to update the current standards.
At the present, there are hundreds of standards in both technical and non-technical
aspects, over 25 SSOs and SDOs are involved. These SSOs and SDOs include
institutions such as The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE),
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO), National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA),
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), American National Standard for
Protocol Specification (ANSI) and etc. IEEE 2030 (approved by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) in 2011) and its associated standards which addresses Smart
Grid interoperability, is the standard that provides a roadmap at establishing the
framework on cross-cutting technical disciplines in power applications and information
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exchange and control through communications. IEEE 2030 provided the guidelines for
defining Smart Grid interoperability in the necessity of integrating energy technology,
information and communications technology as a whole.
IEEE 1547 (approved by ANSI in 2003) and its associated standards address the
distributed resources (DR) interconnection standards. It is a DR interconnection
standard which provides technical and interconnection test specifications that help to
decrease the time and effort associated with DR interconnection developments. With
IEEE 2030, both standards support the expansion of Smart Grid and realization of the
revolutionary benefits in Smart Grid such as greater consumer choice, improved
electric-system reliability, and increase reliance on renewable energies [8]. Besides
that, some other standard such as IEC 61850 for electrical substation automation and
ANSI C12.22 for smart metering are emerging in adoption [3]. IEC 61850 and its
associated standards address the interconnecting and interoperability of intelligent
electronic devices (IEDs) that support the emerging favorites of data communication
technologies such as wide area network (WAN), ethernet based local area network
(LAN) and TCP/IP networks. In addition, ANSI C12.22 and its associated standards
define the specification for interfacing of smart infrastructure to data communication
networks that enable the new generation smart meters to communicate simultaneously
with other smart meters and corresponding substation gateways. IEC 61850 has been
adopted and in practice [9] in the developing countries such as Malaysia.
3. Smart Grid Physical Protection
Physical protection is defined as the protection of physical infrastructures in Smart
Grid. It addresses the inadvertent which compromises of grid infrastructure due to the
failures of equipment, system and network, human errors, natural disasters and
unexpected phenomena. This section starts with the review of system reliability
analysis and followed by the discussion on failure in protection mechanism. In each
subsection, the problem is revealed and some potential solutions are also addressed.
The work carried in this section is classified in Figure 2.
3.1. System Reliability Analysis
In the context of bulk power system, North American Electric Reliability
Corporation (NERC) define system reliability as the ability of a system to meet the
electricity needs by maintaining continuity and stable supply of electricity, even when
unexpected equipment failures or other factors occurred [10]. System reliability is a
topic that cannot be neglected, it is important in power grid research, design and
development. A major blackout incident was happened in Malaysia (13 January 2005)
due to circuit breaker failure in protecting the busbar, resulting 6,230 MW (54%) total
load loss in the affected region and 3.5million customers were affected in this incident
[11]. Hence, there is an emerging need in improving the system reliability, and it is
expected that the future smart grid will provide enhancement with better system
reliability operation and smarter failure protection mechanism.
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Figure 2. Classification of Smart grid physical protections
There are several methods in ensuring system reliability, (i) by ensuring the
reliability of distributed generation (DG) in distribution network, (ii) by ensuring the
reliability of measurement infrastructure and (iii) by ensuring the network reliability
before implementation. Besides that, (iv) by enabling substation to have the ability to
perform decision-making is also another key to ensure system reliability.
3.1.1 Ensuring Reliability of DG: It is expected that the embedded or dispersed or
distributed generation (DG) such as small scale generation from renewable energy
resources, will be widely be used in smart grid. As the integration of DG into
distributed network increases, the risk in distributed network increases. The risk
compromises of distribution network reliability and stability, resulting from the use of
fluctuant and intermittent renewable resources. To analyze the reliability of DG, Chen
et al., [12] proposed a method that use simulation model which gradually increase of
local generators in smart grid, to mitigate the cascading failures resulted from DG. The
model concept is, as loads in distribution network are being served locally by individual
local generators (similar to Microgrid architecture), less power flow interruptions
within entire power grid, this enhances the reliability and stability of smart grid. They
obtained satisfactory result which dramatically reducing the likelihood of cascading
failures in smart grid.
3.1.2 Ensuring Reliability of Measurement Infrastructure: To enable smart grid
operation, a smart measurement infrastructure is required. It served as the input for
smart grid with monitoring and sensing ability, to observe network healthiness,
reliability and stability. A phasor measurement unit (PMU) is one of smart
measurement unit. PMUs have been widely used in wide-area measurement system
(WAMS) for monitoring, control and protection function in smart grid. To analyze the
reliability of WAMS, Wang et al., [13] presented a quantify reliability evaluation
method for WAMS, using combined Markov modeling and state enumeration
techniques to evaluate WAMS reliability. The proposed idea of reliability evaluation
covers the backbone communication network in WAMS and also the overall WAMS
from a hardware reliability viewpoint. For verification, the WAMS evaluation method
was demonstrated in the IEEE 14-bus system. It was proven that the evaluation method
to be dependable in providing useful information to improve the reliability of WAMS
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and recognize the reliability of WAMS-based control scheme which require different
information set.
Besides that, Vaiman et al., [14] introduced a Region of Stability Existence (ROSE)
concept, which could continuously and automatically monitor system condition in real-
time by computing the power system stability margins accurately. Their approach is
illustrated in ISO New England’s transmission network, with data set of (i) State
Estimator (SE) data, (ii) Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) data and
(iii) PMU measurements, used in ROSE computation. Their results of study indicated
that the approach is effective and efficient in improving the reliability in ISO New
England’s transmission network and could be used to prevent major blackouts.
3.1.3 Ensuring Network Reliability before Implementation: The more accurate and
precise a simulation platform can be used to emulate the actual case. Therefore, the
behavior and performance of smart grid can be understood better. Simulation of system
reliability provides the preview of the system advantages, weaknesses and potential
short coming before implementation. This ensure the system to be implemented is
reliable and stable, through the evaluation and decision making based on the simulation
results. But the question is how to create a simulation system which is accurate, precise,
wide, flexible, adoptable and scalable? Godfrey et al., [15] proposed a wide modeling
method of targeting in smart grid applications with co-simulation, which focuses on
communication and power network in smart grid to provide the means to examine the
effect on communication failures. Their simulation method enables the investigation of
wide range of smart grid issues with high capability and accuracy in addressing the
communications latency adversely impact to the expected behavior later in power
system.
In addition, Ghosn et al., [16] designed an agent-oriented architecture for simulation,
primarily focuses on self-healing problem, with an incremental method that begins with
simulating a local Microgrid. Their architecture enables scalable and adaptable design
that grows hierarchically into a more complete model. Such architecture also enables
smart grid developer and designer to understand the weaknesses, potential short coming
issues and identify the way to improve the electrical grid. With their agent-oriented
architecture, they able to present software design issues that must be considered in
producing a system that is flexible, adaptable and scalable.
Yusof et al., [17] presented a teleprotection simulation lab which enhances the
learning process of the teleprotection system and it allows proactive measures to be
taken before any unwanted incidents occur. The overall reliability and performance of
the teleprotection system has been improved. With the simulation lab, it allows their
R&D team to test and evaluate the performances of various telecommunication aided
protection schemes comprehensively under a controlled lab environment.
3.1.4 Ensure Network Reliability by Empowering Substation with Decision
Making: By empowering substation with the ability to perform decision making, the
system could response by itself first without waiting for instruction from control
network. This enables the substation to resolve the issue in the shortest possible time
and ensure the reliability of the network. However, safety and precaution is necessary,
the failure in performing the right decision is crucial. To ensure network reliability
while minimizing failure in decision making, Overman et al., [18] defined a multilevel
framework trust model with reasonable compromises in both the failure and reliability.
They suggested that distributed decision making ability to substation and/or field
devices, by pre-load the substation and/or field devices with sufficient information for
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autonomous action, in the event of system failure without having to wait for instruction
from control network. In their research, they have proven that by pre-loading the
substation and/or field device with a set of “next actions to be taken” instructions, when
attached in distributed rather than hierarchical communication architecture, the
proposed model could significantly increase the grid reliability, while at the same time
reduce real time impact from loss of reliable control.
3.2 Failure in Protection Mechanism
Protection mechanism can be divided into two topics, (i) prediction and prevention of
failure and (ii) identification, diagnosis and recovery of failure. Prediction and
prevention of failure are the actions of attempting to predict failure location and prevent
failures from occurring. If fail to prevent failure from occurring, identification,
diagnosis and recovery are required to restore network from failure to normal operation,
in the fastest possible time. In this subsection, both the protection mechanism briefly
reviewed.
3.2.1 Failure to Predict and Prevent: For smart grid to operate efficiently and
effectively, accurate in predicting the failure location and preventing failure from
occurring is important. One approach to predict the failure location is to locate the weak
points in smart grid. Chertkov et al., [19] have developed an approach to efficiently
predict power grid weak points, and identify probable failure mode in static load
distribution. They applied the approach into two system, Guam’s power system and
IEEE RTS-96 system. In each of the system, its static power flow is modeled and
analyzed. Their finding concluded that this technique could provide an accurate
predictive capability in locating the problematic links based on different failure mode of
load operation. In addition, they also observed that this approach has an improved
reliability in the respective power system.
Besides accurately predicting the weak point, accurate forecasting of short circuit
fault and predicting its magnitude in smart grid are also important in preventing
network failure. Chen [20] introduced the artificial neural network (ANN) to perform
short-circuit current prediction in power distribution systems. The formulated model
was verified through computer simulation and the algorithm was demonstrated on
hardware system based on TMS320F2812-DSP. The algorithm was proven to be
effectively in predicting the magnitude of short circuit in the shortest possible time.
3.2.2 Failure to Identify, Diagnose and Recover: If failure occurred, it must be
identified quickly in the shortest possible time, to avoid further damaging or cascading
of event. Once the failure has been located, it must be diagnosed in order to search for
the root caused and response to the failure by recovering. When the fault is cleared, the
network must be resynchronized and restored the failure region back to normal
operation. Calderaro et al., [21] presented a method to identify and localize failure in
smart grid, based on the design of Petri Net (PN) theory. This method detects the failure
in data transmission and fault in distribution network, through means of matrix
operation, from the captured modeling data in distribution network. In their research,
they have verified the method with two case studies. Through the verification, they
demonstrated its effectiveness and discovered the method is able to remove a lot of
complexity associated in data analysis and permit quick assessment and evaluation of
information, while avoiding occurrence of cascading failures in power system
protection. They also added on that the proposed detection strategy is consistent with
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the current trend and direction in smart grid development. Therefore, they were looking
forward on the model to be adopted in smart grid protection.
3.2.2.1 Failure diagnosis: Cai et al., [22] realized the critical step in distribution fault
diagnosis, comes from the proper selection of features to identify the root cause of
failure. Hence, they carried out the literature reviews on some popular features of
selection methods such as (i) Hypothesis test, (ii) stepwise regression, (iii) stepwise
selection by Akaike’s Information Criterion, and (iv) LASSO/ALASSO, and evaluated
these methods with real world datasets to identify each method advantages and
limitations for fault diagnosis. They concluded that there was no single method that was
best for all cases, but each of the method had its own potential in the particular case.
Nevertheless, the features selection method can be served as a meant of failure
diagnosis for engineers to find out information that may be hidden under the massive
data rather than producing some feature that cannot be understood or explained.
3.2.2.2 Failure Recovery: The ability of self-healing in the event of failure is an
important feature in smart grid. When failure occurs, a self-healing reconfiguration in
smart grid splits the power network into a self-sufficient islanded network to stop the
propagation of failure and avoid cascading event. For failure recovery within the
islanded network, Li et al., [23] presented a self-healing system reconfiguration
technology with proposed of an area partitioning algorithm, to minimize the power
imbalance between generation (DG) and load in islanded network. From their research,
they found that the algorithm is computationally efficient, and by appropriately control
the system reconfiguration the overall efficiency in system restoration can be improved.
On the other hand, to enable smart grid operation, smart meter is another main smart
infrastructure for smart grid. Failure due to load data loss or corruption in smart meter
might likely to occur. Thus, recovering of these missing or corrupted data in smart
meter is necessary and is important, because the data contained vital information for
daily system analysis, decision making and smart grid operation. Chen et al., [24]
addressed the issue by presenting a B-Spline smoothing and Kernel smoothing based
techniques to automatically cleanse the corrupted and missing data. They evaluated the
method on real British Columbia Transmission Corporation (BCTC) load curve and
they demonstrated that their method is effective.
4. Discussion
Section 3 reviews and discusses the current state-of-art of physical protection in
terms of system reliability analysis and failures in protection mechanism. Ensuring of
system reliability is important in realizing effective and efficient means of smart grid
operation. The development of protection mechanism to resist the attacks and failure is
also necessary in order to maintain the continuity of supply as well as ensure stability
and reliability operation of smart grid. Although realization of the importance in each of
the topic is essential, its challenges must also be addressed. Therefore, the challenge in
each of the topic is discussed and some possible solutions to overcome the challenges
are provided.
Ensuring system reliability is important, but it poses the increase in system reliability
risk. Moslehi et al., [25] critically reviewed the reliability impacts of major smart grid
resources and he observed that an ideal mix of these resources could lead to a flatter net
demand which will eventually accentuates reliability challenges further and making it
more susceptible to failure. Flatter net demand implies that the grid is operating close to
its near peak load condition at most of the time; operating close to the boundary of
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saturation or breakdown. These consequences are from the impacts of increasing
consumption of energy and asset utilization, which is an unavoidable situation if the
development of smart grid continues. Since in flatter net demand, grid is operating at
the boundary of breakdown, we can address this issue by developing an effective
approach, to construct and compute the margin before the boundary. And with a real-
time monitoring system, the margin level can be known instantaneously, and we could
response in advance to minimize system reliability risk. Besides that, maximizing asset
utilization could lead to reduction in the margin level, thus we must ensure the balance
in asset utilization to guarantee the maximizing level provide a reasonable margin.
On the other hand, ensuring proper protection mechanism is important, but it poses
the increase of complexity in decision making process. Assuming in smart grid, there
are millions and millions of node. In order to process the failure, smart grid have to
solve a lot of complex decision problems in the fastest possible time to avoid any
further damage or cascading event. To address this challenge, a possible solution is to
introduce more decision making systems into the network, so that each system focuses
in processing its respective region locally. This can decrease the complexity in decision
making process and also reduce the failure response time. Each of this system will also
communicate with one another, to ensure an optimum decision making in the global
network.
Throughout the literature review, two lessons were obtained. Firstly, system
reliability is a topic that cannot be neglected, it is important in power grid research,
design and development. Consequences of low system reliability may result network
failure (endangering human), and possibly even blackout of whole network (bringing
discomfort to consumer and affecting industrial and commercial progress). To ensure
system reliability, adaptive protection mechanisms in detecting failure play an
important role. Because these adaptive protection mechanisms are the one to sense and
response to the failure; if a weak protection mechanism is use, the reliability and
stability will also be weak. Therefore proper consideration between protection
mechanisms for reliability of system is required, to ensure the operation of smart grid to
be effective and efficient.
Next, another lesson learnt is that new technology and infrastructure are introduced
and deployed for smart grid, the possible risks and challenges must also be assessed.
This is to ensure an efficient and effective operation of smart grid with higher security,
reliability and stability. For instance, although ensuring system reliability is important,
however the increase of system reliability risk may be introduced from the mix of
sources in smart grid. Besides that, we also observed that the usage of smart metering
itself although enable fast tracking of customer power usage, it may also introduce
failure. Therefore, a throughout assessment on the new technologies and infrastructure
is necessary.
Last but not least, there is no doubt that the fast growing of smart grid will enable
many new paradigms, achieving a sustainable and environmental sound future, with the
improve services of power supply and eventually transforming human ways of living. It
is still a long way to go before the whole picture is puzzled up. In the meantime we
need to continue explore and search for reliable method and ways to make this new
paradigm vision come true.
5. Conclusion
In this article, the literature review of current state-of-art in physical protection is
presented. In order to realize a reliable and stable smart grid operation, the article also
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focuses in system reliability analysis and failure in protection mechanism. Although
smart grid enable power grid to be empowered with intelligent and advanced
capabilities, it also opens up many new challenges and risks. Hence some challenges
and risks in both topics are also briefly discussed, along with possible solution to
overcome it. However, more in depth and throughout research in the physical protection
system is required to ensure the operation of smart grid to be reliable and stable.
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Authors
Hau Lee-Cheun is an undergraduate student who is currently
pursuing Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering (3E) at Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman. He won the third
prize of the Innovate Malaysia Design Competition 2013. This
competition is a yearly multi-discipline engineering design competition
open to all final-year undergraduate Engineering or Computer Science
students in Malaysia.
Dr. Lee Jer-Vui is an Assistant Professor at the Department of
Mechatronics and BioMedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering &
Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia. His research
interests include modeling and simulation, automation and robotics, Android
and cloud mechatronics, UAV design and control, social robotics and
educational software development.
Chuah Yea-Dat is the Department Head of Mechatronics and
BioMedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Science, Universiti
Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia. He is a Chartered Engineer and member of
The Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) UK. His research
interests are in the field of mechatronics and biomedical engineering
system design
Dr. Lai An-Chow is an Assistant Professor at the Department of
Mechatronics and BioMedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Science,
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia. He graduated from Purdue
University, specialized in Computer Engineering, in 2002. He worked at Intel as
a computer architect taking part in developing Intel Nehalem processor family,
from 2002-2005. He joined Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
as a visiting Assistant Professor in 2005. His current research interests
include computer system and control, embedded systems, parallel processing,
and biomedical instrument designs.
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