The research and practice of leadership focuses on the leader while .docxteresehearn
The research and practice of leadership focuses on the leader while the role of the follower is often neglected.
1. Using the overview provided in this week’s lecture and readings, how do follower perceptions affect a leader’s style?
2. How might you best assess follower perceptions of your leadership style?
3. What can/should a leader do when the perceptions of the followers are not aligned with the leader’s self-perceptions?
4. Why do you believe this assessment method to be the best option?
Week Four Lecture
Leadership Pipeline
According to Bennis (1989), leaders are made, not born, and "made more by themselves than by any external means" (p. 5). By following leaders at the top of their organizations, Bennis found that "such people have no interest in proving themselves, but an abiding interest in expressing themselves. The difference is crucial, for it's the difference between being driven and leading" (p. 5). With Bennis's work, the age of interviewing top leaders to gain access to how they do their work came into its own.
Charan, Drotter, and Noel's (2001) work supports the idea that a leadership base among its employees will help the organization make its selections to critical executive leadership positions, even in a large, decentralized organization. Their hierarchy is pictured by a pipeline bent in six places, each being a rise in leadership function. At the bottom, the leaders begin with managing self, then managing others, managing managers, managing functions, managing a business, a business group, and ending at managing an enterprise.
The model recognizes several potential leader failures: failing to seek or listen to feedback, identification of failures, leaving the wrong person in the job too long, poor job definition, and selecting the wrong person for the job. Organizations that do not grow their own managers tend not to know their people well enough to understand what risks they are taking when they hire or promote someone, so using a pipeline model would reduce risk in an already volatile environment. One of Northouse's (2007) criticisms of trait theory is that it fails the utility test for leadership training and development. Growing leaders from inside the organization makes sense because it reduces risk for the organization and still allows for application of trait theory in selection of leaders and skill theory in leader development programs.
Followership
Traditional trait and behavior theories assume that a leader adopts a general leadership style that is used with all group members. A more recent approach to leadership behavior research, known as individualized leadership, looks at a specific relationship between leader and each individual member (Yammarino & Dansereau, 2002). Individualized leadership is based on the notion that a leader develops a unique relationship with each subordinate or group member, which determines how the leader behaves for the member and how the member res ...
How Followers Create Leaders The Impact of Effective FollowerPazSilviapm
How Followers Create Leaders: The Impact of Effective Followership
on Leader Emergence in Self-Managing Teams
Xueting Jiang1, Kevin Snyder2, Jia Li3, and Charles C. Manz4
1 School of Management, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, New York, United States
2 Department of Sport Management, Southern New Hampshire University
3 Business School, Nanjing University
4 Department of Management, University of Massachusetts Amherst
Objective: In this study, we investigate how effective followership influences leader
emergence in a nonhierarchical organizational context. By taking a “reversing the lens”
view of leadership, we propose that an individual’s leadership behaviors and leadership
self-identity are significantly affected by effective followership of his or her peers in self-
managing teams. Method: We used a three-wave survey design and collected data from
58 self-managing student teams to test our model. Results: Our findings indicate that team
members are more likely to become leaders in a leaderless group context when being
exposed to more effective followership. Conclusions: This research presents empirical
evidence on the importance of followers to the creation of leaders.
Highlights and Implications
• Organizations should purposefully increase interdependent team mem-
ber activities to facilitate leadership development.
• Organizations need to encourage the expression of authentic opinions
(positive and negative) about managers’ behaviors and performance.
• Organizations can pair leader development with followership develop-
ment programs to cultivate effective followers and prospective leaders concurrently.
Keywords: followership, leader emergence, self-managing team
Managementofmodernorganizationsisbecom-
ing more team based (Sundstrom, 1999) and more
empowering (Argyris, 1998; Spreitzer, 1995). As
organizations increasingly use project-specific
teams, the need for team leaders to emerge quickly
and effectively becomes paramount (Morgeson
et al., 2010). The past 4 decades have shown a
wider use of self-managing teams as a leading
managerial innovation in many large United
States corporations (Magpili & Pazos, 2018).
A self-managing team features no hierarchical
role differentiation among members (DeRue
et al., 2009) and an equal sharing of leadership
(Crossman & Crossman, 2011). Researchers have
found that self-managing teams lead to higher
motivation, satisfaction, and team effectiveness
(Cohen et al., 1996; Cohen & Ledford, 1994;
Cordery et al., 1991; Langfred & Moye, 2004).
This article was published Online First July 29, 2021.
Xueting Jiang https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1321-7332
Kevin Snyder https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3968-4174
Jia Li https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6532-4063
We extend our appreciation to D. Anthony Butterfield,
Jane K. Giacobbe-Miller, Daniel J. Miller, and Ryan M.
Acton for helpful comments on earlier versions of this
article. We also thank Craig S. Wells, Aline G. Sayer,
and Bruce Desmarai ...
The research and practice of leadership focuses on the leader while .docxteresehearn
The research and practice of leadership focuses on the leader while the role of the follower is often neglected.
1. Using the overview provided in this week’s lecture and readings, how do follower perceptions affect a leader’s style?
2. How might you best assess follower perceptions of your leadership style?
3. What can/should a leader do when the perceptions of the followers are not aligned with the leader’s self-perceptions?
4. Why do you believe this assessment method to be the best option?
Week Four Lecture
Leadership Pipeline
According to Bennis (1989), leaders are made, not born, and "made more by themselves than by any external means" (p. 5). By following leaders at the top of their organizations, Bennis found that "such people have no interest in proving themselves, but an abiding interest in expressing themselves. The difference is crucial, for it's the difference between being driven and leading" (p. 5). With Bennis's work, the age of interviewing top leaders to gain access to how they do their work came into its own.
Charan, Drotter, and Noel's (2001) work supports the idea that a leadership base among its employees will help the organization make its selections to critical executive leadership positions, even in a large, decentralized organization. Their hierarchy is pictured by a pipeline bent in six places, each being a rise in leadership function. At the bottom, the leaders begin with managing self, then managing others, managing managers, managing functions, managing a business, a business group, and ending at managing an enterprise.
The model recognizes several potential leader failures: failing to seek or listen to feedback, identification of failures, leaving the wrong person in the job too long, poor job definition, and selecting the wrong person for the job. Organizations that do not grow their own managers tend not to know their people well enough to understand what risks they are taking when they hire or promote someone, so using a pipeline model would reduce risk in an already volatile environment. One of Northouse's (2007) criticisms of trait theory is that it fails the utility test for leadership training and development. Growing leaders from inside the organization makes sense because it reduces risk for the organization and still allows for application of trait theory in selection of leaders and skill theory in leader development programs.
Followership
Traditional trait and behavior theories assume that a leader adopts a general leadership style that is used with all group members. A more recent approach to leadership behavior research, known as individualized leadership, looks at a specific relationship between leader and each individual member (Yammarino & Dansereau, 2002). Individualized leadership is based on the notion that a leader develops a unique relationship with each subordinate or group member, which determines how the leader behaves for the member and how the member res ...
How Followers Create Leaders The Impact of Effective FollowerPazSilviapm
How Followers Create Leaders: The Impact of Effective Followership
on Leader Emergence in Self-Managing Teams
Xueting Jiang1, Kevin Snyder2, Jia Li3, and Charles C. Manz4
1 School of Management, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, New York, United States
2 Department of Sport Management, Southern New Hampshire University
3 Business School, Nanjing University
4 Department of Management, University of Massachusetts Amherst
Objective: In this study, we investigate how effective followership influences leader
emergence in a nonhierarchical organizational context. By taking a “reversing the lens”
view of leadership, we propose that an individual’s leadership behaviors and leadership
self-identity are significantly affected by effective followership of his or her peers in self-
managing teams. Method: We used a three-wave survey design and collected data from
58 self-managing student teams to test our model. Results: Our findings indicate that team
members are more likely to become leaders in a leaderless group context when being
exposed to more effective followership. Conclusions: This research presents empirical
evidence on the importance of followers to the creation of leaders.
Highlights and Implications
• Organizations should purposefully increase interdependent team mem-
ber activities to facilitate leadership development.
• Organizations need to encourage the expression of authentic opinions
(positive and negative) about managers’ behaviors and performance.
• Organizations can pair leader development with followership develop-
ment programs to cultivate effective followers and prospective leaders concurrently.
Keywords: followership, leader emergence, self-managing team
Managementofmodernorganizationsisbecom-
ing more team based (Sundstrom, 1999) and more
empowering (Argyris, 1998; Spreitzer, 1995). As
organizations increasingly use project-specific
teams, the need for team leaders to emerge quickly
and effectively becomes paramount (Morgeson
et al., 2010). The past 4 decades have shown a
wider use of self-managing teams as a leading
managerial innovation in many large United
States corporations (Magpili & Pazos, 2018).
A self-managing team features no hierarchical
role differentiation among members (DeRue
et al., 2009) and an equal sharing of leadership
(Crossman & Crossman, 2011). Researchers have
found that self-managing teams lead to higher
motivation, satisfaction, and team effectiveness
(Cohen et al., 1996; Cohen & Ledford, 1994;
Cordery et al., 1991; Langfred & Moye, 2004).
This article was published Online First July 29, 2021.
Xueting Jiang https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1321-7332
Kevin Snyder https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3968-4174
Jia Li https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6532-4063
We extend our appreciation to D. Anthony Butterfield,
Jane K. Giacobbe-Miller, Daniel J. Miller, and Ryan M.
Acton for helpful comments on earlier versions of this
article. We also thank Craig S. Wells, Aline G. Sayer,
and Bruce Desmarai ...
After briefly reviewing the existing literature on team coaching, we propose a new
model with three distinguishing features. The model (1) focuses on the functions that
coaching serves for a team, rather than on either specific leader behaviors or leadership
styles, (2) identifies the specific times in the task performance process when
coaching interventions are most likely to have their intended effects, and (3) explicates
the conditions under which team-focused coaching is and is not likely to
facilitate performance.
Dwight
Evaluation
Leadership style assessments certainly have a place within the organization. The effectiveness of a leadership style assessment will depend on what type of assessment and what the organizational needs are. Multi-source feedback assessments are supposed to give a 360 degree look at a leader and give the organization a valuable outcome in the evaluation of the leader (MacKie, 2015). Using multi-source feedback assessments can be extremely beneficial as long as the assessment is properly paired with the organizational goals and needs. Assessing a leader from multi perspectives is truly a holistic approach. But, organizations need to recognize that no leadership style assessment is not without its limitations.
Next, the behavior approach is one of four approaches to leadership. Three of which all have weaknesses; traits, skills, and behavior. But the fourth approach to leadership, the situational approach demonstrates the flexibility of a leader (Northouse2016, 2016). In today’s dynamic and complex business environment, flexible leaders bring the most value to an organization. The situational approach allows the leader to apply the other three approaches given the circumstances. As an Army leader I found this approach to be extremely effective while leading in combat and non-combat situations.
Explanation of Usefulness
Of equal importance is the usefulness leadership style assessments and the behavior approach have on an organization. Once an organization has clearly defined the goals and purpose of conducting an assessment, and then subsequently the correct assessment is used, the results will certainly help the organization. In this case, using an assessment to evaluate the benefits of a behavior approach to leadership will allow the organization to determine what needs to be done, how it needs to be done, and how fast it needs to be done (Saxena, 2014). Additionally, the behavior approach (if the relationship behavior is used), can give subordinates the motivation needed to achieve the desired outcome through a better understanding of themselves.
Explanation of Impact
The impact of leadership assessments on an individual can be positive or negative. Again, this directly correlates to the goals and expectations of the organization when the assessment is implemented. For the individual, it could potentially identify strengths and weaknesses. Thus, giving the individual the opportunity to grow and learn from the assessment. Simultaneously, the organization discovers how these strengths and weaknesses fit into the organization’s goals. Once they have identified where and how an individual nest into the organization, a holistic approach to achieving those goals can be developed (Northouse2016, 2016). In comparison, using a behavior approach assessment will yield valuable information about subordinates’ behavior patterns. Which equates to the organization knowing and understanding their employees. Understanding behavio.
1LEADERSHIP THEORIES Leadership approaches describe the metho.docxhyacinthshackley2629
1
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Leadership approaches describe the methods and the different models that are adopted in the managerial process by the managers who act as the leaders of the organization. The styles range from small businesses to huge and wide businesses. The contingency and the path theories are ways taken up in the analyzing leadership. Which analyze and describe the different models taken up by leaders and the followers and the strategies that are taken up. The relationship between the leaders the followers as well as the main basics taken up also are defined in the models of the leadership.
The contingency theory is a behavioral theory which is based on the view that there is not a specific best way to lead an organization make a decision or to organize cooperation. The theory must take account of the situations in which the leaders operate (Paulsen, 2013). The theory spells that the moves and decisions as well as the leadership systems are influenced by both the external and the internal factors. Basically there is no single theory of contingency management rather there are certain important contingencies for organizations which are the technology, customers and competitors, suppliers, distributers the government (Quader, 2011). In addition the decision making process for any organization is determined by a variety of factors. These factors range from the importance of the decision, the amount and nature of the available information, the likelihood of the decision to be accepted by the subordinates to how well the employees are motivated. This theory proposes that a person’s actions cannot be predetermined. However they are dependent on the situation at that moment and instance.
The contingent theory of management emphasizes that the effectiveness of leadership is dependent on the combination and the matching between the leadership style and the situation. Hereby the situation is defined in terms of the relation between the leader and the member; measure of the leadership acceptance between the different hierarchies in the organization, the task structure; a measure of the clarity of the tasks or projects as well as the positional power which measures the amount of authority the leader has to influence the productivity of the followers.
The leaders style is defined as either task or relations oriented. These tasks are simply the projects that are taken up and the relations are defined as the different relations that exist between the leaders and the followers (McShane & Glinow, 2014). The contingency theory is one of the more common leadership theories. Its basis is that leadership emerges when different kinds of people are encased in different kinds of situations.
The path goal theory of leadership was developed to describe the way that the leaders encourage and support their followers in the achievement of the goals set by setting up a clear and easy path to be taken in the goal attainment process (Quader, 2011). The leaders tak.
1LEADERSHIP THEORIES Leadership approaches describe the m.docxhyacinthshackley2629
1
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Leadership approaches describe the methods and the different models that are adopted in the managerial process by the managers who act as the leaders of the organization. The styles range from small businesses to huge and wide businesses. The contingency and the path theories are ways taken up in the analyzing leadership. Which analyze and describe the different models taken up by leaders and the followers and the strategies that are taken up. The relationship between the leaders the followers as well as the main basics taken up also are defined in the models of the leadership.
The contingency theory is a behavioral theory which is based on the view that there is not a specific best way to lead an organization make a decision or to organize cooperation. The theory must take account of the situations in which the leaders operate (Paulsen, 2013). The theory spells that the moves and decisions as well as the leadership systems are influenced by both the external and the internal factors. Basically there is no single theory of contingency management rather there are certain important contingencies for organizations which are the technology, customers and competitors, suppliers, distributers the government (Quader, 2011). In addition the decision making process for any organization is determined by a variety of factors. These factors range from the importance of the decision, the amount and nature of the available information, the likelihood of the decision to be accepted by the subordinates to how well the employees are motivated. This theory proposes that a person’s actions cannot be predetermined. However they are dependent on the situation at that moment and instance.
The contingent theory of management emphasizes that the effectiveness of leadership is dependent on the combination and the matching between the leadership style and the situation. Hereby the situation is defined in terms of the relation between the leader and the member; measure of the leadership acceptance between the different hierarchies in the organization, the task structure; a measure of the clarity of the tasks or projects as well as the positional power which measures the amount of authority the leader has to influence the productivity of the followers.
The leaders style is defined as either task or relations oriented. These tasks are simply the projects that are taken up and the relations are defined as the different relations that exist between the leaders and the followers (McShane & Glinow, 2014). The contingency theory is one of the more common leadership theories. Its basis is that leadership emerges when different kinds of people are encased in different kinds of situations.
The path goal theory of leadership was developed to describe the way that the leaders encourage and support their followers in the achievement of the goals set by setting up a clear and easy path to be taken in the goal attainment process (Quader, 2011). The leaders t.
REVIEW OF LEADERSHIP STYLES IN PERSPECTIVE.pptxMuhammad Saqib
Presentation Slides on Research Article: " REVIEW OF LEADERSHIP STYLES IN PERSPECTIVEOF DYNAMIC CAPABILITIES: AN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ON MANAGERS IN MANUFACTURING FIRMS"
Author: Bülent AKKAYA;
Publisher: Journal of Administrative Sciences; 01.2020
Lesson 1 Discussion Forum Read InstructionsTeam LeadershipDioneWang844
Lesson 1 Discussion Forum: Read Instructions
Team Leadership/Management Style
Part 1:
According to the Sarin and O’Connor (2009) article, certain style and goal structures of team leaders have a strong influence on internal team dynamics. Based on your research within the article and textbook, as well as your own experience, what team leader management style would be most effective in leading a team in which you were a member?
Part 2:
DeRue, Barnes, and Morgeson (2010) found that team leadership style effectiveness depended on the level of charisma exhibited by the leader. Drawing from the article and the textbook, have you ever worked for a charismatic leader? What style (coaching or directing) did that leader administer? Was he or she effective in leading you as part of the team?
Specific Instructions:
Read and respond to three (3) of your classmates’ posts. See posting/discussion requirements.
Be sure to support your work with specific citations from this week's Learning Resources and any additional sources.
Read a selection of your colleagues' postings.
Respond to at least 3 your colleagues' posts in one or more of the following ways:
• Ask a probing question, substantiated with additional background information, evidence or research.
• Share an insight from having read your colleagues' postings, synthesizing the information to provide new perspectives.
• Offer and support an alternative perspective using readings from the classroom or from your own research
• Validate an idea with your own experience and additional research.
• Make suggestions based on additional evidence drawn from readings or after synthesizing multiple postings.
• Expand on your colleagues' postings by providing additional insights or contrasting perspectives based on readings and evidence.
respond to three (3) of your classmates’
class mate 1:
Part 1: According to the Sarin and O’Connor (2009) article, certain style and goal structures of team leaders have a strong influence on internal team dynamics. Based on your research within the article and textbook, as well as your own experience, what team leader management style would be most effective in leading a team in which you were a member?
Shikhar Sarin and Gina Colarelli O'Connor have clarified the team leader management style authority ideas in an all-around refined route as for the leadership attributes in the objective way hypothesis. In light of an examination from new item improvement (NPD) team. Team leader management authority speaks to a normal for effective team execution. Many teams in the organization contain certain people who are essentially in charge of characterizing team objectives and for creating and organizing the team to achieve these missions. These jobs exist in self overseeing teams in spite of the fact that the direct of positions of authority in such teams changes impressively from comparative jobs in more conventional teams. Notwithstanding, the accomplishment o ...
For the Good or the Bad Interactive Effects of Transformation.docxAKHIL969626
For the Good or the Bad? Interactive Effects of Transformational
Leadership with Moral and Authoritarian Leadership Behaviors
Sebastian C. Schuh • Xin-an Zhang •
Peng Tian
Received: 16 July 2012 / Accepted: 7 September 2012 / Published online: 24 September 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract Although the ethical aspects of transformational
leadership have attracted considerable attention, very little is
known about followers’ reactions to the moral and immoral
conduct of transformational leaders. Against this background,
this study examined whether and how transformational lead-
ership interacts with moral and authoritarian leadership
behaviors in predicting followers’ in-role and extra-role
efforts. Building on attribution theory, we hypothesized that
the positive and negative effects of these leadership behaviors
would be particularly pronounced for highly transformational
leaders given that this leadership style elicits strong attention
and sense-making efforts among followers. We tested our
model in a sample of 228 individuals comprising 114 leader–
follower dyads from a wide range of organizations and
industries. In line with our hypotheses, results revealed that for
highly transformational leaders, moral leadership behaviors
related positively to employees’ in-role and extra-role efforts
whereas authoritarian leadership behaviors related negatively
to employees’ in-role and extra-role efforts. In contrast, moral
and authoritarian leadership behaviors did not significantly
affect followers’ reactions to leaders low in transformational
leadership. Taken together, these findings suggest that trans-
formational leadership, contrary to its largely positive per-
ception in the literature, can be a rather mixed blessing.
Implications for theory, future research, and managerial
practice are discussed.
Keywords Authentic transformational leadership �
Authoritarian leadership � Extra-role performance �
In-role performance � Moral leadership �
Pseudo-transformational leadership
When it comes to severe wrongdoings in the organizational
domain, it is not uncommon that leaders who had been
praised as visionary and transformational play a crucial
role (Bass 2008). Indeed, whereas transformational lead-
ership has often been regarded as a leadership behavior that
considers and emphasizes ethical standards (Burns 1978),
several scholars have questioned its inherent morality
(Bass and Steidlmeier 1999; Conger and Kanungo 1998;
Price 2003). Specifically, they have pointed out that
transformational leadership behaviors (e.g., vision, inspi-
ration, and role modeling; Bass 1985) do not have to be
applied in the interest of the common good. Indeed, these
behaviors seem to be equally effective in pursuing immoral
purposes and to increase the personal power and status of
the leader. As Price (2003) posited, transformational
behaviors are ‘‘morally neutral’’ (p. 70) and whether they
are used ...
The Efficacy of Executive Coaching inTimes of Organisational.docxtodd701
The Efficacy of Executive Coaching in
Times of Organisational Change
ANTHONY M. GRANT
Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
ABSTRACT Executive coaching is often used in times of organisational change to help executives
develop the psychological and behavioural skills needed to focus on reaching their work-related
goals whilst simultaneously dealing with the turbulence associated with organisational change.
Despite its widespread use, little research has explored the impact of executive coaching during
periods of organisational change. This within-subject study used both quantitative and qualitative
measures to explore the impact of executive coaching during a period of organisational change
on 31 executives and managers from a global engineering consulting organisation. Participation
in the coaching was associated with increased goal attainment, enhanced solution-focused
thinking, a greater ability to deal with change, increased leadership self-efficacy and resilience,
and decrease in depression. The positive impact of coaching generalised to non-work areas such
as family life. Recommendations are made for the measurement and design of executive coaching
programmes.
KEY WORDS: Executive coaching, organisational change, leadership self-efficacy, solution-
focused thinking
Introduction
Organisational turbulence has increasingly become part of the everyday experi-
ence in organisations in the contemporary Western commercial world. Organis-
ational turbulence is defined as nontrivial, rapid, and discontinuous change in
an organisation, brought about by events such as restructurings, downsizings,
sales, and spin-offs of assets and acquisitions, the effects of which are often
experienced as disconcerting (Cameron et al., 1987).
Journal of Change Management, 2014
Vol. 14, No. 2, 258 – 280, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14697017.2013.805159
Correspondence Address: Anthony M. Grant, Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, University of
Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. Email: [email protected]
# 2013 The Author(s). Published by Taylor & Francis.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The moral rights of the named author(s) have been asserted.
Whereas in the last century organisational change tended to be part of desig-
nated mergers and acquisitions or pre-planned cultural development initiatives
(Gaughan, 2010), since 2000 the rate and unpredictability of organisational
change appear to have escalated, resulting in greater demands and stresses
being placed on managers and executives (Sablonnière et al., 2012). Such econ-
omic uncertainty and organisational turbulence have been particularly evident
since the 2007 Global Financial Crisis.
Not surprisi.
The relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Gr.docxoreo10
The relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Group Performance
1.0 The Study Objective:
The study aims to examine the following research Hypothesis:
Transformational leadership positively predicts work group performance.
2.0 Theoretical Background
2.1 Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is defined as a process that changes and transforms people, and comprises an exceptional form of influence, resulting in the achievement of higher levels of performance amongst followers than previously thought possible (Bass, 1990). People who exhibit transformational leadership often have a strong idealised influence (charisma), as well as a strong set of internal values and ideas. In addition, they are effective at motivating followers in ways that promote the greater good, as opposed to their own self-interest (Bass, 1990; Bass & Avolio, 1994). Bass and Avolio (2000) identify five components of transformational leadership traits and behaviours, which are theoretically and empirically related (Avolio & Bass, 1995). Those components are:
a. Idealised influence (attributed) is the degree to which leaders behave in a charismatic way, which subsequently causes followers to admire, respect and trust them. Charismatic leaders excite, arouse and inspire their followers to the point that the relationship between the leader and the follower becomes one based on personal understanding, as opposed to one based on formal rules, regulations, rewards or punishments. The leader shares risk with followers, and is consistent in conducting with underlying values and principles. However, Bass (1985) considers charisma a necessary but not sufficient condition for transformational leadership.
b. Idealised influence (behavioural) refers to the charismatic actions of the leader, whereby followers transcend their self-interest for the sake of the organisation and accordingly develop a collective sense of mission and purpose.
c. Inspirational motivation refers to leaders’ behaviours to motivate those around them through the provision of meaning and the articulation of appealing visions. Inspirational leaders demonstrate self-determination and commitment to attain objectives and thereby achieve their vision. Such leaders provide an emotional appeal to increase awareness and an understanding of mutually desired goals amongst their followers.
d. Intellectual stimulation is the degree to which leaders stimulate their followers to think critically and to be innovative and creative. Such leaders do not criticise individual members’ mistakes; rather, they provide followers with challenging new ideas. As a result, followers become critical in their problem-solving and tend to have enhanced thought processes.
e. Individualised consideration is the degree to which leaders pay attention to followers’ needs, provide support and encouragement, act as mentors or coaches, and listen to followers’ concerns. A leader displaying individualised considera ...
The purpose of the article is to explore business leadership changes and developments in parallel with business leader’s changes and developments, the relationship between them and how could we bridge them to fit the best business leadership to the best business leader.
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and .docxaryan532920
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and Marketing, 7(1), 30-46, March 30
Leadership Styles of Effective Project Managers: Techniques and Traits to Lead High
Performance Teams
Melissa DuBois, John Hanlon, Jodi Koch, Betty Nyatuga, Nathan Kerr
College of Engineering, Drexel University, USA
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Project management is a growing practice and is being utilized in an increasing number of
facilities. The project manager is at the head of this project process, and has an important role of
overseeing the project and project team, and ultimately ensuring the project ends in success.
Analyzing critical qualities of leadership and determining their positive impact can benefit
project managers in any industry and therefore promote project success. A few of these
leadership styles include: team building, establishing clear relations and roles between project
members, openness, self-confidence, organization, and clearly defining project successes,
reevaluating when necessary. These leadership styles and traits were researched and analyzed to
determine the extent they contribute to the construction, execution, and closure of the project. By
adopting these qualities, the project’s stakeholders such as investors, clients, or patients are more
likely to feel the positive impact of a successful project. Projects can also move more smoothly
and efficiently, receiving positive results in less time. This is beneficial not only to the
stakeholders, but to all members involved: the organization, the project manager, executive staff,
team members, and outsourced facilities. It is not enough to possess one of these crucial traits.
As seen in literature and historical examples, a combination is necessary to create balance and
develop into a leader that can produce an efficient team and satisfactory end results.
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and Marketing, 7(1), 30-46, March 31
Introduction
In today’s increasingly complex global economy and shrinking geography, corporations,
governments, and other organizations are turning to a project management model to facilitate
successful endeavors that enhance their products, services, policies, and procedures. Project
management has proven to be a vehicle to oversee these short-term but strategic ventures. More
than ever, these organizations are recognizing that these projects require not just a project
manager, but a project leader. According to Pandya (2014), project leaders are accountable for
the day-to-day oversight of the project, the triple constraint of time, budget, and quality as any
manager is. However, they also need to manage change, assure resource availability, address
behavioral and emotional flares with internal and external stakeholders ...
Smallpox has been widely reported as a possible bio-terror weapon..docxjennifer822
Smallpox has been widely reported as a possible bio-terror weapon.
Explain what you
know about the etiology of the disease.
Include what you know about the
current state of the world’s immunity to smallpox.
Discuss how
effective (or ineffective) a smallpox weapon might be.
Include what kind
of defense could be mounted against such an attack.
.
Small mistakes are the steppingstones to large failures. How mig.docxjennifer822
Small mistakes are the steppingstones to large failures. How might this saying apply to this lesson, and do you agree?
In your responses, provide an example of a real-life seemingly small mistake with large consequences. By real-life, I mean a situation that actually happened, not a theoretical one.
.
After briefly reviewing the existing literature on team coaching, we propose a new
model with three distinguishing features. The model (1) focuses on the functions that
coaching serves for a team, rather than on either specific leader behaviors or leadership
styles, (2) identifies the specific times in the task performance process when
coaching interventions are most likely to have their intended effects, and (3) explicates
the conditions under which team-focused coaching is and is not likely to
facilitate performance.
Dwight
Evaluation
Leadership style assessments certainly have a place within the organization. The effectiveness of a leadership style assessment will depend on what type of assessment and what the organizational needs are. Multi-source feedback assessments are supposed to give a 360 degree look at a leader and give the organization a valuable outcome in the evaluation of the leader (MacKie, 2015). Using multi-source feedback assessments can be extremely beneficial as long as the assessment is properly paired with the organizational goals and needs. Assessing a leader from multi perspectives is truly a holistic approach. But, organizations need to recognize that no leadership style assessment is not without its limitations.
Next, the behavior approach is one of four approaches to leadership. Three of which all have weaknesses; traits, skills, and behavior. But the fourth approach to leadership, the situational approach demonstrates the flexibility of a leader (Northouse2016, 2016). In today’s dynamic and complex business environment, flexible leaders bring the most value to an organization. The situational approach allows the leader to apply the other three approaches given the circumstances. As an Army leader I found this approach to be extremely effective while leading in combat and non-combat situations.
Explanation of Usefulness
Of equal importance is the usefulness leadership style assessments and the behavior approach have on an organization. Once an organization has clearly defined the goals and purpose of conducting an assessment, and then subsequently the correct assessment is used, the results will certainly help the organization. In this case, using an assessment to evaluate the benefits of a behavior approach to leadership will allow the organization to determine what needs to be done, how it needs to be done, and how fast it needs to be done (Saxena, 2014). Additionally, the behavior approach (if the relationship behavior is used), can give subordinates the motivation needed to achieve the desired outcome through a better understanding of themselves.
Explanation of Impact
The impact of leadership assessments on an individual can be positive or negative. Again, this directly correlates to the goals and expectations of the organization when the assessment is implemented. For the individual, it could potentially identify strengths and weaknesses. Thus, giving the individual the opportunity to grow and learn from the assessment. Simultaneously, the organization discovers how these strengths and weaknesses fit into the organization’s goals. Once they have identified where and how an individual nest into the organization, a holistic approach to achieving those goals can be developed (Northouse2016, 2016). In comparison, using a behavior approach assessment will yield valuable information about subordinates’ behavior patterns. Which equates to the organization knowing and understanding their employees. Understanding behavio.
1LEADERSHIP THEORIES Leadership approaches describe the metho.docxhyacinthshackley2629
1
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Leadership approaches describe the methods and the different models that are adopted in the managerial process by the managers who act as the leaders of the organization. The styles range from small businesses to huge and wide businesses. The contingency and the path theories are ways taken up in the analyzing leadership. Which analyze and describe the different models taken up by leaders and the followers and the strategies that are taken up. The relationship between the leaders the followers as well as the main basics taken up also are defined in the models of the leadership.
The contingency theory is a behavioral theory which is based on the view that there is not a specific best way to lead an organization make a decision or to organize cooperation. The theory must take account of the situations in which the leaders operate (Paulsen, 2013). The theory spells that the moves and decisions as well as the leadership systems are influenced by both the external and the internal factors. Basically there is no single theory of contingency management rather there are certain important contingencies for organizations which are the technology, customers and competitors, suppliers, distributers the government (Quader, 2011). In addition the decision making process for any organization is determined by a variety of factors. These factors range from the importance of the decision, the amount and nature of the available information, the likelihood of the decision to be accepted by the subordinates to how well the employees are motivated. This theory proposes that a person’s actions cannot be predetermined. However they are dependent on the situation at that moment and instance.
The contingent theory of management emphasizes that the effectiveness of leadership is dependent on the combination and the matching between the leadership style and the situation. Hereby the situation is defined in terms of the relation between the leader and the member; measure of the leadership acceptance between the different hierarchies in the organization, the task structure; a measure of the clarity of the tasks or projects as well as the positional power which measures the amount of authority the leader has to influence the productivity of the followers.
The leaders style is defined as either task or relations oriented. These tasks are simply the projects that are taken up and the relations are defined as the different relations that exist between the leaders and the followers (McShane & Glinow, 2014). The contingency theory is one of the more common leadership theories. Its basis is that leadership emerges when different kinds of people are encased in different kinds of situations.
The path goal theory of leadership was developed to describe the way that the leaders encourage and support their followers in the achievement of the goals set by setting up a clear and easy path to be taken in the goal attainment process (Quader, 2011). The leaders tak.
1LEADERSHIP THEORIES Leadership approaches describe the m.docxhyacinthshackley2629
1
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Leadership approaches describe the methods and the different models that are adopted in the managerial process by the managers who act as the leaders of the organization. The styles range from small businesses to huge and wide businesses. The contingency and the path theories are ways taken up in the analyzing leadership. Which analyze and describe the different models taken up by leaders and the followers and the strategies that are taken up. The relationship between the leaders the followers as well as the main basics taken up also are defined in the models of the leadership.
The contingency theory is a behavioral theory which is based on the view that there is not a specific best way to lead an organization make a decision or to organize cooperation. The theory must take account of the situations in which the leaders operate (Paulsen, 2013). The theory spells that the moves and decisions as well as the leadership systems are influenced by both the external and the internal factors. Basically there is no single theory of contingency management rather there are certain important contingencies for organizations which are the technology, customers and competitors, suppliers, distributers the government (Quader, 2011). In addition the decision making process for any organization is determined by a variety of factors. These factors range from the importance of the decision, the amount and nature of the available information, the likelihood of the decision to be accepted by the subordinates to how well the employees are motivated. This theory proposes that a person’s actions cannot be predetermined. However they are dependent on the situation at that moment and instance.
The contingent theory of management emphasizes that the effectiveness of leadership is dependent on the combination and the matching between the leadership style and the situation. Hereby the situation is defined in terms of the relation between the leader and the member; measure of the leadership acceptance between the different hierarchies in the organization, the task structure; a measure of the clarity of the tasks or projects as well as the positional power which measures the amount of authority the leader has to influence the productivity of the followers.
The leaders style is defined as either task or relations oriented. These tasks are simply the projects that are taken up and the relations are defined as the different relations that exist between the leaders and the followers (McShane & Glinow, 2014). The contingency theory is one of the more common leadership theories. Its basis is that leadership emerges when different kinds of people are encased in different kinds of situations.
The path goal theory of leadership was developed to describe the way that the leaders encourage and support their followers in the achievement of the goals set by setting up a clear and easy path to be taken in the goal attainment process (Quader, 2011). The leaders t.
REVIEW OF LEADERSHIP STYLES IN PERSPECTIVE.pptxMuhammad Saqib
Presentation Slides on Research Article: " REVIEW OF LEADERSHIP STYLES IN PERSPECTIVEOF DYNAMIC CAPABILITIES: AN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ON MANAGERS IN MANUFACTURING FIRMS"
Author: Bülent AKKAYA;
Publisher: Journal of Administrative Sciences; 01.2020
Lesson 1 Discussion Forum Read InstructionsTeam LeadershipDioneWang844
Lesson 1 Discussion Forum: Read Instructions
Team Leadership/Management Style
Part 1:
According to the Sarin and O’Connor (2009) article, certain style and goal structures of team leaders have a strong influence on internal team dynamics. Based on your research within the article and textbook, as well as your own experience, what team leader management style would be most effective in leading a team in which you were a member?
Part 2:
DeRue, Barnes, and Morgeson (2010) found that team leadership style effectiveness depended on the level of charisma exhibited by the leader. Drawing from the article and the textbook, have you ever worked for a charismatic leader? What style (coaching or directing) did that leader administer? Was he or she effective in leading you as part of the team?
Specific Instructions:
Read and respond to three (3) of your classmates’ posts. See posting/discussion requirements.
Be sure to support your work with specific citations from this week's Learning Resources and any additional sources.
Read a selection of your colleagues' postings.
Respond to at least 3 your colleagues' posts in one or more of the following ways:
• Ask a probing question, substantiated with additional background information, evidence or research.
• Share an insight from having read your colleagues' postings, synthesizing the information to provide new perspectives.
• Offer and support an alternative perspective using readings from the classroom or from your own research
• Validate an idea with your own experience and additional research.
• Make suggestions based on additional evidence drawn from readings or after synthesizing multiple postings.
• Expand on your colleagues' postings by providing additional insights or contrasting perspectives based on readings and evidence.
respond to three (3) of your classmates’
class mate 1:
Part 1: According to the Sarin and O’Connor (2009) article, certain style and goal structures of team leaders have a strong influence on internal team dynamics. Based on your research within the article and textbook, as well as your own experience, what team leader management style would be most effective in leading a team in which you were a member?
Shikhar Sarin and Gina Colarelli O'Connor have clarified the team leader management style authority ideas in an all-around refined route as for the leadership attributes in the objective way hypothesis. In light of an examination from new item improvement (NPD) team. Team leader management authority speaks to a normal for effective team execution. Many teams in the organization contain certain people who are essentially in charge of characterizing team objectives and for creating and organizing the team to achieve these missions. These jobs exist in self overseeing teams in spite of the fact that the direct of positions of authority in such teams changes impressively from comparative jobs in more conventional teams. Notwithstanding, the accomplishment o ...
For the Good or the Bad Interactive Effects of Transformation.docxAKHIL969626
For the Good or the Bad? Interactive Effects of Transformational
Leadership with Moral and Authoritarian Leadership Behaviors
Sebastian C. Schuh • Xin-an Zhang •
Peng Tian
Received: 16 July 2012 / Accepted: 7 September 2012 / Published online: 24 September 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract Although the ethical aspects of transformational
leadership have attracted considerable attention, very little is
known about followers’ reactions to the moral and immoral
conduct of transformational leaders. Against this background,
this study examined whether and how transformational lead-
ership interacts with moral and authoritarian leadership
behaviors in predicting followers’ in-role and extra-role
efforts. Building on attribution theory, we hypothesized that
the positive and negative effects of these leadership behaviors
would be particularly pronounced for highly transformational
leaders given that this leadership style elicits strong attention
and sense-making efforts among followers. We tested our
model in a sample of 228 individuals comprising 114 leader–
follower dyads from a wide range of organizations and
industries. In line with our hypotheses, results revealed that for
highly transformational leaders, moral leadership behaviors
related positively to employees’ in-role and extra-role efforts
whereas authoritarian leadership behaviors related negatively
to employees’ in-role and extra-role efforts. In contrast, moral
and authoritarian leadership behaviors did not significantly
affect followers’ reactions to leaders low in transformational
leadership. Taken together, these findings suggest that trans-
formational leadership, contrary to its largely positive per-
ception in the literature, can be a rather mixed blessing.
Implications for theory, future research, and managerial
practice are discussed.
Keywords Authentic transformational leadership �
Authoritarian leadership � Extra-role performance �
In-role performance � Moral leadership �
Pseudo-transformational leadership
When it comes to severe wrongdoings in the organizational
domain, it is not uncommon that leaders who had been
praised as visionary and transformational play a crucial
role (Bass 2008). Indeed, whereas transformational lead-
ership has often been regarded as a leadership behavior that
considers and emphasizes ethical standards (Burns 1978),
several scholars have questioned its inherent morality
(Bass and Steidlmeier 1999; Conger and Kanungo 1998;
Price 2003). Specifically, they have pointed out that
transformational leadership behaviors (e.g., vision, inspi-
ration, and role modeling; Bass 1985) do not have to be
applied in the interest of the common good. Indeed, these
behaviors seem to be equally effective in pursuing immoral
purposes and to increase the personal power and status of
the leader. As Price (2003) posited, transformational
behaviors are ‘‘morally neutral’’ (p. 70) and whether they
are used ...
The Efficacy of Executive Coaching inTimes of Organisational.docxtodd701
The Efficacy of Executive Coaching in
Times of Organisational Change
ANTHONY M. GRANT
Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
ABSTRACT Executive coaching is often used in times of organisational change to help executives
develop the psychological and behavioural skills needed to focus on reaching their work-related
goals whilst simultaneously dealing with the turbulence associated with organisational change.
Despite its widespread use, little research has explored the impact of executive coaching during
periods of organisational change. This within-subject study used both quantitative and qualitative
measures to explore the impact of executive coaching during a period of organisational change
on 31 executives and managers from a global engineering consulting organisation. Participation
in the coaching was associated with increased goal attainment, enhanced solution-focused
thinking, a greater ability to deal with change, increased leadership self-efficacy and resilience,
and decrease in depression. The positive impact of coaching generalised to non-work areas such
as family life. Recommendations are made for the measurement and design of executive coaching
programmes.
KEY WORDS: Executive coaching, organisational change, leadership self-efficacy, solution-
focused thinking
Introduction
Organisational turbulence has increasingly become part of the everyday experi-
ence in organisations in the contemporary Western commercial world. Organis-
ational turbulence is defined as nontrivial, rapid, and discontinuous change in
an organisation, brought about by events such as restructurings, downsizings,
sales, and spin-offs of assets and acquisitions, the effects of which are often
experienced as disconcerting (Cameron et al., 1987).
Journal of Change Management, 2014
Vol. 14, No. 2, 258 – 280, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14697017.2013.805159
Correspondence Address: Anthony M. Grant, Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, University of
Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. Email: [email protected]
# 2013 The Author(s). Published by Taylor & Francis.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The moral rights of the named author(s) have been asserted.
Whereas in the last century organisational change tended to be part of desig-
nated mergers and acquisitions or pre-planned cultural development initiatives
(Gaughan, 2010), since 2000 the rate and unpredictability of organisational
change appear to have escalated, resulting in greater demands and stresses
being placed on managers and executives (Sablonnière et al., 2012). Such econ-
omic uncertainty and organisational turbulence have been particularly evident
since the 2007 Global Financial Crisis.
Not surprisi.
The relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Gr.docxoreo10
The relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Group Performance
1.0 The Study Objective:
The study aims to examine the following research Hypothesis:
Transformational leadership positively predicts work group performance.
2.0 Theoretical Background
2.1 Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is defined as a process that changes and transforms people, and comprises an exceptional form of influence, resulting in the achievement of higher levels of performance amongst followers than previously thought possible (Bass, 1990). People who exhibit transformational leadership often have a strong idealised influence (charisma), as well as a strong set of internal values and ideas. In addition, they are effective at motivating followers in ways that promote the greater good, as opposed to their own self-interest (Bass, 1990; Bass & Avolio, 1994). Bass and Avolio (2000) identify five components of transformational leadership traits and behaviours, which are theoretically and empirically related (Avolio & Bass, 1995). Those components are:
a. Idealised influence (attributed) is the degree to which leaders behave in a charismatic way, which subsequently causes followers to admire, respect and trust them. Charismatic leaders excite, arouse and inspire their followers to the point that the relationship between the leader and the follower becomes one based on personal understanding, as opposed to one based on formal rules, regulations, rewards or punishments. The leader shares risk with followers, and is consistent in conducting with underlying values and principles. However, Bass (1985) considers charisma a necessary but not sufficient condition for transformational leadership.
b. Idealised influence (behavioural) refers to the charismatic actions of the leader, whereby followers transcend their self-interest for the sake of the organisation and accordingly develop a collective sense of mission and purpose.
c. Inspirational motivation refers to leaders’ behaviours to motivate those around them through the provision of meaning and the articulation of appealing visions. Inspirational leaders demonstrate self-determination and commitment to attain objectives and thereby achieve their vision. Such leaders provide an emotional appeal to increase awareness and an understanding of mutually desired goals amongst their followers.
d. Intellectual stimulation is the degree to which leaders stimulate their followers to think critically and to be innovative and creative. Such leaders do not criticise individual members’ mistakes; rather, they provide followers with challenging new ideas. As a result, followers become critical in their problem-solving and tend to have enhanced thought processes.
e. Individualised consideration is the degree to which leaders pay attention to followers’ needs, provide support and encouragement, act as mentors or coaches, and listen to followers’ concerns. A leader displaying individualised considera ...
The purpose of the article is to explore business leadership changes and developments in parallel with business leader’s changes and developments, the relationship between them and how could we bridge them to fit the best business leadership to the best business leader.
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and .docxaryan532920
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and Marketing, 7(1), 30-46, March 30
Leadership Styles of Effective Project Managers: Techniques and Traits to Lead High
Performance Teams
Melissa DuBois, John Hanlon, Jodi Koch, Betty Nyatuga, Nathan Kerr
College of Engineering, Drexel University, USA
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Project management is a growing practice and is being utilized in an increasing number of
facilities. The project manager is at the head of this project process, and has an important role of
overseeing the project and project team, and ultimately ensuring the project ends in success.
Analyzing critical qualities of leadership and determining their positive impact can benefit
project managers in any industry and therefore promote project success. A few of these
leadership styles include: team building, establishing clear relations and roles between project
members, openness, self-confidence, organization, and clearly defining project successes,
reevaluating when necessary. These leadership styles and traits were researched and analyzed to
determine the extent they contribute to the construction, execution, and closure of the project. By
adopting these qualities, the project’s stakeholders such as investors, clients, or patients are more
likely to feel the positive impact of a successful project. Projects can also move more smoothly
and efficiently, receiving positive results in less time. This is beneficial not only to the
stakeholders, but to all members involved: the organization, the project manager, executive staff,
team members, and outsourced facilities. It is not enough to possess one of these crucial traits.
As seen in literature and historical examples, a combination is necessary to create balance and
develop into a leader that can produce an efficient team and satisfactory end results.
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and Marketing, 7(1), 30-46, March 31
Introduction
In today’s increasingly complex global economy and shrinking geography, corporations,
governments, and other organizations are turning to a project management model to facilitate
successful endeavors that enhance their products, services, policies, and procedures. Project
management has proven to be a vehicle to oversee these short-term but strategic ventures. More
than ever, these organizations are recognizing that these projects require not just a project
manager, but a project leader. According to Pandya (2014), project leaders are accountable for
the day-to-day oversight of the project, the triple constraint of time, budget, and quality as any
manager is. However, they also need to manage change, assure resource availability, address
behavioral and emotional flares with internal and external stakeholders ...
Smallpox has been widely reported as a possible bio-terror weapon..docxjennifer822
Smallpox has been widely reported as a possible bio-terror weapon.
Explain what you
know about the etiology of the disease.
Include what you know about the
current state of the world’s immunity to smallpox.
Discuss how
effective (or ineffective) a smallpox weapon might be.
Include what kind
of defense could be mounted against such an attack.
.
Small mistakes are the steppingstones to large failures. How mig.docxjennifer822
Small mistakes are the steppingstones to large failures. How might this saying apply to this lesson, and do you agree?
In your responses, provide an example of a real-life seemingly small mistake with large consequences. By real-life, I mean a situation that actually happened, not a theoretical one.
.
SMALL GROUP LESSON 1
SMALL GROUP LESSON 2
Field Experience B: Small Group Lesson
Babita Mohabir
GCU
SEC 580
June 10, 2020
Small Group Lesson
I am highly satisfied with the lesson plan, particularly because it yielded the desired results proving that it was carefully crafted right from the beginning. My goal at the end of the lesson was to offer a good learning experience to the learners, and I achieved that. I was able to put into perspective all the factors which played a huge role in influencing the learning outcomes of the learners in the small group. I executed the lesson plan effectively. I engaged the learners and strengthened their understanding of the course content. By sharing the lesson plan with the learners through highlighting a visible agenda on the board about what they will be learning and doing during class time, I was able to keep them on track. I made a conscious effort to maintain eye contact in class, and this enhanced the involvement of the learners with the course content. I conveyed the content and instructions in a clear and specific manner so that the learners with poor listening comprehension were not left behind.
When attempting to put a point across in class, I ensured that my voice was loud enough and clear. This, coupled with the developed rules and regulations, enabled me to successfully maintain a degree of order and control in the class, and fully grasped the attention of the learners. Using relevant examples and analogies to demonstrate the mathematical concepts was successful as the learners were able to understand the topic more. I also succeeded in building a rapport with the learners thanks to the warm and friendly class atmosphere that I created. Additionally, I was successful in time management. I did not run out of time as all that I had planned to cover was completed within the stipulated timeline. Using a collaborative approach for teaching also succeeded in boosting involvement among all the learners. In regard to the improvements, apart from winding up the lesson by simply summarizing the main points learned, it would be a good idea to conclude by also previewing the next lesson. This means briefly striking a connection between the finished concept and the next coming concept. A combination of summarizing and previewing would spur the interest of the learners in the coming lesson and enable them to connect the various ideas within a much larger context.
The other improvement would have been establishing strategies to obtain learners’ feedback in order to gather insight into any shortcomings in my teaching technique. The lesson plan was effectively assessed since I had created several productive questions for each learning concept which I was to use to check for understa.
Small Group Discussion Grading RubricParticipation for MSNSmal.docxjennifer822
Small Group Discussion Grading Rubric
Participation for MSN
Small Group Discussion Guiding Principles
The ideas and beliefs underpinning the small group discussions (GDs) guide students through engaging dialogues as they achieve the desired learning outcomes/competencies associated with their course in a manner that empowers them to organize, integrate, apply and critically appraise their knowledge to their selected field of practice. The use of GDs provides students with opportunities to contribute level-appropriate knowledge and experience to the topic in a safe, caring, and fluid environment that models professional and social interaction. The GD’s ebb and flow is based upon the composition of student and faculty interaction in the quest for relevant scholarship. Participation in the GDs generates opportunities for students to actively engage in the written ideas of others by carefully reading, researching, reflecting, and responding to the contributions of their peers and course faculty. GDs foster the development of members into a community of learners as they share ideas and inquiries, consider perspectives that may be different from their own, and integrate knowledge from other disciplines.
Participation Guidelines
Each weekly group discussion is worth a maximum of 50 points. Students must post a minimum of four times in each discussion. One of these posts must be a summary of learning for the week. The initial response to the discussion prompt must be posted by Wednesday, 11:59 p.m. MT, of each week. Each of the subsequent posts must occur on days following the initial response. The final posting deadline for all subsequent posts is by Sunday, 11:59 p.m. MT of each week. For week 8 only, subsequent posts must occur by the Saturday deadline-11:59 pm MT. If the student does not meet the Wednesday posting deadline for the initial posting, a late penalty is applied of 5 points. Not meeting the requirements for subsequent postings, either in number or deadline, will result in a loss of 5 points.
Group Discussion Responses
Small group discussions provide the opportunity for deep exploration and new knowledge discovery of course topics. This type of exploration requires synthesis of various sources of information. Responses in group discussions should be substantive, reflect the student’s personal position on the topic, thoroughly address the information being asked for by the prompt, and include insights based on others’ postings. Direct quotes in group discussions should be a rare occurrence. These are to be limited to one short quotation (not to exceed 15 words). The quote must add substantively to the discussion. Points will be deducted under Scholarliness and/or Course Knowledge rubric categories.
MSNST_GroupDiscussionGradingRubric_Final_2019.02.21 Executive Track
MSNST_GroupDiscussionGradingRubric_Final_2019.02.21 Executive Track
MSN-ST Executive Track
Small Group Discussion Grading Rubric Guidelines
Point Values
Except.
SM Nonprofit Ad Campaign Term Project InstructionsOverview.docxjennifer822
SM Nonprofit Ad Campaign Term Project Instructions
Overview
Marketing can inspire change, generate donations, and inform the public. However, nonprofits often lack the marketing prowess needed to reach consumers. You are tasked to create a marketing ad and social media campaign for a nonprofit you choose. Visit the nonprofit website to understand their purpose and align the ad campaign you create.
Choose one of the following charities on the website to build a social media ad campaign.
https://charity.lovetoknow.com/Top_100_Charities
The below items are to be turned in on Blackboard in a Word document. Each student is responsible for submitting their own unique work. Check SafeAssign at submission for plagiarism; unintentional plagiarism is still plagiarism.
Ad Content
1) Ad/image that can standalone (if posted on a social media platform in smartphone or desktop view). Ad should be unambiguously clear, easy to read within moments, and eye-catching. Content needs to be accurate, informative, and convincing to change behavior.
Include the name of the charity and method to connect with existing platforms.
Written responses describing the ad campaign
Written work: 2-3 pages, 1-inch margins 12-point Times New Roman/Arial font, double spaced. Be specific with details, use examples, and thoroughly explain your reasoning. The written work should articulate your knowledge about social media strategy, marketing mix, research measures, and other materials covered throughout this course. Demonstrate your understanding of course materials by writing about these topics.
2) Describe what is the content in the ad (e.g. Call to Action (CTA) hashtag, information guide, change behavior, draw clicks to website)? Be specific. Restating these examples is insufficient.
3) What is the name of the ad campaign? What is this social media ad campaign trying to do? Thoroughly explain your reasoning and be specific.
4) What is the method for releasing on social media (e.g. platform, timing, target market, length of campaign)? Elaborating and be specific with details.
5) What are the measures for success (e.g. how many likes/comments/shares)? State specific goals and figures that would indicate if the campaign was successful.
Sample Ads
Note: These are basic samples. The quality of work and attention to details should be greater. Expectations in the workplace are higher for employees creating marketing materials because businesses depend on generating revenue from these kinds of ads. In fact, these sample ads draw website visits. Notice what works and doesn’t work from the samples.
https://www.studentdigz.co.za/sharing-is-caring/
Graphic CPR ad example with moving pictures:
https://carrington.edu/blog/medical/how-to-perform-cpr/
https://www.cprcertified.com/how-to-perform-hands-only-cpr-infographic
https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-illustration-benefits-drinking-water-infographic-vector-illustration-image675702.
Small Business State of the UnionInterest and involvement in s.docxjennifer822
Small Business "State of the Union"
Interest and involvement in small business and entrepreneurial activities is an integral part of United States economy thorough both good and "challenging" times. To see how "things" are doing, your assignment is to research the today's climate of small business and its economic impact. Included in your submission could/should be information related to numbers of what "defines" a small business , employers and employees, job growth, current numbers of small businesses (which will vary dependent upon sources utilized), women-owned and minority-owned business statistics, as well as information related to business turnover (closures for whatever reasons). Other economic areas to explore include exporting activities tied to small business, federal and state procurement activities (selling to the government), innovation activities (and federal funds which may have been awarded to small businesses to assist with innovation), and federal and/or state sources of funding which may have been utilized.
Recommended resources for use on this assignment would be the U.S. Census data, Small Business Administration (SBA), Department of Labor (DOL), Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and other reputable sites. Popular press information can also be utilized to supplement (e.g. Entrepreneur Magazine, INC. Magazine, Forbes, etc.)
Please utilize the most current year data available
in your narrative and provide a source document at the end of your work identifying the resources cited.
This paper should be 3-4 pages (not including source document) in length with a thorough discussion and explanation of the information provided. As always, your final thoughts regarding the findings are acceptable and appreciated.
.
Small Business and Forms of Business Ownershiphttpwww.wil.docxjennifer822
Small Business and Forms of Business Ownership
http://www.wileybusinessupdates.com
Chapter
5
1
Discuss why most businesses are small businesses.
Determine the contributions of small businesses to the economy.
Discuss why small businesses fail.
Identify the available assistance for small businesses.
1
Learning Objectives
Outline the forms of private business ownership.
Describe the public and collective ownership of business.
Discuss organizing a corporation.
Explain what happens when businesses join forces.
2
3
4
7
8
5
6
2
99.7% of all U.S. companies are considered small businesses.
These firms have generated 65% of new jobs in the past two decades
They employ half of all private sector workers
Most Businesses are Small Businesses
3
The Small Business Administrationdefines a small business to be a firm that is independently owned and operated and is not dominant in the field.
Manufacturing business: fewer than 500 workers
Wholesalers: fewer than 100 workers
Retailers: less than $7 million in annual sales
Agricultural business: less than $750,000
What is Small Business?
4
Typical Small-Business Ventures
5
Major Industries Dominated by Small Businesses
6
Creating New Jobs
Creating New Industries
Innovation
Contributions of Small Business
7
3 in 10 businesses close permanently within two years.
50% of businesses fail within five years.
By the 10-year mark, 66% of all small businesses have closed permanently.
Small Business Failure
8
Management Shortcomings
Inadequate Financing
Government Regulation
Reasons Why Small Business Fail
9
Government agency concerned with helping small business firms
Financial Assistance
Loan Guarantees
Microloans
Small Business Investment Companies (SBICs)
Small Business Administration
10
More than 40% of U.S. businesses are owned by women (10 million businesses)
The number of businesses owned by minorities outpaced the growth in the number of U.S. businesses overall.
Women and minorities still face challenges:
Opportunities for Women & Minorities
11
Minority-Owned Businesses
12
Forms of Private Business Ownership
Figure 5.4 Forms of Business Ownership
13
Domestic, foreign, alien
S Corporation
Limited Liability Companies
Employee-Owned Corporations
Not-for-Profit Corporations
Types of Corporations
14
Public ownership – a unit or agency of government owns and operates an organization. Parking structures, water systems, turnpike authority.
Collective Ownership– collective ownership of a production, storage, transportation or marketing organization is a cooperative.
Public and Collective Ownership of Business
15
Stockholders – acquire stocks in exchange for ownership
Preferred Stock
Common Stock
Board of Directors – elected by stockholders to oversee corporation
Corporate Officers & Management – make major corporate de.
Small business was considered the future. Is it still amidst ev.docxjennifer822
Small business was considered the future. Is it still amidst everything going on in today's society? That being said, it is important to understand what an entrepreneur is and what is required to be successful.
What is your definition of an entrepreneur as applied business management? Do you think you have the motivation, determination, and resolve that are required for successful entrepreneurship? Explain. Including references and link.
.
SMALL BUSINESS LAW 1
SMALL BUSINESS LAW 3
Week 6 – Draft Research Paper
Brian Cooke
Wilmington University
BLA 310 – Small Business Law
04/23/2020
Abstract
It is indeed true that proper management of small businesses can offer protection from liability. Liability refers to the situation of being responsible for a particular act. A business is liable financially and legally. Proper liability risk management protects small businesses. The paper discusses several ways in which adequate management of liability risks can help in protecting small businesses against liabilities such as financial liabilities and legal liabilities. Proper procurement, cost, and change management also protect small businesses against liabilities.
How Proper Management of a Small Business Can Provide Protection from Liability
Operating a business can be fun, profitable, and challenging. However, the owner of a small business is legally liable hence can get sued. A lawsuit can be costly, emotionally draining, and time-consuming. For many small businesses, accusations associated with pending lawsuits can seriously damage their reputation. Civil suits against companies have increased by over 300% in the past two decades. Owners of small businesses need to protect themselves from huge expenses and devastating results resulting from unfavorable decisions in court. Many owners of small businesses fear to incur losses if a particular individual sues them. This is mainly for business owners who finance their companies using their capital. Liability comes in the form of financial liability and legal liability. These forms of liability have significant impacts on small businesses. There are several ways in which small business owners can go about limiting the possibility of legal liabilities to ensure the continuity of a business. They include purchasing specific types of insurance covers and transforming the business into a limited liability company or corporation (LLC) (Gupta, 2019). These ways will help safeguard small companies against liability. However, one significant way in which small business owners can protect their businesses from liability is to ensure that various aspects of a business are properly managed. This paper examines how proper management of small companies can offer protection from liability.
Getting to Understand the Business Liability
Liability refers to the situation of being responsible for a particular act (Mancuso, 2019). A business is liable financially and legally (Mancuso, 2019). Any business is financially liable since there are some liabilities, such as payable debts. For instance, if a business applies for a loan, the outstanding loan balance will be regarded as a liability. This is because the business is responsible and obli.
Small Business Data BreachThesis statement In this i.docxjennifer822
Small Business Data Breach
Thesis statement:
In this incredibly fast pace world where technology is moving at the speed of light, it is becoming normal to hear of different businesses being invaded by cyber attacks. When this happens, the personal information of consumers and private information about the company are exposed. This exposure can create a financial hardship for small businesses and break the trust of their consumers.
Body
Small Business
How to protect the personal information of their customers.
How to respond to attack
What do they say to customers when there has been a breach
Who are the people trying to breach your business’s information and what are they after?
Personal information
Money
Business secrets
Conclusion
Being prepared and what it looks like to be prepared
The number of small business effected every year
.
Small Business Consulting Report I. INTRODUCTION In this sma.docxjennifer822
Small Business Consulting Report
I. INTRODUCTION In this small consulting report, we will be analyzing the company WOSH to determine its strengths, weaknesses and possible solutions to all of its operational problems which can be addressed from a consulting perspective. We will provide an in depth report which will outline the approach we feel should be deemed best for the company to follow to gain success in their industry. In this report we will not present a financial analysis of the company due to the fact that the company’s owner has decided the information is too confidential to share with anyone, but himself and his personal financial team at this moment. We will instead focus on the other aspects of the business which can be fully analyzed and possibly improved upon. In our report we will be looking directly into many aspects of the company’s current operations. We will begin by analyzing the company’s background. We will look briefly at when and where it was founded, who founded it, what their mission statement is, what their ultimate goal is in terms of expansion and what are their primary products or services they offer. We will then take a brief look at what the company’s structure is like. We will do this in order to try to later determine where all decisions are made and by who and which level in the company has the most influence on how effectively the company is run. This can be very important when analyzing how a firm conducts day-to day operations. We will then take a look at all aspects of the company separately to try to find problems in the company’s operations. We will first take a look at the company’s current management approach, which refers to the way current management is handling all assets and employees which can be either loosely or closely managed. We will try to determine if all assets are being put to the best use possible with their approach or if a different approach is needed. We will also be looking into the company’s current marketing strategy and we will try to determine why they have chosen that specific strategy. In addition, we will determine whether or not this chosen strategy is the best fit for the company or if a different strategy approach may serve the company better and more effectively. Next we will look at the company’s current target market and we will determine if it is in fact the current target market the company is attracting. If it is not, then we will try to analyze why this is happening or even try to evaluate if they are even reaching those who they want and need to reach. Additionally, we will also take a look at how regular customers and businesses customers feel about the company. Talking to regular customers and business customers will help us determine their level of satisfaction and also to determine whether the company has any competitive advantages which helps distinguish it from competition. We will then evaluate if these advantages could possibly can be.
SlumlordsAssume you are the Chief of Police in a large city..docxjennifer822
Slumlords
Assume you are the Chief of Police in a large city. You have received several complaints regarding dilapidated homes in the city. These homes appear to be run by a slumlord(s). You must present this issue at the city council meeting for action.
Discuss the steps you would take to resolve this problem. What consequences do you foresee? What will you do?
.
SLP- IT Governance Dashboards, which display data using graphi.docxjennifer822
SLP- IT Governance
Dashboards, which display data using graphics, have become commonplace. They are used for many applications, such as showing voter turnout in different states during national elections. The first informational dashboards were used in early automobiles and featured gauges to indicate speed and mileage. Current automobile dashboards have become digital and can tell us much more about car performance than just miles per hour and distance traveled.
The dashboard concept is now used to render large amounts of data into a form that can be easily interpreted. Often, dashboards are interactive to allow the user to change some of the data inputs and displays. The Web now abounds in dashboards. The news media (CNN, MSNBC, etc.) are big on them.
The following dashboard was powered by live election results in the 2016 presidential election: www.politico.com/2016-election/results/map/president
Describe another website (not about elections) that provides an example of a dashboard that can be used in Business Intelligence or in other areas to inform the viewer. Describe the data in the dashboard and discuss how the information is provided in the dashboard.
SLP Assignment Expectations
Provide a link to a digital dashboard used for Business Intelligence. Provide details on how the digital dashboard is used and your impression of the effectiveness of the dashboard. This should take 2 to 3 pages.
Background Readings
https://youtu.be/03jCdpwmdsU -Lecture Database and Big Data
Anand, Abhijith, Coltman, Tim, & Sharma, Rajeev (2016). Four steps to realizing business value from digital data stream. MIS Quarterly Executive,15(4), 259-277. How to Find MIS Quarterly Executive
Read Chapters 2 and 3 in:
Business Information Systems (2015). Business Information Systems (2015). The Saylor Foundation. www.saylorbooks.com Creative Commons Book.
Chen, Hong-Mei, Schütz, Roland, Kazman, Rick, & Matthes, Florian (2017). How Lufthnsa capitalized on big data for business model renovation. MIS Quarterly Executive, 16(1), 19-34. How to Find MIS Quarterly Executive
Introduction to Computer Information Systems/Information Systems, Creative Commons license. Section 2. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Computer_Information_Systems
Ives, Blake, Palese, Biagio, & Rodriguez, Joaquin A. (2016). Enhancing customer service through the Internet of Things and digital data streams. MIS Quarterly Executive, 15(4), 279-297. How to Find MIS Quarterly Executive
Maring, Kristen. E (2015) Ethical issues in the big data industry. MIS Quarterly Executive, 14(2), 67-85. How to Find MIS Quarterly Executive
Mehrabani, Afshin (2014). Mongo: DB high availability: Design and implement a highly available server using the latest features of MondoDB. Birmingham, UK: Packt Publishing. Available in the Trident Online Library.
Read Chapter 8 in: Pearlson, K.E. and Saunders, C.S. (2010). Managing and using information systems: A strategic approach. John Wiley & Sons. .
Slowing Down Global WarmingAs Hite and Seitz (2016) discuss .docxjennifer822
Slowing Down Global Warming
As Hite and Seitz (2016) discuss in Chapter 5: Climate Change, reputable scientific studies continue to show that the Earth is warming at an unsustainable rate because of a rise in the release of CO2 and methane gases.
What is the relationship between population increases and climate change? Do you think fertility control is an effective strategy to halt climate change? Why or why not?
.
SLO 4 - Technology Use the computer for research, computation and.docxjennifer822
SLO 4 - Technology:
Use the computer for research, computation and word processing for written reports, conducting online quizzes, problem solving, and electronic communication and to become aware of available tools and resources.
SLO 5: Discipline/Subject Area Specific Content Material:
Analyze and apply sociological concepts to understanding the structure and dynamics of marriages, families and relationships.
Instructions
For this analysis, you will choose just ONE source from one of the following groups that that relates to the topic and goals you stated in your proposal. Use ONE sociological theory to analyze and interpret the content of the source you chose.
Mainstream News Media: newspaper, magazine, or web-based articles
Entertainment: Recent T.V. shows, movies, books, music (lyrics, videos)
Government or public policy sources
Peer-reviewed professional or academic Journals – articles for analysis 5 must be from peer-reviewed journals
.
SLO # 1Apply knowledge of the roles of interdisciplinary team m.docxjennifer822
SLO # 1:
Apply knowledge of the roles of interdisciplinary team members to improving access to healthcare and health outcomes of clients from various cultures
SLO # 2:Discuss barriers to healthcare access for clients from various cultures
3 pages excluding cover page and reference page
.
slides10 Crusade and the Twelfth Century.pptx.docxjennifer822
slides/10 Crusade and the Twelfth Century.pptx
3
León’s First Queen
Alfonso VI married his daughter to
Alfonso I of Aragon.
Urraca was already a widow, with a
legitimate son (and heir) born in 1104
named… Alfonso.
Ruled the kingdom from
1109-1126.
Incest makes the world go round
The marriage of Urraca and Alfonso of Aragon was a violation of canon (Church) law, which forbid relations between third (or closer) cousins.
Both Urraca and Alfonso were great-grandchildren of Sancho the Great, and were thus cousins.
Such marriages were considered consanguineous, meaning the partners “shared blood”.
What is more important… political expediency or Church approval?
Unhappy Marriage
Political expediency doesn’t work… no kids.
Urraca said Alfonso beat her, and she used this as grounds for separation.
Alfonso said Urraca was an adulteress, and blamed her scandalous sexuality on her polygamous father.
Urraca as Queen
Alfonso el Batallador
King of Aragon from 1104-1134
Conquered Zaragoza in 1118, more than doubling the size of Aragon.
Military man, uninterested in family
life. After Urraca died, he remarried,
but never produced an heir.
Fascination with the crusade.
Christendom and Crusade
Church Reform in the Eleventh Century
Cluny
Monastic reform
Church reform
Independence from kings and nobles
Restore the leading role of the church in society
Power of the pope, hierarchy
Create a stronger Christian society
Peace and Truce of God
Curb the bad behavior of knights, lords, the warrior aristocracy
Limit sinful activity (murder, violence, etc)
Church councils began placing restrictions on combat, forbidding fighting on Sundays, holidays (Holy Days), and anywhere near churches.
Spiritual sanctions were used to enforce this– excommunication.
The Reform movement in Iberia
Cluniac monasteries
Cluniac bishops: Toledo, Valencia
Around 1100 the Kingdom of León abandoned its traditional mass (known as the Mozarabic mass) in favor of the Roman mass, on Alfonso VI’s orders.
Beginning in the eleventh century, the papacy began taking greater interest in Iberian affairs… for example, condemning the incestual marriage of Urraca and Alfonso of Aragon.
Gregory VII
Pope 1073-1085
Aggressively promoted the rights of the Church over secular rulers– he excommunicated the Holy Roman Emperor (King of Germany)
Imagined harnessing the power of a united Christendom, under papal control, which could do all sorts of great things, like conquer the Holy Land!
The Holy Land
Pilgrimage destination since the days of Constantine… Visit the sites of the Bible.
Pilgrimage was very popular in the elventh century… most people visited local holy sites, but the ambitious (or wealthy) might travel to Rome, Santiago or even Jerusalem
Pope Urban and the Idea of Crusade
The secretary of Gregory VII became Pope Urban II in 1088.
Help Constantinople against the
Turks
Gregory’s idea of an armed
pilgrimage to Jerusalem
Council of Clermont,.
Slides should include highlight major points with detailed speaker n.docxjennifer822
Slides should include highlight major points with detailed speaker notes to
elaborate on your points made on the slide. Use sub-sections when discussing Security/Counterterrorism Measures.
Length
: Minimum of 12 slides (not counting reference slide).
Citations/References:
You must use APA style for this assignment. Adhere to the APA for reference formatting: alphabetize, only first initials for first names, double space references, and use a hanging indent.
.
Slide concept by Anthony DAscoli FOR EDUCA.docxjennifer822
*
Slide concept by Anthony D'Ascoli
FOR EDUCATIONAL USE ONLY
For publication, reproduction or transmission of images, please contact individual artists, estates, photographers and exhibiting institutions for permissions and rights.
Roman Empire at Greatest Extent
The Roman EraApril 21, 753 BCE – the legendary founding of Rome by Romulus & Remus753- 509 BCE – Roman monarchy 509 – 27 BCE – Roman Republican Period264 – 241 BCE First Punic War – Rome vs Carthage – Rome gains Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica218 – 201 BCE – Second Punic War – Hannibal invades Italy with elephants traveling through the Alps – Rome vs Carthage – Rome wins – gains southern Spain, coastal France and part of North Africa149 -146 BCE – Third Punic War – Rome vs Carthage – Rome wins – gains modern day Tunisia and names it Africa as Roman province- Carthage is destroyed
The Roman Era
88 – 79 BCE – First Roman Civil War – Marius vs Sulla – Sulla wins – implements first dictatorship without time limit73-71 BCE – Spartacus leads slave revolt – eventually crushed by Crassus60 BCE – formation of the First Triumvirate – Julius Caesar, Pompey & Crassus rule Rome illegally58 – 50 BCE – Gaul conquered by G. Julius Caesar49-46 BCE Second Roman Civil War – Caesar vs Pompey – Caesar wins – becomes dictator for life – beginning of end for Rome as a RepublicMarch 15, 44 BCE – Julius Caesar is assassinated by Senators led by Brutus and Cassius
The Roman Era43 BCE – Second Triumvirate formed by Octavian Caesar, Mark Antony and Lepidus in order to catch Caesar’s murderers31 BCE – Third Roman Civil War – Octavian vs Mark Antony & Cleopatra – Octavian wins becomes sole ruler of Roman world – Egypt becomes Roman province27 BCE – Octavian changes his name to Augustus (revered one) – Official End of Roman Republic: Rome becomes an Empire – Augustus its first Emperor27 BCE – 476 CE – Roman Imperial Period (Roman Empire)27 BCE – 68 CE – Julio-Claudian Dynasty rules in Rome (Augustus, Tiberias, Caligula, Claudius & Nero)64 CE – Great Fire in Rome – Nero blames and then persecutes Christians – Saints Peter and Paul are martyred69 – 96 CE – Flavian Dynasty rules Rome (Vespasian, Titus and Domitian)
The Roman Era
August 24, 79 CE – Mount Vesuvius erupts destroying Pompeii, Stabiae and Herculaneum96 – 180 CE – Reign of the 5 Good Emperors (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius & Marcus Aurelius)98 – 117 – Reign of Trajan – Roman Empire reaches its largest extent180 CE – reign of Commodus ends the Pax Romana (200 years of peace in Rome)192 – 395 Late Imperial Period – decay in art and leadership with few exceptions193 – 235 – Severan Dynasty rules Rome (Septimus Severus, Caracalla, Macrinus, Elagabalus and Alexander Severus)235-284 – Rule of the Barracks Emperors (Emperors came from army) – chaotic period of rulers284 – 305 – Reign of Diocletian – forms tetrarchy (rule of 4) to stop chaos of succession- starts Great Persecution of Christians – destroys churches and kills many people
.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
Delivering Micro-Credentials in Technical and Vocational Education and TrainingAG2 Design
Explore how micro-credentials are transforming Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) with this comprehensive slide deck. Discover what micro-credentials are, their importance in TVET, the advantages they offer, and the insights from industry experts. Additionally, learn about the top software applications available for creating and managing micro-credentials. This presentation also includes valuable resources and a discussion on the future of these specialised certifications.
For more detailed information on delivering micro-credentials in TVET, visit this https://tvettrainer.com/delivering-micro-credentials-in-tvet/
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
2. about the
conditions under which coaching versus directive forms of team
leader-
ship are more effective, or the processes through which team
leadership
styles influence team outcomes. In the present study, the
authors found that
coaching leadership was more effective than directive
leadership when the
team leader was highly charismatic and less effective than
directive leader-
ship when the team leader lacked charisma. Directive leadership
was more
effective than coaching leadership when team members were
high in
self-efficacy and less effective than coaching leadership when
team members
lacked self-efficacy. The moderating effects of leader charisma
and team
member self-efficacy were mediated through motivational
pathways involving
team member effort.
Keywords
teams, leadership, motivation
A growing body of research highlights how important leader
behaviors are
for team performance (DeRue, Nahrgang, Wellman, &
Humphrey, in press;
622 Small Group Research 41(5)
3. Druskat & Wheeler, 2003; Durham, Knight, & Locke, 1997). In
fact, Zaccaro,
Rittman, and Marks (2001) suggest that effective leadership is
one of the
more important factors in the success of organizational teams.
Yet at the same
time, we still have a limited understanding of how leaders
create and manage
effective teams (Burke et al., 2006; Kozlowski, Gully, Salas, &
Cannon-
Bowers, 1996; Zaccaro et al., 2001).
Research indicates that team leaders engage in a variety of
behaviors
aimed at facilitating team functioning and performance
(Morgeson, DeRue,
& Karam, 2010). One approach involves encouraging the team
to manage its
own affairs and developing the team’s capacity to function
effectively with-
out direct intervention from the team leader. First identified by
Manz and
Sims (1987), and later analyzed by many other scholars (e.g.,
Hackman &
Wageman, 2005; Morgeson, 2005; Wageman, 2001), this form
of leadership
focuses on coaching the team and empowering its self-
management. This
coaching form of leadership is particularly important given that
team leaders
are sometimes external to a team and not involved in its daily
task activities.
Using in-depth interviews and survey-based research, Manz and
Sims found
that team leaders who encourage and coach team self-
management via self-
4. observation, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement were more
effective than
leaders who did not. Likewise, other researchers have found that
supportive
coaching by a team leader can lead to more effective group
processes, such as
learning and adaptation, and ultimately to higher levels of team
performance
(e.g., Edmondson, 1999; Wageman, 2001). In fact, coaching has
been estab-
lished as an important team leadership behavior in a broad array
of contexts,
including nursing (Hayes & Kalmakis, 2007), sports (Amorose
& Horn,
2000; Reinboth, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2004), and group therapy
(Cohen,
Mannarino, & Knudsen, 2005).
In contrast to the coaching form of leadership, some team
leaders engage
in a more directive style by actively intervening in a team
(Morgeson, 2005).
This approach involves setting clear expectations and goals,
providing
instructions to team members, monitoring team member
performance, and
directly implementing corrective actions in the team. Research
indicates that
this more directive form of leadership can also enhance team
performance.
For example, in their study of team self-management, Manz and
Sims (1987)
also examined more directive forms of leadership and found
these directive
leader behaviors led to positive team leader evaluations.
Likewise, Pearce
5. and Sims (2002) showed that directive leader behaviors can lead
to higher
team performance.
In their meta-analytic summary, Burke et al. (2006) showed that
these dif-
ferent leadership styles (coaching vs. directive) can both have
positive effects
DeRue et al. 623
on team performance. But at the same time, there is an emerging
recognition
in the team leadership literature that the relative effectiveness
of these different
styles may depend on other factors. For example, Kozlowski,
Gully, Salas,
et al. (1996) discussed how leader behaviors interact with a
team’s stage of
development to shape team processes and performance. In their
model,
effective leaders focus on coaching team members and building
shared affect
and attitudes during early stages of team development but then
shift their
attention to applying and directing team capabilities later on.
Other scholars
have argued that the effectiveness of team leader behaviors
depends on the
nature of a team’s context (e.g., novel events that disrupt team
functioning;
Morgeson, 2005) and such team design features as task
interdependence,
team size, and resource availability (Wageman, 2001). It seems
6. likely that the
relationship between leader behaviors and team performance is
contingent on
a variety of factors.
Although they recognize the importance of such contingencies,
existing
models of team leadership suffer from three important
limitations. First, the
discussion of contingencies in these models is generally limited
to factors
that are external to the team’s members (e.g., task
characteristics, team size,
event types). A notable exception can be found in a recent study
by Yun,
Faraj, and Sims (2005), who showed that coaching leadership is
more effec-
tive for highly experienced teams, but directive leadership is
more effective
for less experienced teams. This suggests that the characteristics
of team
members can shape how they respond to coaching and directive
behaviors by
a leader. We believe that models of team leadership need to
incorporate other
team member characteristics as potential contingency factors.
A second limitation in existing models of team leadership is
that they
rarely consider characteristics of the leader and how such
characteristics can
shape the relationship between leader behaviors and team
performance. This
is an important theoretical gap because leader characteristics
likely influence
how effective team leaders are at engaging in different types of
7. behaviors.
For example, coaching leadership is aimed at developing team
member
capabilities and helping team members learn to work together
effectively.
Leader characteristics (e.g., charisma, social influence skills)
that enable
someone to be more effective at motivating team members to
embrace change
should thus enhance the degree to which coaching leadership
facilitates team
performance.
Finally, existing models of team leadership stop short of
identifying the
underlying mechanisms that explain any contingencies in the
link between
leader behavior and team performance. In their review of the
team leadership
literature, Burke et al. (2006) noted that a key “line of inquiry
[for future
624 Small Group Research 41(5)
research] concerns the identification of the underlying
mechanisms via which
leadership in teams contributes to both team performance and
performance
outcomes” (p. 302).
The purpose of our study is to address these limitations by
developing a
motivationally based contingency model of team leadership. In
our model,
8. the relationship between a leader’s behaviors and team
performance is con-
tingent on the leader’s charisma and the efficacy of his or her
team members.
We consider two specific behavioral approaches to team
leadership: a coach-
ing approach and a directive approach. Our focus on coaching
and directive
leadership draws on and extends prior research that
conceptualizes team
leadership along these two dimensions (Burke et al., 2006; Yun
et al., 2005).
Adopting a motivational perspective, we then theorize that
coaching and
directive leader behaviors interact with leader charisma and
team member
self-efficacy to differentially affect team performance. We
argue that these
contingencies operate through their effects on team member
motivation,
especially the amount of effort that team members devote to
their tasks. Thus,
not only does our theorizing identify new contingencies in team
leadership,
but it also extends current theory by offering insight into the
underlying
motivational mechanisms that explain the team performance
implications of
complex interactions among team leader behaviors, leader
characteristics,
and team member characteristics.
Coaching and Directive Forms
of Team Leadership
Behavioral perspectives on leadership have flourished since the
mid-20th
9. century, and so by now, there are numerous systems for
classifying leader
behaviors (see Fleishman et al., 1991 for a review). Despite the
proliferation
of these classification systems, recent reviews suggest there are
two basic
behavioral approaches to team leadership: a coaching (or
developmental),
person-focused approach and a directive, task-focused approach
(Burke
et al., 2006; Pearce et al., 2003).
Leaders engage in coaching behaviors to develop a team’s
capacity to
perform key functions. They do this by encouraging team
members to take
responsibility for, and work together to fulfill, such functions.
Coaching leaders
help team members (when needed) to make coordinated and
task-appropriate
use of their collective resources, and they help team members
through any
performance problems that arise (Hackman & Wageman, 2005).
Coaching
leaders refrain from actively intervening in and assuming
responsibility for
the day-to-day tasks assigned to team members. When
performance problems
DeRue et al. 625
occur, coaching leaders leverage these episodes as learning and
developmental
opportunities for team members, rather than directly intervening
10. in the task.
Such leaders consistently encourage team members to assume
responsibility
for their own actions and performance.
In comparison, directive leadership represents a more active and
intrusive
approach to team leadership (Pearce et al., 2003). Directive
leaders set the
team’s direction, assign goals for the team and team members,
and give team
members specific instructions about their tasks, including what
is expected of
them, how it should be done, and when it must be completed. A
directive
leader sets clear expectations for the team and then monitors
events to make
sure the team is performing according to plan. When team
members are not
performing well, directive leaders not only point out the
performance prob-
lems, but also direct poorly performing team members, telling
them what to
do and how to do it.
In our study, we examined the conditions under which each of
these
approaches to team leadership is most effective. Existing
research does not
sufficiently consider possible contingencies in team leadership
or the under-
lying mechanisms that explain these relationships. We theorized
that the
effectiveness of coaching versus directive leadership depends
on the charac-
teristics of both a team’s leader and those of the team’s
11. members. In other
words, either a coaching or a directive approach to leadership
can be effective
when employed by the right leader, in the right context. In the
next section,
we identify two important contingency factors and explain how
they can
influence team performance through their impact on the efforts
of team
members.
Contingencies in Team Leadership:
A Motivational Perspective
In our contingency model of team leadership, we posit that team
member
motivation is one mechanism through which coaching and
directive leadership
affect team performance. Given our interest in motivational
factors, we
focused on leader charisma as a leader attribute that can
moderate how direc-
tive and coaching team leadership influence team performance.
Charisma is
important because it is one of the key resources that leaders can
use to moti-
vate their followers (Bass, 1985; Ilies, Judge, & Wagner, 2006).
We also
focused on the moderating effects of team members’ perceptions
of self-
efficacy. Efficacy beliefs are important because they represent
an underlying
source of effort among team members that can be directed at a
team’s task
(Bandura, 1997). In this sense, leader charisma and team
member self-efficacy
12. 626 Small Group Research 41(5)
serve as distinct contingency factors that originate from
different sources, but
may operate through a common motivational pathway. An
illustration of our
model is presented in Figure 1.
Leader Charisma
Charismatic leaders are those who “by the force of their
personal abilities are
capable of having profound and extraordinary effects on
followers” (House
& Baetz, 1979, p. 399). Charismatic leaders are often seen as
agents of
change who are particularly skilled at improving the
performance of followers
and seeking radical reforms in them to achieve a vision or goal
(Conger &
Kanungo, 1987). In essence, charisma is a resource that can
enable leaders
to be more effective at facilitating change by developing
followers’ beliefs
and actions in ways that ultimately produce more effective
methods for
accomplishing an objective. The potential for leader charisma to
positively
affect group outcomes has been illustrated across several
studies done in
many organizational contexts (Bass, 1990; Dvir, Eden, Avolio,
& Shamir, 2002;
Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996).
First, we focus on how leader charisma affects coaching
13. behaviors. For
coaching leaders, the primary aim is to develop team members’
individual
capabilities and their ability to work together effectively. As
Hackman and
Wageman (2005) note, coaching leaders “help members learn
new and more
effective team behaviors” (p. 270). Coaching leaders help team
members
Team Leader Behavior
(Coaching/Directive)
Team Member
Self-Efficacy
Leader
Charisma
Team
Performance
Team Member
Motivation
Figure 1. Contingencies in team leadership: A motivational
perspective
DeRue et al. 627
align their performance behaviors with the demands of the task
environment
and seek to foster the development of team members’ skills and
knowledge
14. related to the team task (Hackman & Wageman, 2005;
Kozlowski, Gully,
McHugh, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers, 1996; Schwartz, 1994). So,
coaching
leaders who are charismatic should be more effective at
fostering change and
developing their teams. In contrast, coaching leaders who lack
charisma may
find it difficult to inspire team members in ways that foster
development and
encourage the team to find ways to perform its tasks better.
Whereas high
levels of charisma are an asset for coaching leaders, low levels
of charisma
are a liability.
We posit that charisma is an asset for coaching leaders because
charisma
affects team members’ motivation. Theories of charismatic
leadership often
emphasize motivational factors (Bass, 1985; House, 1977), and
research
suggests that charismatic leaders produce heightened levels of
activation in
followers, which lead in turn to increased levels of effort and
motivation
(Ilies et al., 2006; Shamir, Zakay, Breinin, & Popper, 1998).
In contrast to coaching leadership, directive leadership is much
less about
developing team members’ capabilities. Directive leaders
provide team mem-
bers with a clear course of action by communicating
expectations, goals, and
specific task instructions. As some have argued, in the
substitutes for leader-
15. ship literature (Dionne, Yammarino, Atwater & James, 2002;
Kerr & Jermier,
1978), team members with a clear course of action have less to
gain from the
inspirational actions of charismatic leaders. There is simply less
need for
leadership because the team understands its mission and the
path required
for achieving that mission. The expectations and goals set by a
directive
leader help team members to focus their efforts. Thus, whereas
a lack of
charisma can be a liability for coaching leaders, it may not be a
problem for
directive leaders.
Thus, we hypothesize the following:
Hypothesis 1: The relationship between team leader behaviors
and
team performance will be moderated by leader charisma such
that
(a) when leader charisma is high, coaching team leadership will
be
more effective than directive team leadership and (b) when
leader
charisma is low, directive team leadership will be more
effective
than coaching team leadership.
Hypothesis 2: The moderating effect of leader charisma on team
leader
behaviors will be mediated by team member effort.
16. 628 Small Group Research 41(5)
Team Member Self-Efficacy
Theories of leadership in general (e.g., Hersey & Blanchard,
1982), and of
team leadership in particular (e.g., Kozlowski, Gully, Salas, et
al., 1996),
often claim that the appropriateness of leader behaviors depends
on the fol-
lowers. Of particular importance is what followers believe about
their ability
to accomplish the task at hand. These beliefs determine how
much task-
related effort followers will expend and how long that effort
will be sustained
in the face of challenging situations (Bandura, 1986; Dweck,
1986; Farr,
Hofmann, & Ringenbach, 1993). Moreover, team members often
have diffi-
culty focusing on team goals and developing appropriate team
strategies,
until they are sure that they can perform their own roles
effectively (Kozlowski,
Gully, Nason, & Smith, 1999). Self-efficacy embodies beliefs
relevant to
these issues. Self-efficacy is defined as “people’s judgments of
their capabili-
ties to organize and execute courses of action required to attain
designated
types of performances” (Bandura, 1986, p. 391). Individuals
who perceive
themselves as efficacious can muster sufficient effort to
produce successful
outcomes. Individuals who do not perceive themselves as
efficacious are less
17. likely to muster and sustain such effort. Meta-analytic evidence
supports
these claims (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998).
We theorize that the impact of directive and coaching leadership
on team
performance will depend on the average level of team member
self-efficacy.
This is different than collective efficacy, which focuses on
beliefs shared
among team members about their team’s ability to achieve its
overall objec-
tives (DeRue, Hollenbeck, Ilgen & Feltz, 2010; Gully,
Incalcaterra, Joshi, &
Beaubien, 2002; Tasa, Taggar, & Seijts, 2007). We focus on
self-efficacy
because we believe that individual beliefs about personal
abilities, as opposed
to any collective beliefs about a team, will be more predictive
of team
members’ motivational reactions to team leader behaviors. This
is because
motivation and reactions to leader behaviors are individual
processes and not
the property of a team.
Directive leaders facilitate team performance by setting
expectations,
giving team members specific instructions, and then monitoring
team mem-
bers’ performance for any problems that need to be corrected.
When team
members have high self-efficacy, the directive leader’s
expectations and
task-specific instructions provide a target toward which team
members can
18. direct the effort and motivation that comes from feeling
efficacious.
Compared with team members with low self-efficacy, those with
high self-
efficacy are more likely to feel that they can accomplish task
objectives. As
a result, they are more likely to put forth effort and persist until
those
DeRue et al. 629
objectives are accomplished. Thus, directive leaders have a
much greater
pool of team member motivation to draw on when team member
self-efficacy
is high.
If team members suffer from low self-efficacy, however, then
we expect
them to respond to directive leadership negatively. Less
efficacious team
members will feel that they cannot meet the leader’s
expectations or effec-
tively carry out the leader’s instructions, and so they will be
less likely to put
forth the effort required to accomplish task objectives. In other
words, direc-
tive leaders are attempting to set expectations and give specific
instructions
to people who already have low expectations regarding task
performance,
and who lack the motivation necessary to persist when task
objectives are not
initially met. As Kozlowski, Gully, Salas, et al.’s (1996) model
19. of team lead-
ership suggests, it is more appropriate for leaders who have
followers with
low self-efficacy to employ a coaching approach. When
coaching their
followers, such leaders should try to develop the capacity of
team members
in ways that enhance their capacity to perform effectively. By
taking a coaching
approach, a team leader can sometimes build team members’
sense of
efficacy and reshape their expectancies regarding task
performance in ways
that increase their motivation and capacity to perform.
Thus, we hypothesize the following:
Hypothesis 3: The relationship between team leader behaviors
and
team performance will be moderated by team member self-
efficacy
such that (a) when team member self-efficacy is low, coaching
team
leadership will be more effective than directive team leadership
and
(b) when team member self-efficacy is high, directive team
leader-
ship will be more effective than coaching team leadership.
Hypothesis 4: The moderating effect of team member self-
efficacy on
team leader behaviors will be mediated by team member effort.
Method
Research Participants and Task
20. Research participants were 400 upper-level undergraduate
students enrolled
in an introductory management course at a large Midwestern
university.
Their average age was 21.8 years; 53.8% of the participants
were male. Each
student was part of a team that consisted of four regular
members and one
leader, resulting in a total of 80 teams. All individuals were
randomly
630 Small Group Research 41(5)
assigned to teams and all teams were randomly assigned to
experimental
conditions. In return for their participation, the students
received class credit
and were eligible for a cash prize. At the end of each
experimental session,
the top performing team based on overall team performance was
awarded
$10 per team member.
Participants engaged in a dynamic, networked, military
command-and-
control simulation. The task was a modified version of a
simulation called
Dynamic Decision Making (DDD; see Hollenbeck et al., 2002
and Moon et al.,
2004 for details) that was developed to study team behavior.
This version of
the simulation was suitable for teams with little or no military
experience. In
our study, each team engaged in two 30-minute simulation
21. exercises that
were the same across all teams. In each exercise, team members
were charged
with keeping unfriendly targets from moving into a restricted
geographic
space while allowing friendly targets to travel freely throughout
that space.
Each team member had four vehicles that he or she could use to
travel through
and monitor the space.
This task required a high degree of interdependence among team
mem-
bers. For instance, each member was stationed at a single
computer terminal
and could only monitor a specific portion of the geographic
space from that
terminal. Individually, no team member could monitor all the
targets in the
space, but collectively, the team could monitor the entire space
and all of the
targets. Furthermore, each team member had only a single type
of vehicle
(four in total), and the vehicles differed in their speed and
power. Certain
targets could only be disabled by certain types of vehicles.
Thus, team mem-
bers had to work together in order to identify the targets as
either friendly or
unfriendly and then to successfully engage all the unfriendly
targets. Together,
these features of the task ensured that team members were
interdependent,
which met the common definition of teams in the literature
(Kozlowski &
Bell, 2003).
22. The team leader was not positioned at a computer terminal.
Instead, he or
she was free to move around and interact with team members.
This provided
the team leader with several unique abilities. For example, the
leader was the
only person who could monitor the entire geographic space.
This allowed the
leader to monitor team members’ actions, identify opportunities
and threats
for the team, and facilitate team member coordination and
communication.
Moreover, the team leader was free to interact with team
members in ways
that were consistent with the leadership manipulation. For
example, if the
leader needed to coach team members, provide them with
instructions, or
implement corrective actions, then he or she was free to do so.
DeRue et al. 631
Procedure
Each team was scheduled for a 3-hour session. Roles within the
teams were
randomly assigned. The leader role was assigned first; then the
leader was
given private instructions according to the experimental
condition.
Subsequently, the team member roles were assigned.
All individuals and teams, regardless of experimental condition,
23. next
received (the same) training on the simulation. This training
consisted of two
separate modules. First, all participants watched a 15-minute
video that intro-
duced them to the simulation. Second, all participants were
given hands-on
instruction and time to practice all the possible tasks in the
simulation. This
second module, which lasted approximately 45 minutes, allowed
participants
to learn the basic computer mouse movements and operations
associated with
the simulation.
After their training was complete, team members completed an
online sur-
vey that included a self-efficacy measure. The trainer then
informed the team
of a performance-based incentive. Teams had an opportunity to
earn up to
$50 based on their overall performance in the simulation. Prior
to the first
simulation exercise, teams were given 5 minutes to discuss their
strategies for
the simulation. Most teams used the entire time exactly in this
way. The teams
then performed the first of two 30-minute simulations. Between
the first and
second simulation, the leader was instructed (privately) to lead
a team discus-
sion session and prepare the team for the next simulation using
behaviors
consistent with the leadership manipulation. Teams were given
approxi-
mately 10 minutes to discuss their performance strategies
24. between the simu-
lations, and again, most teams used the entire time for such
discussions.
Teams then performed the second simulation. After completing
that simula-
tion, team members and their leader completed another survey,
which
included the measure of leader charisma. Teams were then
informed of their
performance relative to other teams in the experimental session,
and the top
performing team was rewarded. To conclude the research
session, partici-
pants were thanked for their participation.
Manipulations and Measures
Team leader behavior. All teams were randomly assigned to one
of two
conditions. In the coaching condition, the leader was instructed
to support the
growth and development of his or her team. In the directive
condition, the
leader was instructed to set the team’s direction and goals,
establish expectations
for the team, and actively direct the actions of team members by
providing
632 Small Group Research 41(5)
explicit instructions, monitoring team performance for
opportunities to make
corrective actions, and then implementing those corrective
actions. The spe-
25. cific instructions given to team leaders can be found in
Appendix A.
We assessed the effectiveness of this manipulation by
measuring the
degree to which team members perceived their leader as
engaging in direc-
tive leader behaviors. Two items were used for this
manipulation check:
“When it comes to my team’s work, my team leader gave
instructions on how
to carry it out” and “My team leader set challenging and
realistic goals.”
Ratings of each item were made using a 5-point scale (1 =
strongly disagree;
5 = strongly agree). The two ratings made by each person were
averaged
together to produce a single index (coefficient alpha was .82,
indicating that
the index had good reliability). We expected team leaders in the
directive
condition to earn higher index scores than team leaders in the
coaching con-
dition, and that is in fact what occurred. The mean index score
for leaders in
the directive condition (M = 3.77) was significantly higher than
the mean
score for leaders in the coaching condition (M = 3.53), t(df) =
1.81(79), p <
.05, one-tailed. To see whether team members agreed in their
assessments of
the leader, we computed the intraclass correlation coefficient
(ICC) as a test
of intermember reliability. James (1982) recommends using the
ICC as a cri-
terion for aggregation, and in this case, we found support for
26. aggregation
(ICC
1
= .29; ICC
2
= .62; p < .01). These results provided evidence supporting
the validity of our leader behavior manipulation.
Leader charisma. After the second simulation, but before team
results were
shared, team members were asked to rate the leader’s charisma
using Yukl and
Falbe’s (1991) measure. This measure included three items (see
Appendix B for
the actual items). On each item, participants made a rating on a
5-point scale
(1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). Once again, an
index was created
by averaging the ratings together. The coefficient alpha for that
index was .88,
indicating that it had good reliability, and aggregation analyses
again sug-
gested that team members agreed in their assessments of the
leader (ICC
1
=
.30; ICC
2
= .63; p < .01). We also asked team leaders to rate their own
cha-
27. risma using the same three items, which were also averaged to
produce an
index of leader charisma (α = .92). These self-ratings converged
with the team
member ratings (r = .33; p < .05), providing additional support
for the cha-
risma measure.
Team member self-efficacy. After the training session, but
before the first
simulation exercise, each team member completed Quinones’s
(1995) mea-
sure of self-efficacy. This measure included 10 items (see
Appendix B). Team
members rated each item on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly
disagree; 5 = strongly
agree). Ratings across the 10 items were averaged together to
produce an
DeRue et al. 633
index. The coefficient alpha for that index was .92, indicating
that it had good
reliability. To obtain an aggregate assessment of team members’
self-efficacy,
we calculated the mean score for the team. Agreement was
unnecessary in
this case because we are focused on team members’ self-
efficacy ratings and
therefore used an additive model (Klein & Kozlowski, 2000) for
operational-
izing the construct.
Team member effort. To assess team member effort, we
28. measured how
quickly team members identified and engaged targets. Speed of
identification
and speed of engagement (two separate variables) provide good
measures of
effort because all the tasks involved a simple point-and-click
operation of the
computer mouse, making it unlikely that any skill or ability-
related differ-
ences among team members would affect how quickly members
identified or
engaged targets. Speed of identification was operationalized as
the number of
seconds that elapsed between the time a target appeared in the
geographic
space and the time that target was identified by a team member.
Speed of
engagement was operationalized as the number of seconds that
elapsed
between the time a target appeared in the geographic space and
the time that
target was engaged by a team member. Because a greater
number of seconds
reflected slower play, and thus less effort, we reverse-coded
each measure so
that higher numbers reflected more effort. To obtain an
assessment of team
members’ effort, we calculated the mean score for the team
across both simu-
lation exercises. The correlation between speed of identification
in the first
and second simulations was .74 (p < .01); the correlation
between speed of
engagement in the first and second simulations was .69 (p <
.01). The correla-
tion between the overall team member effort in the first and
29. second simula-
tions was .71 (p < .01). ICC
1
and ICC
2
values for team member effort across
the two simulations were .42 and .59, respectively (p < .01). So,
there was
justification for using the mean index across simulations.
Team performance. Teams started each simulation with 50,000
defensive
points and 1,000 offensive points. Teams could not gain
defensive points, but
they could lose defensive points if unfriendly targets entered the
restricted
geographic space. Teams gained offensive points for each
unfriendly target
that was destroyed in that space but lost offensive points for
mistakenly
destroying targets outside the restricted space or destroying
friendly targets
anywhere. Thus, for each simulation exercise, teams had both an
offensive
and a defensive score. To assess aggregate team performance,
we standard-
ized the data by subtracting the sample mean from each datum,
summed the
offensive and defensive scores for each simulation, and then
took the mean
score across both simulations. The correlation for offensive
scores across the
two simulations was .49 (p < .01), and the correlation for
30. defensive scores
634 Small Group Research 41(5)
across simulations was .71 (p < .01). The correlation between
overall team
performance in the first and second simulation was .59 (p <
.01). ICC
1
and
ICC
2
values for team performance across the two simulations were
.59 and
.74, respectively (p < .01).
Data Analyses
To examine the contingencies associated with team leader
behaviors, leader
characteristics, and team member characteristics, we used
moderated regres-
sion analyses. To begin, we dummy coded the team leader
behaviors, using
coaching behavior as the referent condition (coaching = 0;
directive = 1). All
the measured variables were centered by subtracting the
variable’s mean
from each datum, which helps reduce multicollinearity among
the variables
and their interaction terms (Cohen, Cohen, Aiken, & West,
2003). With team
31. performance as the dependent variable, we then entered team
leader behav-
iors, leader charisma, and team member self-efficacy in the first
step of the
regression. Next, two interaction terms were created by
multiplying the
leader behavior dummy code by the leader charisma and by the
team member
self-efficacy index scores, and then entering these two
interaction terms in
the second step of the regression. To determine the variance in
team perfor-
mance explained by each interaction, we also conducted
separate moderated
regression analyses for leader charisma and team member self-
efficacy.
Moderated regression analysis was used for testing Hypotheses
1 and 3. To
test Hypotheses 2 and 4, which suggested that team member
effort would
mediate the moderating effects of leader charisma and team
member self-
efficacy, we used Muller, Judd, and Yzerbyt’s (2005)
methodology for testing
mediated moderation.
Results
Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and
correlations for all the
variables. Based on these data, there were moderate levels of
leader charisma
and team member self-efficacy in our sample. On average,
teams required
104 seconds to identify and engage targets in the simulation,
which is gener-
ally equivalent to the performance levels observed in previous
32. pilot tests
with similar ad hoc groups. Our manipulation of team leadership
had no
significant effect on team member effort or team performance,
and probably
because of random assignment of leader behavior conditions,
was not related
to leader charisma or team member self-efficacy. So, any
differential effects
of coaching versus directive team leadership had to be
contingent on other
DeRue et al. 635
factors. Both leader charisma and team member self-efficacy
were positively
related to team performance (also see Table 2, Model 1), and
team member
effort was positively related to team performance. These results
offered pre-
liminary evidence that a motivational pathway may be the
mechanism that
links leadership with team performance.
Hypotheses 1a and 1b predicted that a leader’s behavioral style
(coaching,
directive) would interact with leader charisma to affect team
performance.
Specifically, when leader charisma was high, we expected
coaching leader-
ship to be more effective than directive leadership (Hypothesis
1a). But
when leader charisma was low, we expected directive leadership
to be more
33. effective than coaching leadership (Hypothesis 1b). As shown in
Table 2
(Model 2), leader charisma interacted with leadership behavior
in just this
way (β = −.22; p < .05). As an aid in understanding the form of
the interac-
tion, the relationship between team performance and leader
behavior for high
and low levels of leader charisma (defined as +1 and −1
standard deviations
from the mean, respectively; see Aiken & West, 1991) is shown
in Figure 2.
As expected, coaching leaders who were highly charismatic
fostered higher
levels of team performance than did directive leaders or
coaching leaders
who were not very charismatic. Moreover, directive team
leaders fostered
higher levels of team performance than coaching team leaders
who lacked
charisma. We conducted a simple slopes analysis for this
interaction and
found that the difference between coaching and directive team
leaders was
significant for low-charisma leaders (p < .01), but not for high-
charisma ones
(p = .28). Hypotheses 1a and 1b were thus supported.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations
Variable Meana SDa 1 2 3 4 5
1. Leader behaviorb 0.48 0.50 —
2. Leader charisma 3.63 0.53 −.04 —
3. Team member
34. self-efficacy
3.58 0.34 −.06 .03 —
4. Team member effort −104.01 18.68 .02 .02 .14 —
5. Team performance 38671.74 3183.21 .00 .22* .22* .61** —
Note: N = 80 teams.
a. Unstandardized.
b. Dummy coded (coaching = 0; directive = 1).
*p < .05. **p < .01.
636 Small Group Research 41(5)
In Hypothesis 2, we predicted that team member effort would
mediate the
interactive effect of leader charisma and coaching leadership on
team perfor-
mance. To provide evidence of mediated moderation, a set of
data must meet
three conditions (Muller et al., 2005). First, the independent
variable (leader
behavior) must interact with the moderator (leader charisma) to
affect the
outcome of interest (team performance). Our tests of Hypothesis
1 showed
that the data met this first condition. Second, the interaction
between leader
behavior and leader charisma must predict the mediator (team
member
effort). To test this condition, we conducted a separate
hierarchical regression
analysis in which team member effort was predicted from leader
behavior,
leader charisma, and the interaction between those variables. As
35. shown in
Table 3, leader behavior indeed interacted (though the effect
was only
marginally significant) with leader charisma (β = −.20; p < .10)
to influence
team member effort. The data thus met the second condition for
mediated
moderation. The third and final condition required that the
interaction
between leader behavior and leader charisma be reduced in
magnitude (and
become nonsignificant for full mediated moderation) when team
member
–0.5
–0.4
–0.3
–0.2
–0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
36. Low Leader Charisma High Leader Charisma
T
e
a
m
P
e
rf
o
rm
a
n
c
e
Coaching Leadership Directive Leadership
Figure 2. Interactive effects of leader behavior and leader
charisma on team
performance
DeRue et al. 637
effort was included as a predictor of team performance. As
shown in Table 2
(Model 3), the interaction term for leader behavior and leader
charisma
dropped from −.22 to −.11 and became nonsignificant when
team member
37. effort was added to the regression. Thus, team member effort
fully mediated
the interactive effect of leader behavior and leader charisma on
team perfor-
mance, supporting Hypothesis 2.
Hypotheses 3a and 3b suggested that leadership behavior
(coaching vs.
directive) would interact with team member self-efficacy to
influence team
performance. Specifically, when team members were low in
self-efficacy, we
expected coaching leadership to be more effective than directive
leadership
(Hypothesis 3a). In contrast, when team members were high in
self-efficacy,
we expected directive leadership to be more effective than
coaching leadership
(Hypothesis 3b). As shown in Table 2 (Model 2), team member
self-efficacy
indeed interacted with leader behavior (β = .22; p < .05) to
predict team
performance. To help understand the form of this interaction,
the relationship
between team performance and leader behavior for high and low
levels of
team member self-efficacy (defined as +1 and −1 standard
deviations from
Table 2. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis Predicting
Team Performance
From Leader Behavior, Leader Charisma, Team Member Self-
Efficacy, and Team
Member Effort
β
38. Independent Variable
Model 1:
Main Effects
Model 2:
Moderated Effects
Model 3: Mediated
Moderation Effects
Leader behaviora .03 .03 .01
Leader charisma .22* .23* .21*
Team member self-efficacy .22* .24* .15
Leader behavior × leader
charisma
−.22* −.11
Leader behavior × team
member self-efficacy
.22* .09
Team member effort .54**
R2 .10 .19 .45
∆R2 .09* .26**
F 2.76* 4.18* 34.32**
∆F 1.42* 30.14**
Note: N = 80 teams.
a. Dummy coded (coaching = 0; directive = 1).
*p < .05. **p < .01.
638 Small Group Research 41(5)
39. the mean, respectively; see Aiken & West, 1991) is shown in
Figure 3. This
figure shows that directive leadership produced higher levels of
team perfor-
mance than coaching leadership when team members were high
in self-effi-
cacy. When team members were low in self-efficacy, however,
coaching
leaders produced higher levels of team performance than did
directive leaders.
We conducted a simple slopes analysis for this interaction and
found that the
difference between coaching and directive leaders was
significant when team
member self-efficacy was low (p < .01), but not when it was
high (p = .21).
Hypotheses 3a and 3b were thus supported.
Hypothesis 4 predicted that team member effort would mediate
the inter-
active effect of team member self-efficacy and team leader
behaviors on team
performance. To test for mediated moderation, we again
followed the proce-
dure outlined by Muller et al. (2005). The support we found for
Hypothesis 3
met the first of the three conditions. And as shown in Table 3,
team leader
behavior and team member self-efficacy had no main effects on
team
member effort, but they did have an interactive effect (β = .23;
p < .05), so the
second condition was also met. Finally, when team member
effort was included
41. Figure 3. Interactive effects of leader behavior and team
member self-efficacy on
team performance
DeRue et al. 639
as a predictor of team performance, the interaction between
leader behavior
and team member self-efficacy was reduced in magnitude (from
.22 to .09)
and became nonsignificant (see Model 3 in Table 2). Thus, team
member effort
fully mediated the interactive effect of team leader behavior and
team mem-
ber self-efficacy on team performance, supporting Hypothesis 4.
Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to examine selected
contingencies in
the relationship between team leader behaviors and team
performance.
Specifically, we investigated how leader charisma and team
member self-
efficacy interact with two different approaches to leadership
(coaching and
directive) to influence team member motivation and overall
team perfor-
mance. Our results suggest that leader charisma and team
member self-
efficacy each have unique effects on the relationship between
team
leadership, team member effort, and overall team performance.
A coaching
approach to team leadership had a stronger positive effect on
42. team perfor-
mance when the leader was highly charismatic, but coaching
leadership was
less effective than directive leadership when leader charisma
was low.
Charisma was thus an important asset for coaching leaders.
Moreover, we
Table 3. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis Predicting
Team Member Effort
From Leader Behavior, Leader Charisma, and Team Member
Self-Efficacy
β
Independent Variable Main Effects Moderated Effects
Leader behaviora .03 .03
Leader charisma .14 .16
Team member self-efficacy .02 .02
Leader behavior × leader charisma −.20†
Leader behavior × team member
self-efficacy
.23*
R2 .02 .11
∆R2 .09*
F 0.51 3.71*
∆F 3.20*
Note: N = 80 teams.
a. Dummy coded (coaching = 0; directive = 1).
†p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01.
43. 640 Small Group Research 41(5)
found that when team member self-efficacy was low, a coaching
approach to
leadership was more effective, but when team member self-
efficacy was
high, a directive approach resulted in higher team performance.
These inter-
actions were mediated by team member effort.
Strengths and Limitations
Our study had several strengths that should be noted. First,
much of the
existing literature on team leadership relies on subjective
measures of team
processes and performance. In contrast, our study uses objective
measures of
team member effort and team performance, which helps avoid
many of the
methodological problems associated with self-report data and
enabled us to
empirically link team leader behaviors with team member effort
and overall
team performance.
A second strength of our study was its ability to assess causal
mechanisms.
We manipulated team leader behaviors and controlled the team
context in
ways that would be nearly impossible in a field setting. For
example, in field
settings, teams often differ on a variety of meaningful factors
(e.g., task char-
acteristics, developmental stages), and these between-team
44. differences would
make it difficult to isolate the motivational and performance
implications of
contingencies associated with directive and coaching form of
team leader-
ship. By conducting a controlled experiment, we were able to
isolate the
effects of team leadership and rule out other factors as potential
explanations
for our results.
Finally, the importance of contingencies is well-documented in
the leader-
ship literature (see Vroom & Jago, 2007 for a review).
However, scholars
often note how rarely researchers have studied the underlying
theoretical
mechanisms that explain these contingencies. In our study, we
used mediated
moderation analyses (Muller et al., 2005) to show empirically
that team
member motivation mediates key contingencies in team
leadership.
Notwithstanding these strengths, our study also had some
limitations
that should be noted and might guide future research. First, we
tested our
hypotheses via a laboratory experiment with college students, so
it is not
clear to what extent our findings will generalize beyond this
setting. For this
reason, we encourage researchers to test our theoretical
propositions in other
contexts, and examine whether our findings generalize to field
settings where
45. team leaders must adapt to changing work demands and may
have a harder
time assessing the efficacy of individual team members.
Another potential
limitation of our study concerns the manipulation of team
leadership. Because
leaders were selected randomly and leader behaviors were
manipulated, it is
DeRue et al. 641
not clear if leaders selected through natural organizational
processes or lead-
ers whose behaviors vary more naturally would display the same
pattern of
relationships found in our study. Also, leaders selected at
random might not
have the same credibility with followers, or identify as strongly
with the lead-
ership role, as leaders formally appointed to leadership roles by
an organiza-
tion (DeRue & Ashford, in press; DeRue, Ashford, & Cotton,
2009). These
credibility and identification processes may influence how our
findings gen-
eralize to field settings. We also tried to minimize (within
conditions) any
variability in leadership behaviors. As a result, our
manipulation may have
produced even stronger effects than one would observe in field
settings. And
we encourage other researchers to focus not only on the actual
behavior of
leaders, but also on the intentions underling that behavior. It
46. would also be
interesting to explicitly model and test the impact of blended
leadership
behaviors that mix the coaching and directive approaches.
Finally, we encourage
researchers to consider the possibility that our model may be
recursive—the
efforts and performance of team members may influence leader
behaviors.
Implications for Theory and Practice
Our study contributes to the understanding of team leadership in
several
unique ways and thus has important implications for both theory
and prac-
tice. First, current theory and research on leadership has
generally considered
a limited set of contingencies, focusing primarily on features of
the situation
(e.g., event types) or on a team’s task (e.g., task
interdependence). Contrary
to traditional leadership theories (e.g., House & Mitchell,
1974), theories of
team leadership have generally overlooked the issue of whether
the effective-
ness of different team leader behaviors is contingent on the
personal charac-
teristics of the leader or those of team members. In our study,
we extended
existing models of team leadership by showing that both leader
charisma and
team member self-efficacy serve as important boundary
conditions on the
relationship between leader behaviors and team performance.
Our contingency model of team leadership has several important
47. implica-
tions for managerial practice in organizations. For one thing,
team leaders
must find a match between their behavioral approach to
leadership, their own
personal characteristics, and the characteristics of their team’s
members.
Only when a match occurs will team leaders be able to
effectively facilitate
key team processes and generate high levels of team
performance. Thus, our
findings suggest that it might be important for team leaders to
adapt their
behavioral approach to circumstances over time. In particular,
as team mem-
bers develop a stronger sense of self-efficacy, team leaders
should try to
642 Small Group Research 41(5)
adapt their behavior accordingly. For example, coaching
leadership will help
develop team member self-efficacy, but as team member
efficacy grows,
directive leadership will be necessary to focus that efficacy and
the resulting
effort toward task accomplishment. One implication of this
finding is that
leaders must be able to accurately identify team members’ self-
efficacy
beliefs. Although our study did not explicitly examine
adaptations in leader-
ship behavior over time, or the ability of leaders to identity
team members’
48. efficacy beliefs, our results imply that moving from a coaching
to a directive
form of leadership as a team develops should (if it can be done)
be helpful.
Interestingly, this conclusion runs counter to suggestions that
leaders
should act in a less directive manner as a team develops
(Kozlowski, Gully,
Salas, et al., 1996) and its members acquire a clearer
understanding of perfor-
mance demands. One way to reconcile this apparent
contradiction is to rec-
ognize that directive forms of team leadership do not
necessarily imply
micromanagement. An important role of team leaders is to help
provide
broader strategic direction and help establish challenging team
goals, two
forms of direction that do not require strong hierarchical
control. Future
research should investigate the extent to which team leaders can
effectively
adapt their behavioral approach to leadership and how that
adaptation pro-
cess influences team functioning, particularly as the team
develops.
Finally, the contingencies identified in our study offer insight
into how
organizations might select and assign team leaders. For
example, if a par-
ticular team needs coaching and development, then our results
suggest that a
team leader should be selected who has the charisma necessary
to motivate
49. team members to embrace learning and development. Less
charismatic
leaders in this situation would be unable to facilitate the
necessary develop-
mental processes, and team performance would suffer as a
result.
Considering the many traits and attributes that have been
theorized to
influence leadership processes and outcomes (see Zaccaro,
Kemp, & Bader,
2004 for a review), our study also opens up a multitude of
avenues for future
research on how team leader behaviors interact with leader and
team member
characteristics to affect team performance. We were particularly
interested in
the motivational implications of team leadership, and so we
chose to focus on
leader charisma and team member self-efficacy as potential
moderators of the
relationship between leadership behaviors and team
performance. However,
future research might adopt alternative perspectives that lead to
the discovery
of other important leader and team member characteristics. For
example,
whereas we examined team member self-efficacy, future
research might
consider collective efficacy (DeRue et al., 2010). Future
research might also
embrace an information-processing perspective (e.g., Hinsz,
Tindale, &
50. DeRue et al. 643
Vollrath, 1997) and examine how the cognitive abilities of a
team’s leader, or
the cognitive abilities of its members, can shape the behaviors
that team
leaders use to manage information within the team, and how
such behaviors
influence team processes and performance. For example, team
members with
greater cognitive ability may be more efficient and accurate at
processing
information related to team functioning, which would reduce the
need for a
leader to monitor and process information for them.
We also encourage researchers to heed the advice of Zaccaro
(2007) and
integrate situational perspectives on team leadership with the
trait or attribute-
oriented approach used in this study. For example, certain
characteristics of
work tasks (e.g., autonomy) foster higher levels of motivation
(Campion &
Thayer, 1985; Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Morgeson &
Humphrey, 2006).
Future research might examine the motivational and
performance implica-
tions of team leader behaviors when both task characteristics
and the charac-
teristics of a team’s leader and its members are considered
simultaneously.
For example, autonomy (a task characteristic) may be
particularly motivating
when team members are experienced with a task, but
demotivating other-
51. wise. Examining potential contingency factors in this way
would yield a
more integrative contingency theory of team leadership than any
of those that
now exist.
Another important contribution of our study is its emphasis on
the under-
lying motivational mechanisms that explain contingencies in
team leader-
ship. Prior research on such contingencies has generally fallen
short of
identifying these mechanisms. We theorized about the
motivational implica-
tions of contingencies in team leadership and then provided
empirical
evidence for how team member motivation serves as a mediator
of the link
between team leader behaviors and team performance. That
finding has
important implications for current theory because this is the
first study to
document team member motivation as a mechanism through
which team
leader behaviors affect team performance. Future research
should extend this
motivational perspective by exploring other mediational
mechanisms that
could explain important contingencies in team leadership. For
example,
researchers might explore how leader behaviors influence
intrinsic or extrin-
sic motivation or explore such nonmotivational processes as
identification
with the leader. In addition, given the emergence of affective
events theory
52. (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) as a way of analyzing the impact
of discrete
events on individual psychological processes, future research
might try to
extend that theory to the team level and build on existing
research that
suggests a key function of team leaders is to manage events that
occur in the
team context (Morgeson, 2005; Morgeson & DeRue, 2006).
Drawing from
644 Small Group Research 41(5)
affective events theory and research on affect in teams (George,
1990), we
believe that the nature of team events, and the ways in which
team leaders go
about managing those events, could influence team functioning
through
affective pathways such as affective tone (Sy, Cote, &
Saavedra, 2005) and
collective emotion (Barsade, Ward, Turner, & Sonnenfeld,
2000; Bartel &
Saavedra, 2000; Ilies, Wagner, & Morgeson, 2007). These
extensions of our
theory and empirical findings would go a long way toward
enhancing under-
standing of team leadership and the contingencies that explain
how leader-
ship processes influence team performance.
Appendix A
Instructions Provided to Leaders in the Directive Condition
53. Prior to the first simulation. As the leader, your job is to direct
this team. You
should set the team’s direction and give specific instructions
regarding what
individual members should be doing and when they should be
doing it.
Ensure that your team members stick to your plan for
accomplishing your
objectives. Monitor your team members’ actions, and correct
them when they
are not following your plan. Tell them not only when they are
wrong, but
what they should be doing instead. It is important that you are
clear and direc-
tive in your leadership.
Between the first and second simulation. You will now have 10
minutes to
discuss Game 1 and prepare for Game 2. Your job will be to
direct the discus-
sion. Make sure you clearly communicate your observations
about the first
game to your team members. Additionally, make sure you
clearly state your
goals and plans for the second game. It is important that you
direct the discus-
sion so as to obtain maximum performance in the second game.
Instructions Provided to Leaders in the Coaching Condition
Prior to the first simulation. As the leader, your job is to coach
this team. You
should support their growth and learning so that your team will
fulfill its
potential. Help your members make coordinated and task-
54. appropriate use of
their collective resources in accomplishing the team’s work.
Monitor your
team members, encouraging them when they have difficulties
and praising
them when they do well. Provide aid when requested, and make
sure your
team members have the information that they need. It is
important that you
take this coaching-like approach in your leadership.
(continued)
DeRue et al. 645
Between the first and second simulation. You will now have 10
minutes to
discuss Game 1 and prepare for Game 2. Your job will be to
serve as a coach
during the discussion. Make sure your team members share their
observa-
tions about the first game. Additionally, make sure your team
members create
plans for the second game. It is important that you serve as a
coach during the
discussion so as to obtain maximum performance in the second
game.
Appendix B
Leader Charisma (Yukl & Falbe, 1991)
1. He/she knows how to appeal to the emotions and values of
people.
55. 2. He/she is the type of person that I would like to have as a
close
friend.
3. He/she has the ability to communicate a clear vision of what
our
team could accomplish or become.
Team-Member Self-Efficacy (Quinones, 1995)
1. I feel confident in my ability to perform this task effectively.
2. I think I can reach a high level of performance in this task.
3. I am sure I can learn how to perform this task in a relatively
short
period of time.
4. I don’t feel that I am as capable of performing this task as
other
people. (reverse-scored)
5. On the average, other people are probably much more
capable of
performing this task than I am. (reverse-scored)
6. I am a fast learner for these types of tasks, in comparison
with other
people.
7. I am not sure I can ever reach a high level of performance in
this
task, no matter how much practice and training I get. (reverse-
scored)
8. It would take me a long time to learn how to perform this
56. task effec-
tively. (reverse-scored)
9. I am not confident that I can perform this task successfully.
(reverse-
scored)
10. I doubt that my performance will be very adequate in this
task.
(reverse-scored)
Appendix A (continued)
646 Small Group Research 41(5)
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Sean Burke and Carrie Beia for their
support in collecting
data for this study.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no conflicts of interest with respect to
the authorship and/or
publication of this article.
Funding
We would like to thank the Eli Broad College of Business for
its financial support.
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Bios
D. Scott DeRue is an assistant professor of management and
organizations at the
University of Michigan’s Stephen M. Ross School of Business.
His research focuses
on leadership and team dynamics, with a particular interest in
understanding how
leaders and teams in organizations adapt, learn, and develop
over time.
Christopher M. Barnes is an assistant professor in the Army
Center of Excellence
for the Professional Military Ethic, United States Military
Academy at West Point. He
received his PhD in organizational behavior from Michigan
State University. His
research interests include team performance and fatigue in
organizations.
69. Frederick P. Morgeson, PhD, is a professor of management and
Valade Research
Scholar in the Eli Broad College of Business at Michigan State
University. His cur-
rent research interests revolve around understanding the role of
leadership in self-
managing teams and exploring fundamental questions about the
design of work,
including team-based designs.
Assignment 2: LASA: Assault in the City: Trial, Sentencing,
and Appeal
Click here to study a vignette.
Tasks:
On the basis of the vignette you read, write a paper supported
by appropriate, peer-reviewed sources and case law that
responds to the following:
· Define risk of dangerousness and discuss the relevant
landmark court cases relevant to this psycho-legal issue.
· Discuss the relevance of the defendant’s age to a risk of
dangerousness assessment.
· Describe the elements or issues that a mental health
professional usually focuses on when assessing a person’s risk
of dangerousness.
· On the basis of the information you have from the vignette,
provide an opinion on the defendant's risk of dangerousness.
· Define insanity and discuss the relevant landmark court cases
relevant to this psycho-legal issue.
· Discuss the relevance, if any, of the defendant’s age to a
determination of mental status at the time of the offense.
· Describe the elements or issues that a mental health
professional usually focuses on when assessing a person’s
mental status at the time of the offense.
· Discuss the potential ethical concerns that may be encountered
70. by a forensic professional in the evaluation and assessment of
each of these psycho-legal issues.
· Discuss the potential impact of an individual’s culture in the
evaluation and assessment of each of these psycho-legal issues.
· On the basis of the information you have from the vignette,
provide an opinion on the defendant's likelihood of using an
insanity defense.
Use resources from professional literature to support your
analysis. The professional literature may include the Argosy
University online library resources; relevant textbooks; peer-
reviewed journal articles; and websites created by professional
organizations, agencies, or institutions (.edu, .org, and .gov).
All written assignments and responses should follow APA rules
for attributing sources.
Submission Details:
· By the due date assigned,save your paper as
M5_A2_Lastname_Firstname.doc and submit it to the
Submissions Area.
This LASA is worth 300 points and will be graded according to
the following rubric.
Assignment Component
Proficient
Maximum Points Possible
Describe the psycho-legal standards and/or definitions for risk
of dangerousness and insanity.
The description and definitions provided were brief, yet clear
and accurately stated.
64
Identify and describe one or more landmark case(s) for each
standard (at least two cases total).
The discussion of the landmark cases was brief yet clear and
accurately stated.
64
On the basis of the information from the vignette, provide an
opinion on the defendant's risk of dangerousness and insanity.
The opinion provided was brief yet clearly and accurately
71. related to the case vignette.
64
Discuss the potential ethical concerns that may be encountered
by a forensic professional in the evaluation and assessment of
each of these psycholegal issues.
The discussion provided was brief yet clear and accurately
related to the case vignette.
40
Discuss the potential impact of an individual’s culture in the
evaluation and assessment of each of these psycho-legal issues.
The discussion of the impact of the defendant’s culture was
brief yet clear and accurately related to the case vignette.
40
Academic Writing
Writing is generally clear and in an organized manner. It
demonstrates ethical scholarship in accurate representation and
attribution of sources; and generally displays accurate spelling,
grammar, punctuation. Errors are few, isolated, and do not
interfere with reader’s comprehension.
Citations in text and at the end of the document are in correct
APA format.
Writing is generally clear and in an organized manner. It
demonstrates ethical scholarship in accurate representation and
attribution of sources; and generally displays accurate spelling,
grammar, punctuation. Errors are few, isolated, and do not
interfere with reader’s comprehension.
Citations in text and at the end of the document are in correct
APA format.
28
Total:
300
72. Due Date
Sep 3, 2018 11:59 PM
Hide Rubrics
Rubric Name: FP6010_M5A2_Grading_Rubric
This table lists criteria and criteria group name in the first
column. The first row lists level names and includes scores if
the rubric uses a numeric scoring method.Assignment 2 Grading
Criteria
Maximum Points
GR1 Describe the psycho-legal standards and/or definitions for
risk of dangerousness and insanity.
64 points
/ 64
GR2 Identify and describe one or more landmark case(s) for
each standard (at least two cases total).
64 points
/ 64
GR3 On the basis of the information from the vignette, provide
an opinion on the defendant's risk of dangerousness and
insanity.
64 points
/ 64
GR4 Discuss the potential ethical concerns that may be
encountered by a forensic professional in the evaluation and
assessment of each of these psycholegal issues.
40 points
/ 40
GR5 Discuss the potential impact of an individual’s culture in
the evaluation and assessment of each of these psycholegal
issues.
40 points
/ 40
GR6 Writing is generally clear and in an organized manner. It
demonstrates ethical scholarship in accurate representation and
73. attribution of sources; and generally displays accurate spelling,
grammar, punctuation. Errors are few, isolated, and do not inter
28 points
/ 28
Total
— / 300
Overall Feedback
Rubric Name: FP6010_M5A2_LASA Rubric
This table lists criteria and criteria group name in the first
column. The first row lists level names and includes scores if
the rubric uses a numeric scoring method.MAFP_PO2_Legal
Theory & Application
Level 1 Unsatisfactory
0 points
0 %
Level 2 Emerging
0 points
0 %
Level 3 Proficient
0 points
0 %
Level 4 Exemplary
0 points
0 %
C1 PsychoLegal Standards (PO2).
No description of the psycho-legal standards was provided.
The description of the psycholegal standards provided is vague.
The description and definitions provided were brief, yet clear
and accurately stated.
The descriptions and definitions provided by the student were
both detailed and accurate demonstrating a strong grasp of the
psycholegal issues.
C2 Landmark Case Identification (PO2).
There is no discussion of relevant landmark cases for each
74. psycho-legal issue.
The discussion of the landmark cases was vague.
The discussion of the landmark cases was brief yet clear and
accurately stated.
The discussion of the landmark cases was detailed and
accurately stated demonstrating a strong grasp of the material.
C3 Risk Analysis of Dangerousness/Insanity (PO2).
There was no opinion provided on the defendant’s risk of
dangerousness or insanity.
The opinion provided was vague and not well connected to the
case vignette.
The opinion provided was brief yet clearly and accurately
related to the case vignette.
The opinion provided was detailed and accurately related to the
case vignette demonstrating a strong grasp of the relevant case
law.
This table lists criteria and criteria group name in the first
column. The first row lists level names and includes scores if
the rubric uses a numeric scoring
method.MAFP_PO4_Leadership, Consultation, & Ethics
Level 1 Unsatisfactory
0 points
0 %
Level 2 Emerging
0 points
0 %
Level 3 Proficient
0 points
0 %
Level 4 Exemplary
0 points
0 %
C4 Ethical Concerns (PO4).
No discussion of the potential ethical issues was provided.
The discussion of potential ethical issues was vague and not
well connected to the case vignette.
75. The discussion provided was brief yet clear and accurately
related to the case vignette.
The discussion provided was detailed, clear, and accurately
related to the case vignette and demonstrated a strong grasp of
the material.
This table lists criteria and criteria group name in the first
column. The first row lists level names and includes scores if
the rubric uses a numeric scoring
method.MAFP_PO5_Multicultural Competence
Level 1 Unsatisfactory
0 points
0 %
Level 2 Emerging
0 points
0 %
Level 3 Proficient
0 points
0 %
Level 4 Exemplary
0 points
0 %
C5 Cultural Considerations (PO5).
No discussion of the role of the defendant’s culture was
provided.
The discussion of the impact of the defendant’s culture was
vague and not well connected to the case vignette.
The discussion of the impact of the defendant’s culture was
brief yet clear and accurately related to the case vignette.
The discussion of the impact of the defendant’s culture was
detailed, clear, and accurately related to the case vignette and
demonstrated a strong grasp of the material.
Total
Overall Feedback
Associated Learning Objectives
76. MAFP_PO2_Legal Theory & Application
Assessment Method: Score on Criteria - C1 Psycho-Legal
Standards (PO2).
Required Performance: Level 3 Proficient
MAFP_PO2_Legal Theory & Application
Assessment Method: Score on Criteria - C2 Landmark Case
Identification (PO2).
Required Performance: Level 3 Proficient
MAFP_PO2_Legal Theory & Application
Assessment Method: Score on Criteria - C3 Risk Analysis of
Dangerousness/Insanity (PO2).
Required Performance: Level 3 Proficient
MAFP_PO4_Leadership, Consultation & Ethics
Assessment Method: Score on Criteria - C4 Ethical Concerns
(PO4).
Required Performance: Level 3 Proficient
77. MAFP_PO5_Multicultural Competence
Assessment Method: Score on Criteria - C5 Cultural
Considerations (PO5).
Required Performance: Level 3 Proficient
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First among Equals: The Effect of Team Leader Characteristics
on the Internal Dynamics of Cross-Functional Product
Development Teams
�
Shikhar Sarin and Gina Colarelli O’Connor
78. Drawing on the path-goal theory of leadership, the present study
examines the effect
of team leader characteristics on an array of conflict resolution
behavior, collab-
oration, and communication patterns of cross-functional new
product development
(NPD) teams. A hierarchical linear model analysis based on a
survey of 246 mem-
bers from 64 NPD teams suggests that participative management
style and initi-
ation of goal structure by the team leader exert the strongest
influence on internal
team dynamics. Both these leadership characteristics had a
positive effect on func-
tional conflict resolution, collaboration, and communication
quality within the NPD
team while discouraging dysfunctional conflict resolution and
formal communica-
tions. Comparatively, team leader’s consideration, initiation of
process structure,
and position had a surprisingly weak effect on internal team
dynamics. Further, the
findings underscore the differential effects on various
dimensions of team dynamics,
79. the importance of controlling for project and team
characteristics, and the use of
multilevel modeling for studying nested phenomena related to
NPD teams. Impli-
cations of these findings are discussed.
Introduction
R
ecognizing the long-term competitive advan-
tage offered by successful new product
development (NPD), organizations are rely-
ing heavily on cross-functional teams to improve their
NPD processes (Barczak and Wilemon, 1992; Griffin,
1997; McDonough, 2000; Sarin and Mahajan, 2001;
Sarin and McDermott, 2003; Ulrich and Eppinger,
1995; Wind and Mahajan, 1997). Typically these
teams, composed of individuals drawn from a variety
of functional specialties within the organization, are
responsible for taking a product from conceptualiza-
tion to commercialization.
Growing popularity and anecdotal evidence notwith-
80. standing, the results achieved from the use of cross-
functional teams in NPD efforts have been decidedly
mixed (Barczak and Wilemon, 1989; Katzenbach and
Smith, 1993; Sarin and Mahajan, 2001). Among other
reasons, this lack of consistent success has been at-
tributed to poor project leadership, which often fails
to appreciate the diversity of cross-functional teams
and mismanages team dynamics—essential compo-
nents to the performance of any NPD team (Henke,
Krachenberg, and Lyons, 1993; Parker, 1994; Robbins
and Finley, 1995).
Effective project leadership has been identified as
one of the most important mechanisms not only for
managing team dynamics but also for steering the
teams successfully and efficiently through the new prod-
uct development process (McDonough and Griffin,
�
The authors are grateful to Tony Di Benedetto for processing
this
81. manuscript. They would also like to thank Robert Baron and
Stacey
Hills for their help on an earlier version of this manuscript.
Address correspondence to: Address correspondence to: Shikhar
Sarin, College of Business and Economics, Boise State
University,
Boise, ID 83725. Tel.: (208) 426-2721. Fax: (208) 426-5384. E-
mail:
[email protected]
J PROD INNOV MANAG 2009;26:188–205
r 2009 Product Development & Management Association
i:/BWUS/JPIM/345/[email protected]
1997). Team leaders coach team members, help de-
velop their capabilities, foster interactions and learning
within the team, and champion the team’s activities
to others in the organization (Ancona and Caldwell,
1992a; Barczak and Wilemon, 1992; McDonough and
Barczak, 1991; McDonough and Griffin, 1997; Sarin
and McDermott, 2003). Nurick Thamhain (2006) sug-
gest that effective project team leaders are social ar-
chitects who understand the interaction between
organizational and behavioral variables; suggesting
82. that such team leaders should be able to minimize
dysfunctional conflict and to foster a climate of active
participation.
Despite the focused attention from the academic
community, much of the past research in the NPD
literature is based largely on anecdotal data (e.g.,
Jassawalla and Sashittal, 2000), case studies (e.g.,
Hershock, Cowman, and Peters, 1994), or qualitative
data (e.g., Barczak and Wilemon, 1989; Donnellon,
1993). Although some studies (e.g., McDonough,
1993; Norrgren and Schaller, 1999) have explored
NPD team leadership empirically, these studies were
limited in their scope by the univariate analyses em-
ployed. Moreover, when empirical examinations were
undertaken, few studies controlled for the character-
istics of the team or the project, which could have
profound effects on how team leadership effects the
internal dynamics and performance of the NPD teams
83. (Ancona and Caldwell, 1992b; Griffin, 1979; Sarin and
Mahajan, 2001; Sarin and McDermott, 2003). The
NPD literature lacks a comprehensive and robust em-
pirical examination of the influence of team leadership
on the dynamics and performance of cross-functional
new product development teams. The present study
addresses this void in the NPD literature by empiri-
cally examining the effect of team leaders’ manage-
ment styles and position on an array of internal NPD
team dynamics. Such a comprehensive examination
is critical for understanding the inherent trade-offs
and synergies involved between various dimensions of
team dynamics.
Drawing on the path-goal theory of leadership
(e.g., Evans, 1970; House, 1971), this study focuses
on the team leader’s management style in terms of his
or her interactions with team members, style prefer-
ences for organizing work, and position and power in
84. the organization (Yukl, 1994). The effects of these
team leader characteristics on three broad areas of
internal team dynamics are examined: (1) conflict res-
olution behavior; (2) collaboration; and (3) commu-
nication behavior. In addition, the study controls for
key NPD team characteristics such as team size and
functional diversity and for project characteristics in-
cluding project length, complexity, and risk. Hierar-
chical linear modeling (HLM) is used to analyze the
data, which affords a number of analytical and inter-
pretive advantages over methods previously employed
in research on NPD teams.
Theoretical Background
Team Leader Characteristics
The team leader plays a pivotal role in setting the
work climate within the team, motivating team mem-
bers and affecting their behavior (Burke et al., 2006;
Norrgren and Schaller, 1999). Team leaders direct the
85. manner in which the NPD team presents itself and its
ideas to achieve personal and organizational goals
(Barczak and Wilemon, 1989; McDonough, 2000;
Sarin and McDermott, 2003).
Yukl (1994) suggests that leaders’ effectiveness is
derived from four sources: (1) the level of power and
influence possessed by the leader; (2) how the leader
interacts with others; (3) the leaders’ personal quali-
ties; and (4) the situation in which the leader is asked
to lead. Given their managerial controllability, this
research focuses on the first two sources of leader
effectiveness: (1) the NPD team leader’s power and
influence (as reflected by position in the organization);
and (2) interactions with the members of the NPD
team, as reflected by his or her management style
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES
Dr. Shikhar Sarin is the Kirk and Marsha Smith Professor of
Mar-
86. keting at Boise State University. His research and teaching
interests
include marketing strategy, new product development,
marketing of
high-tech products, and electronic commerce. He has published
in
the Journal of Marketing, Decision Sciences, Journal of the
Academy
of Marketing Science, Journal of Product Innovation
Management,
Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Marketing Theory
and
Practice, and Engineering Economist.
Dr. Gina Colarelli O’Connor is associate professor of marketing
at
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute’s Lally School of Management
and
Technology. She previously worked for McDonnell Douglas
Cor-
poration and Monsanto Chemical Company. Her teaching and
re-
search efforts focus on how large established firms link
advanced
technology development to market opportunities, how they
87. create
new markets, and how they develop sustainable capabilities for
breakthrough innovation. Dr. O’Connor has published more than
30 articles in refereed journals and is coauthor of the book
Radical
Innovation, How Mature Firms Can Outsmart Upstarts (Harvard
Business School Press, 2000) and Grabbing Lightning: Building
a
Capability for Breakthrough Innovation (Jossey-Bass, 2008).
TEAM LEADER CHARACTERISTICS AND INTERNAL
DYNAMICS J PROD INNOV MANAG
2009;26:188–205
189
(Muczyk and Reimann, 1987; Sarin and McDermott,
2003). The path-goal theory of leadership (e.g., Evans,
1970; House, 1971) is used to help explain the
dynamics of these effectiveness dimensions.
The basic premise of the path-goal theory of lead-
ership is that a primary function of the leader involves
88. clarifying and outlining the kinds of paths and be-
haviors that will lead to goal attainment and valued
rewards (Griffin, 1979). Four distinct characteristics
or behaviors of the team leader related to his or her
management style can be identified based on this
framework (Antonioni, 1996; Burke et al., 2006;
Evans, 1970; House, 1971; Griffin, 1979; Yukl, 1994):
1. Participative leadership or participation: Participa-
tion is the degree to which the team leader invites
members’ involvement in the decision-making pro-
cess. Participative leaders consult with the mem-
bers of their teams, solicit their input, and take
these suggestions into account when making deci-
sions. Participation represents the way the leader
behaves toward others as well as his influence over
the team members.
2. Supportive leadership or consideration: Consider-
ation is the degree to which the team leader is
89. friendly and approachable and demonstrates inter-
est in the well-being of the team members. It indi-
cates his or her respect for others and conveys cues
about his or her own personal qualities. By treating
others with respect considerate team leaders create
a pleasant work environment.
3. Achievement-oriented leadership or initiation of goal
structure: Goal structuring is the degree to which
the team leader conveys to the members what out-
come or objective is expected of them. By goal
structuring team leaders set challenging goals for
the team members, expecting them to assume re-
sponsibility and perform to their highest level.
Through the use of such behavior team leaders
show confidence that the members of the team will
put forth the level of effort necessary to attain the
goals set for them.
4. Directive leadership or initiation of process struc-
90. ture: Process structuring is the degree to which the
team leader organizes and directs the activities of
team members. Process structuring by team leaders
gives specific guidance to the team members re-
garding what needs to be done and how it should
be done. The team leader schedules the work to be
done, lays out the rules and regulations to be fol-
lowed, and maintains standards of performance.
Finally, an additional source of team leaders’ effec-
tiveness identified by Yukl (1994) is considered: the
level of power/influence possessed by the leader:
5. Team leader’s position: The team leader’s position
is a measure of the formal as well as informal
power and influence enjoyed by the team leader
within the organization. Team leaders in high po-
sition enjoy a high stature in the organization and
are well respected for their management or techni-
cal skills. Such leaders tend to be politically savvy
91. and well networked within the organization. As a
result they are able to acquire needed resources, to
promote the team’s project within the organiza-
tion, and to shield the team from unwanted inter-
ference and pressures when needed.
Following Sarin and McDermott (2003), these five
team leader characteristics were considered because
they are not only managerially controllable but also
are strongly supported by established theoretical
frameworks (Evans, 1970; House, 1971; Yukl, 1994).
Internal Dynamics of NPD Teams
Healthy internal dynamics are essential for effective
cross-functional NPD teams and, consequently, for
the successful development of new products (e.g.,
Burke et al., 2006). Specifically, the conflict resolu-
tion behaviors (e.g., Pinto, Pinto, and Prescott, 1993;
Song, Xie, and Dyer, 2000), collaboration (e.g., Jassa-
walla and Sashittal, 1998; Pinto et al., 1993), and com-
92. munication behaviors (e.g., Ancona and Caldwell,
1992b; Griffin and Hauser, 1992) of cross-functional
NPD teams have been shown to have a tremendous
impact on their performance. However, the misman-
agement of these internal dynamics is among the most
often cited barriers to effective NPD team functioning
(Henke et al., 1993). In the present study three types
of internal team dynamics is considered: (1) conflict
resolution strategies; (2) collaboration; and (3) com-
munication behaviors.
Conflict resolution strategies. Individuals from
different functional backgrounds develop different
thought worlds and perspectives (Dougherty, 1992;
Maltz and Kohli, 1996; Sarin and McDermott, 2003).
Besides developing different worldviews, differences
can also result from variety in procedures or termi-
nology followed by each functional area, differences in
information processing techniques used, or differences