This document summarizes an article that examines how empowering leadership in management teams relates to knowledge sharing, team efficacy, and team performance. The study surveyed management teams in 102 U.S. hotel properties. The results showed that empowering leadership was positively related to both knowledge sharing and team efficacy within teams, which in turn were both positively related to higher team performance as measured by a time-lagged market-based source. The study aimed to provide greater understanding of how empowering leadership can improve team processes and states that ultimately enhance team performance.
The relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Gr.docxoreo10
The relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Group Performance
1.0 The Study Objective:
The study aims to examine the following research Hypothesis:
Transformational leadership positively predicts work group performance.
2.0 Theoretical Background
2.1 Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is defined as a process that changes and transforms people, and comprises an exceptional form of influence, resulting in the achievement of higher levels of performance amongst followers than previously thought possible (Bass, 1990). People who exhibit transformational leadership often have a strong idealised influence (charisma), as well as a strong set of internal values and ideas. In addition, they are effective at motivating followers in ways that promote the greater good, as opposed to their own self-interest (Bass, 1990; Bass & Avolio, 1994). Bass and Avolio (2000) identify five components of transformational leadership traits and behaviours, which are theoretically and empirically related (Avolio & Bass, 1995). Those components are:
a. Idealised influence (attributed) is the degree to which leaders behave in a charismatic way, which subsequently causes followers to admire, respect and trust them. Charismatic leaders excite, arouse and inspire their followers to the point that the relationship between the leader and the follower becomes one based on personal understanding, as opposed to one based on formal rules, regulations, rewards or punishments. The leader shares risk with followers, and is consistent in conducting with underlying values and principles. However, Bass (1985) considers charisma a necessary but not sufficient condition for transformational leadership.
b. Idealised influence (behavioural) refers to the charismatic actions of the leader, whereby followers transcend their self-interest for the sake of the organisation and accordingly develop a collective sense of mission and purpose.
c. Inspirational motivation refers to leaders’ behaviours to motivate those around them through the provision of meaning and the articulation of appealing visions. Inspirational leaders demonstrate self-determination and commitment to attain objectives and thereby achieve their vision. Such leaders provide an emotional appeal to increase awareness and an understanding of mutually desired goals amongst their followers.
d. Intellectual stimulation is the degree to which leaders stimulate their followers to think critically and to be innovative and creative. Such leaders do not criticise individual members’ mistakes; rather, they provide followers with challenging new ideas. As a result, followers become critical in their problem-solving and tend to have enhanced thought processes.
e. Individualised consideration is the degree to which leaders pay attention to followers’ needs, provide support and encouragement, act as mentors or coaches, and listen to followers’ concerns. A leader displaying individualised considera ...
Salas et al (2008) Teams, teamwork and team performanceIgnacio Fernández
The document summarizes key discoveries and developments in team performance research over the past 50 years, as reflected in the journal Human Factors. It highlights eight major discoveries:
1) The importance of shared cognition and mental models for team performance.
2) Advances in measuring shared cognition, moving from post-task surveys to real-time embedded measures.
3) Improvements in team training methods that promote teamwork skills and coordination.
4) The use of synthetic task environments to study teams in controlled research settings.
5) Identification of factors that influence team effectiveness such as composition, leadership, and coordination.
6) Development of multilevel models of team effectiveness that integrate individual and team processes
This document provides a literature review and research design for a case study examining the process of transitioning a team within a hierarchical company to become self-managing. The research aims to study how employee engagement, satisfaction, and team effectiveness are impacted by the shift to self-management. It also seeks to understand the role of managers during the transition process and any struggles teams commonly face. The conceptual framework draws from several relevant theories on team development, work motivation, and management vs self-organization. A case study of a team shifting to self-management at a Rabobank will be analyzed against this framework.
This document discusses organizational behavior at the group level. It begins by defining groups and teams, and explaining that executive teams are like baseball teams where members work individually and collaboratively in different configurations. It then covers group dynamics theory, including roles that group members take on like task facilitation and relationship building. The document also discusses group process models, including Tuckman's stages of forming, storming, norming, and performing, and how effective management can employ strategies aligned with the developmental stages.
Case Study Improving Responses to Medical Errors With Organizatio.docxtroutmanboris
Case Study: Improving Responses to Medical Errors With Organizational Behavior Management
A 146-bed general acute care community hospital in southwest Virginia conducted an assessment of patient safety needs and thevarious organizational behavioral management techniques used by hospital managers in response to the nine most frequentlyreported patient safety events. The most frequently reported category of patient safety events (errors) was procedure/treatmentvariance, and the least effective management responses were to witnessed falls. The organizational behavioral managementintervention therefore selected managers’ follow-up responses to procedure/treatment variance and witnessed falls as targets.
Managers first received the results of the needs assessment, then were instructed to (a) respond to the two targeted event types withcorrective-action communication combined with individual and group behavior-based feedback and (b) use positive recognition tosupport behavior that prevented harm, including reporting events. For the 3-month intervention period, researchers Cunninghamand Geller (2011) reviewed 361 patient safety event follow-up descriptions, with a total of 527 interventions that achieved thefollowing results:
1. Reports of targeted event types increased in the first month of intervention, then decreased in subsequent months, indicatingthat the intervention increased employees’ sensitivity to the need to report close calls and learn from them.
2. The two targeted events displayed opposite trends in impact scores associated with managers’ follow-up actions during theintervention phase. The impact scores for follow-up behaviors for procedure/treatment variance increased sharply in the firstmonth, then gradually declined in the next 2 months. In contrast, impact scores for follow-up behaviors for witnessed fallsincreased slightly in month one, then sharply in subsequent months.
3. Managers significantly increased use of individual and group feedback during the intervention phase and decreased use of nointervention, a significant improvement in the management of patient safety errors. Especially significant was the increased useof group feedback.
4. Participating managers and health care workers expressed positive perceptions of the intervention techniques used and relatedoutcomes. Managers received summaries of the monthly events and intervention follow-up reports at monthly managers’meetings and were encouraged to share them with their employees. Intervention perception survey results found that bothmanagers and workers perceived an increase in managers delivering praise for behaviors to prevent harm than deliveringreprimands for errors.
This study demonstrates the benefits of applying an evidence-based intervention strategy by teaching health care managers to (a)communicate more effectively in follow-up responses to patient safety events, (b) more carefully document their follow-up actions tolearn what intervention behaviors do most t.
This document summarizes an article that examines how empowering leadership in management teams relates to knowledge sharing, team efficacy, and team performance. The study surveyed management teams in 102 U.S. hotel properties. The results showed that empowering leadership was positively related to both knowledge sharing and team efficacy within teams, which in turn were both positively related to higher team performance as measured by a time-lagged market-based source. The study aimed to provide greater understanding of how empowering leadership can improve team processes and states that ultimately enhance team performance.
The relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Gr.docxoreo10
The relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Group Performance
1.0 The Study Objective:
The study aims to examine the following research Hypothesis:
Transformational leadership positively predicts work group performance.
2.0 Theoretical Background
2.1 Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is defined as a process that changes and transforms people, and comprises an exceptional form of influence, resulting in the achievement of higher levels of performance amongst followers than previously thought possible (Bass, 1990). People who exhibit transformational leadership often have a strong idealised influence (charisma), as well as a strong set of internal values and ideas. In addition, they are effective at motivating followers in ways that promote the greater good, as opposed to their own self-interest (Bass, 1990; Bass & Avolio, 1994). Bass and Avolio (2000) identify five components of transformational leadership traits and behaviours, which are theoretically and empirically related (Avolio & Bass, 1995). Those components are:
a. Idealised influence (attributed) is the degree to which leaders behave in a charismatic way, which subsequently causes followers to admire, respect and trust them. Charismatic leaders excite, arouse and inspire their followers to the point that the relationship between the leader and the follower becomes one based on personal understanding, as opposed to one based on formal rules, regulations, rewards or punishments. The leader shares risk with followers, and is consistent in conducting with underlying values and principles. However, Bass (1985) considers charisma a necessary but not sufficient condition for transformational leadership.
b. Idealised influence (behavioural) refers to the charismatic actions of the leader, whereby followers transcend their self-interest for the sake of the organisation and accordingly develop a collective sense of mission and purpose.
c. Inspirational motivation refers to leaders’ behaviours to motivate those around them through the provision of meaning and the articulation of appealing visions. Inspirational leaders demonstrate self-determination and commitment to attain objectives and thereby achieve their vision. Such leaders provide an emotional appeal to increase awareness and an understanding of mutually desired goals amongst their followers.
d. Intellectual stimulation is the degree to which leaders stimulate their followers to think critically and to be innovative and creative. Such leaders do not criticise individual members’ mistakes; rather, they provide followers with challenging new ideas. As a result, followers become critical in their problem-solving and tend to have enhanced thought processes.
e. Individualised consideration is the degree to which leaders pay attention to followers’ needs, provide support and encouragement, act as mentors or coaches, and listen to followers’ concerns. A leader displaying individualised considera ...
Salas et al (2008) Teams, teamwork and team performanceIgnacio Fernández
The document summarizes key discoveries and developments in team performance research over the past 50 years, as reflected in the journal Human Factors. It highlights eight major discoveries:
1) The importance of shared cognition and mental models for team performance.
2) Advances in measuring shared cognition, moving from post-task surveys to real-time embedded measures.
3) Improvements in team training methods that promote teamwork skills and coordination.
4) The use of synthetic task environments to study teams in controlled research settings.
5) Identification of factors that influence team effectiveness such as composition, leadership, and coordination.
6) Development of multilevel models of team effectiveness that integrate individual and team processes
This document provides a literature review and research design for a case study examining the process of transitioning a team within a hierarchical company to become self-managing. The research aims to study how employee engagement, satisfaction, and team effectiveness are impacted by the shift to self-management. It also seeks to understand the role of managers during the transition process and any struggles teams commonly face. The conceptual framework draws from several relevant theories on team development, work motivation, and management vs self-organization. A case study of a team shifting to self-management at a Rabobank will be analyzed against this framework.
This document discusses organizational behavior at the group level. It begins by defining groups and teams, and explaining that executive teams are like baseball teams where members work individually and collaboratively in different configurations. It then covers group dynamics theory, including roles that group members take on like task facilitation and relationship building. The document also discusses group process models, including Tuckman's stages of forming, storming, norming, and performing, and how effective management can employ strategies aligned with the developmental stages.
Case Study Improving Responses to Medical Errors With Organizatio.docxtroutmanboris
Case Study: Improving Responses to Medical Errors With Organizational Behavior Management
A 146-bed general acute care community hospital in southwest Virginia conducted an assessment of patient safety needs and thevarious organizational behavioral management techniques used by hospital managers in response to the nine most frequentlyreported patient safety events. The most frequently reported category of patient safety events (errors) was procedure/treatmentvariance, and the least effective management responses were to witnessed falls. The organizational behavioral managementintervention therefore selected managers’ follow-up responses to procedure/treatment variance and witnessed falls as targets.
Managers first received the results of the needs assessment, then were instructed to (a) respond to the two targeted event types withcorrective-action communication combined with individual and group behavior-based feedback and (b) use positive recognition tosupport behavior that prevented harm, including reporting events. For the 3-month intervention period, researchers Cunninghamand Geller (2011) reviewed 361 patient safety event follow-up descriptions, with a total of 527 interventions that achieved thefollowing results:
1. Reports of targeted event types increased in the first month of intervention, then decreased in subsequent months, indicatingthat the intervention increased employees’ sensitivity to the need to report close calls and learn from them.
2. The two targeted events displayed opposite trends in impact scores associated with managers’ follow-up actions during theintervention phase. The impact scores for follow-up behaviors for procedure/treatment variance increased sharply in the firstmonth, then gradually declined in the next 2 months. In contrast, impact scores for follow-up behaviors for witnessed fallsincreased slightly in month one, then sharply in subsequent months.
3. Managers significantly increased use of individual and group feedback during the intervention phase and decreased use of nointervention, a significant improvement in the management of patient safety errors. Especially significant was the increased useof group feedback.
4. Participating managers and health care workers expressed positive perceptions of the intervention techniques used and relatedoutcomes. Managers received summaries of the monthly events and intervention follow-up reports at monthly managers’meetings and were encouraged to share them with their employees. Intervention perception survey results found that bothmanagers and workers perceived an increase in managers delivering praise for behaviors to prevent harm than deliveringreprimands for errors.
This study demonstrates the benefits of applying an evidence-based intervention strategy by teaching health care managers to (a)communicate more effectively in follow-up responses to patient safety events, (b) more carefully document their follow-up actions tolearn what intervention behaviors do most t.
Managing Organizational Change Final DraftJames Smith
The document discusses organizational change and the role of industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists in managing change. It addresses key factors needed for successful change, including buy-in from leaders, employee engagement, and aligning stakeholder values. Research trends in organizational psychology are examined, focusing on topics like workgroup emotional climate and the role of discourse in strategic change. Theoretical frameworks on change include the importance of employee engagement and values alignment. The role of I/O psychologists is to consult organizations and develop interventions targeting areas needing development, and coach leaders to institutionalize lasting changes. Recommendations include using employee empowerment strategies and aligning management and stakeholder values to drive strategic change.
This dissertation explores factors that impact employee performance and well-being within organizations. Chapter 1 introduces the topic and outlines 4 research objectives: 1) determine factors influencing employee performance; 2) investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and well-being; 3) examine how organizational culture impacts behavior and performance; and 4) evaluate employee reactions to organizational change. The study aims to provide empirical insights and practical implications for management.
This dissertation explores factors that impact employee performance and well-being within organizations. It aims to add empirical insights through four main objectives: 1) determine primary factors influencing performance; 2) investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and well-being; 3) examine the influence of organizational culture; and 4) evaluate employee reactions to organizational change. The study seeks to provide quantitative data and practical implications to inform management practices and enhance employee outcomes. A literature review covers key theories in organizational behavior, including classical management, human relations, and contemporary frameworks. Organizational culture and its effect on behavior will also be investigated.
This document summarizes a research article from the International Journal of Management that examines the relationships between self-leadership focused behavioral strategies, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and performance outcomes. The study aims to identify the direct and indirect effects of self-leadership on performance, and whether intrinsic and extrinsic motivation mediate this relationship. The study was conducted with 229 lecturers at Cenderawasih University using questionnaires and path analysis. Key findings were that self-leadership had a direct, positive effect on performance, and extrinsic motivation significantly mediated the relationship between self-leadership and performance, while intrinsic motivation did not.
106 International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 8, Number 1, Winter 2011
FREEDOM AT WORK: PSYCHOLOGICAL EMPOWERMENT
AND SELF-LEADERSHIP
John H. Wilson
Regent University
ABSTRACT
In spite of much conceptual work, there is a paucity of empirical research into the
relationship between the constructs of psychological empowerment and self-leadership. This study
examined whether employee psychological empowerment perceptions are related to employee
engagement in behavioral and natural rewards self-leadership strategies, and whether these
relationships are strengthened for employees with an internal locus of control. The findings
demonstrated a significant positive relationship between psychological empowerment and both
behavioral and natural rewards self-leadership strategies. Further, internal locus of control was
found to moderate this relationship in regards to behavioral self-leadership strategies, but not
natural rewards self-leadership.
Keywords: Psychological Empowerment, Self-Leadership, Locus of Control, Organizational Leadership
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, there has been much interest in the extant literature about psychological
empowerment, employee assessments about their autonomy in task performance rather than mere
choices about how to accomplish assigned tasks (Bordin, Bartram, & Casimir, 2007; Spreitzer,
1995; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990). Psychological empowerment differs from role empowerment,
also called environmental empowerment, which relates to the effort on the part of organizational
executives, to transfer some choices or decision making power from managers to operational-
level employees (Labianca, Gray, & Brass, 2000; Logan & Ganster 2007; Meyerson & Kline,
2008). Therefore, role empowerment deals more with granting decision making power and
access to resources, while psychological empowerment focuses on the degree that an individual
perceives they are empowered.
Prominent authors in the field of empowerment have asserted that self-leadership
behaviors are the critical element for effective results in autonomous work environs described in
empowerment models (Carson & King, 2005; Houghton & Yoho, 2005; Manz, 1992). For
instance, DiLiello and Houghton (2006) suggested that self-leadership has much potential for
aiding organizations in responding to new challenges in the 21st century. Likewise, Carson and
King (2005) suggested, “empowerment and self leadership are avenues to influence and or
improve direction and motivation within organizations by placing greater emphasis on employee
mindset and skill development for each individual in the workplace” (p. 1050). Individuals who
display self-leadership will seek ways to direct their own activities through behavioral strategies,
through natural reward drawn from their work, and through cognitive thought strategies. (Manz
& Sims, 1980; Sims & Manz, 1995). The inducement towards empowerment p.
This study investigates the relationship between organizational culture and attitudes toward organizational change in Malaysian companies. Based on prior research, the study developed a questionnaire to assess four types of organizational culture (communal, fragmented, networked, mercenary) and three components of attitudes toward change (affective, cognitive, behavioral). The questionnaire was administered to 258 Malaysian manufacturing companies. The results showed a relationship between organizational culture and attitudes toward change, with some cultures more accepting of change than others. The implications are that understanding this relationship can help managers implement changes more effectively.
Van Leeuwen J.C.R. (2014). The Leadership GameRico Leeuwen
The document discusses a study that investigated the influence of vertical versus shared leadership on team success. Team success was measured by team performance, group development, and engagement. Participants were divided into teams with either a formally appointed vertical leader or shared leadership. Teams played a computer game and had to solve puzzles. Results showed the leadership manipulation failed, as none of the teams met the definitions of vertical or shared leadership. However, informal vertical leadership was compared to shared leadership and found to have no significant difference on team success. The study sought to better understand team dynamics and the role of leadership in teams.
The document discusses various factors that influence team effectiveness, including group psychological traits like cohesion, norms, affects, cognition, certainty, and attribution biases. It examines Belbin's team role theory and describes different types of teams. The conclusion is that cognitive and affective dimensions impact outcomes differently and that factors influencing effectiveness depend on the type of team.
This study examined managers and employees at a single organization to understand how gender impacts team outcomes. A survey of 100 managers found that female managers communicated more with employees but were also more influenced by groupthink. A separate survey of 200 employees found that female employees contributed more to team outcomes than male employees. The study aimed to provide insights for researchers, managers, and HR professionals on organizational behavior and team dynamics.
Organizational Behavior: A Study on Managers, Employees, and TeamsMuhammad Tawakal Shah
In recent decades, there has been a tremendous shift in the structure and operation of organizations.
Advancements in technology and skill diversity have fostered a modern workplace of skill and workflow
interdependencies. Hence, for success in today’s business world, it is imperative for organizations to
understand the forces that impact team outcomes. This study on 100 managers from the same organization
shows that female managers have higher communication skills when compared to male managers,
but are also more influenced by group think. A total of 200 employees from this organization were also
studied and the results show that female employees contribute to team outcomes more than male
employees. Implications for researchers, managers, and human resource professionals are considered.
Theoretically, it is important to understand how and why teamwork affects people’s success in the
workplace. Practically, it is important for managers to know whether teamwork affects performance
because it proxies cohesiveness and synergy. The study presented in this article clearly suggests that
teamwork affects people’s careers and workplace interactions and therefore is worthy of continued
scholarly investigation.
This paper proposes a new theory of team coaching with three distinguishing features: (1) it focuses on the functions that coaching serves for a team rather than specific leader behaviors, (2) it identifies when coaching interventions are most effective during the task performance process, and (3) it explains when team-focused coaching is likely to facilitate performance. The paper reviews existing approaches to team coaching and draws on them to develop testable propositions for a comprehensive research-based model of effective team coaching.
This document summarizes a study examining the effects of different methods of forming student groups for projects. The study analyzed student journals and surveys to understand their experiences from within the groups. Prior research primarily focused on performance outcomes, but this study provided insight into subtle social dynamics within groups. Key findings were that student-selected groups generally performed better, but instructor-assigned groups can perform well with the right composition and processes. The study findings provide guidance for instructors and students on effective group work.
This document provides an overview of organizational behavior. It defines organizational behavior as relating to the process of conducting managerial work. Studying organizational behavior provides benefits such as skill development, personal growth through understanding human behavior, enhancing organizational and individual effectiveness, and sharpening common sense. The document then summarizes several important approaches in organizational behavior history, including classical management, the Hawthorne studies, the human relations movement, contingency approach, and positive organizational behavior. It outlines three levels of analyzing organizational behavior: individual, group, and organizational levels. Key topics in each level are also listed. [/SUMMARY]
Motivation Related to Work A Century of ProgressRuth Kanf.docxgilpinleeanna
Motivation Related to Work: A Century of Progress
Ruth Kanfer
Georgia Institute of Technology
Michael Frese
National University of Singapore and Leuphana
University of Lueneburg
Russell E. Johnson
Michigan State University
Work motivation is a topic of crucial importance to the success of organizations and societies and the
well-being of individuals. We organize the work motivation literature over the last century using a
meta-framework that clusters theories, findings, and advances in the field according to their primary
focus on (a) motives, traits, and motivation orientations (content); (b) features of the job, work role, and
broader environment (context); or (c) the mechanisms and processes involved in choice and striving
(process). Our integrative review reveals major achievements in the field, including more precise
mapping of the psychological inputs and operations involved in motivation and broadened conceptions
of the work environment. Cross-cutting trends over the last century include the primacy of goals, the
importance of goal striving processes, and a more nuanced conceptualization of work motivation as a
dynamic, goal-directed, resource allocation process that unfolds over the related variables of time,
experience, and place. Across the field, advances in methodology and measurement have improved the
match between theory and research. Ten promising directions for future research are described and field
experiments are suggested as a useful means of bridging the research–practice gap.
Keywords: motivation, resource allocation, goals, self-regulation, intrinsic motivation
Motivation related to work remains one of the most enduring
and compelling topics in industrial/organizational (I/O) psychol-
ogy. As part of the larger field of motivational science, motivation
related to work examines fundamental questions about the influ-
ence of nonability person attributes (e.g., motives, traits, goals),
work ecologies, and the mechanisms and processes involved in
purposive action. Work motivation affects the skills that individ-
uals develop, the jobs and careers that individuals pursue, and the
manner in which individuals allocate their resources (e.g., atten-
tion, effort, time, and human and social capital) to affect the
direction, intensity, and persistence of activities during work. At
the same time, work motivation is a topic of critical importance to
public policymakers and organizations concerned with developing
work environments, human resource policies, and management
practices that promote vocational adjustment, individual well-
being, and organizational success. As such, work motivation
stands at the nexus of society, science, and organizational success.
The increasing importance of motivation over the last century is
reflected in both the number and nature of motivation-related
publications that have appeared in Journal of Applied Psychology
(JAP). As shown in Figure 1, the number of these publications (as
indexed by k ...
Journal of Organizational Behavior J. Organiz. Behav. 31, .docxSusanaFurman449
Journal of Organizational Behavior
J. Organiz. Behav. 31, 24–44 (2010)
Published online 22 May 2009 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/job.621
Towards a multi-foci approach to
workplace aggression: A meta-analytic
review of outcomes from different
yperpetrators
M. SANDY HERSHCOVIS1* AND JULIAN BARLING2
1I. H. Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
2Queen’s School of Business, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Summary Using meta-analysis, we compare three attitudinal outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, affective
commitment, and turnover intent), three behavioral outcomes (i.e., interpersonal deviance,
organizational deviance, and work performance), and four health-related outcomes (i.e.,
general health, depression, emotional exhaustion, and physical well being) of workplace
aggression from three different sources: Supervisors, co-workers, and outsiders. Results from
66 samples show that supervisor aggression has the strongest adverse effects across the
attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. Co-worker aggression had stronger effects than outsider
aggression on the attitudinal and behavioral outcomes, whereas there was no significant
difference between supervisor, co-worker, and outsider aggression for the majority of the
health-related outcomes. These results have implications for how workplace aggression is
conceptualized and measured, and we propose new research questions that emphasize a multi-
foci approach. Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
I admit that, before I was bullied, I couldn’t understand why employees would shy-away from doing
anything about it. When it happened to me, I felt trapped. I felt like either no one believed me or no
one cared. This bully was my direct boss and went out of his way to make me look and feel
incompetent. . . I dreaded going to work and cried myself to sleep every night. I was afraid of
losing my job because I started to question my abilities and didn’t think I’d find work elsewhere.
(HR professional as posted on a New York Times blog, 2008).
Introduction
Growing awareness of psychological forms of workplace aggression has stimulated research interest in
the consequences of these negative behaviors. Workplace aggression is defined as negative acts that are
* Correspondence to: M. Sandy Hershcovis, I. H. Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba,
Canada. E-mail: [email protected]
yAn earlier version of this study was presented at the 65th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Honolulu, HI.
Received 28 April 2008
Revised 17 March 2009
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 4 April 2009
mailto:[email protected]
www.interscience.wiley.com
25 AGGRESSION META-ANALYSIS
perpetrated against an organization or its members and that victims are motivated to avoid (Neuman &
Baron, 2005; Raver & Barling, 2007). Much of this research (e.g., .
Burnout, Employee Engagement, and Coping in High-Risk Occupa.docxcurwenmichaela
Burnout, Employee Engagement,
and Coping in High-Risk Occupations
L
Jennifer Falkoski, PsyD
This study assessed whether there were any significant relationships among burnout,
type of coping, and employee engagement in a population of employees actively working
in the medical and mental health fields. It also evaluated preferred workplace motivators
across two overarching job categories: medical and mental health caregivers and admin
istrative and supporting roles. The results showed that as employee burnout increased,
so did the use of more harmful coping mechanisms. The study also found an inverse
relationship between emotional exhaustion and employee engagement. Additionally,
employee engagement and personal accomplishment were positively related. Employee
preferred workplace motivators across two job-overarching job categories were also
assessed. The highest-ranking employee-preferred workplace motivators identified in the
participant sample were nature of the work itself, responsibility, salary, relationship with
peers, and professional growth.
Burnout
Burnout is a phenomenon that has been
studied in organizations for more than 20
years. The applied research on burnout was
initially examined within industries that
had a high rate of interpersonal interaction
(Maslach & Leiter, 1997, 2008). More spe
cifically, these industries included human
services, health care, and education. Over
the last two decades, research in this area
has expanded to all industries, including
international companies.
One downside to the extensive research
in this area is that the term "burnout" has
lost its meaning in the workplace (Maslach
& Leiter, 1997). People have become inured
to this term and expect burnout with
any type of job. Burnout's perception
as an inevitable state has made it increa
singly more difficult to manage in the
workplace.
It is imperative that organizations con
tinuously find ways to enhance protective
factors against burnout in the workforce,
especially because most companies are
dynamic in nature. Maslach and Leiter
(1997) cite several contemporary factors
that affect burnout in the workplace. These
factors include less intrinsic work, global
economics, increase in the use of technol
ogy to run business operations, redistri
bution of power, and failing corporate
citizenship. Employees who are experienc
ing burnout also report feeling overloaded
at work, a lack of control over their own
work, unrewarded by their work, a lack of
community within the organization, unfair
/011mal of Psyc/10/ogical lssues in Orga11izatio11al Culture, Volume 2. Number,!, 2012 02012 Bridgepoint Education. lnc. and \VilL')' PL·rindicals, Inc
Pub!ishl'd onlinl' in \VilL')' Onlinl' Library (wikyunlindibr.iry.com), DOI: 10.1002/jpuc.20085 49
treatment, and conflicting personal values with
company values (Maslach & Leiter, 1997).
Burnout is a powerful .
Burnout, Employee Engagement, and Coping in High-Risk Occupa.docxjasoninnes20
Burnout, Employee Engagement,
and Coping in High-Risk Occupations
L
Jennifer Falkoski, PsyD
This study assessed whether there were any significant relationships among burnout,
type of coping, and employee engagement in a population of employees actively working
in the medical and mental health fields. It also evaluated preferred workplace motivators
across two overarching job categories: medical and mental health caregivers and admin
istrative and supporting roles. The results showed that as employee burnout increased,
so did the use of more harmful coping mechanisms. The study also found an inverse
relationship between emotional exhaustion and employee engagement. Additionally,
employee engagement and personal accomplishment were positively related. Employee
preferred workplace motivators across two job-overarching job categories were also
assessed. The highest-ranking employee-preferred workplace motivators identified in the
participant sample were nature of the work itself, responsibility, salary, relationship with
peers, and professional growth.
Burnout
Burnout is a phenomenon that has been
studied in organizations for more than 20
years. The applied research on burnout was
initially examined within industries that
had a high rate of interpersonal interaction
(Maslach & Leiter, 1997, 2008). More spe
cifically, these industries included human
services, health care, and education. Over
the last two decades, research in this area
has expanded to all industries, including
international companies.
One downside to the extensive research
in this area is that the term "burnout" has
lost its meaning in the workplace (Maslach
& Leiter, 1997). People have become inured
to this term and expect burnout with
any type of job. Burnout's perception
as an inevitable state has made it increa
singly more difficult to manage in the
workplace.
It is imperative that organizations con
tinuously find ways to enhance protective
factors against burnout in the workforce,
especially because most companies are
dynamic in nature. Maslach and Leiter
(1997) cite several contemporary factors
that affect burnout in the workplace. These
factors include less intrinsic work, global
economics, increase in the use of technol
ogy to run business operations, redistri
bution of power, and failing corporate
citizenship. Employees who are experienc
ing burnout also report feeling overloaded
at work, a lack of control over their own
work, unrewarded by their work, a lack of
community within the organization, unfair
/011mal of Psyc/10/ogical lssues in Orga11izatio11al Culture, Volume 2. Number,!, 2012 02012 Bridgepoint Education. lnc. and \VilL')' PL·rindicals, Inc
Pub!ishl'd onlinl' in \VilL')' Onlinl' Library (wikyunlindibr.iry.com), DOI: 10.1002/jpuc.20085 49
treatment, and conflicting personal values with
company values (Maslach & Leiter, 1997).
Burnout is a powerful ...
This is from class AH111Quality, Access and CostIn a one to two .docxchristalgrieg
This is from class AH111Quality, Access and Cost
In a one to two page paper identify the impact that technology has on quality, access, and cost of healthcare.
Be sure to cite your references.
This is Chapter 6 from the book:
Johnson, C.M., Mawhinney, T. C., & Redmon, W.K. (2001). Handbook of organizational performance: Behavior analysis and management.New York, NY: Sage The Hawthorn Press, Inc
In-text citation:
(Johnson, Mawhinney & Redmon, 2001)
Chapter 6
Training and Development in Organizations: A Review of the Organizational Behavior Management Literature
There are several excellent literature reviews and other discussions on personnel training in organizations in the industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology literature (Campbell, 1971; Eden, 1987; Goldstein, 1980, 1991; Latham, 1988, 1989; Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992; Wexley, 1984). These works have had an impact on the field of training and have contributed to the development and quality of training research. With few exceptions, however, these reviews have ignored organizational behavior management (OBM) training research. The present chapter attempts to fill that gap and extend earlier treatments of OBM training (Reid, Parsons, and Green, 1989; Ross, 1982). The chapter begins with a review of the OBM training literature followed by a critique and suggestions for future research.
Space constraints preclude treatment of the entire training literature from a behavior analytic perspective. Thus, I focus primarily on research investigating the process of instruction and skill acquisition of people employed in organizations. Research investigating transfer of training strategies is not emphasized because several excellent papers on generalization and maintenance already exist in the I/O (Baldwin and Ford, 1988), education (Royer, 1979), and behavior analysis (Stokes and Baer, 1977; Stokes and Osnes, 1989) literatures. Research where training was peripheral to other organizational interventions (e.g., Fox and Sulzer-Azaroff, 1989; Komaki, Blood, and Holder, 1980; Rowe, 1981; Streff, Kalsher, and Geller, 1993) is also excluded. Finally, research focusing primarily on trainee reactions to programs is not discussed (Reid and Parsons, 1995, 1996).
The author would like to express appreciation to Thomas S. Critchfield, Richard K. Fleming, and the editors for their comments on an earlier version of this chapter.
THE IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUCTION
Some suggest that training does not play as important a role in behavior change as consequences. In a discussion of organizational change, Murphy and Remnyi (1979) state that antecedent stimulus control techniques are not likely to yield long-term changes in behavior unless consequent stimuli are controlled. Similarly, Geller (1990) notes that workshops and training programs cannot maintain safe behavior or reduce work injuries because natural contingencies are not in place to support safe behavior. He stresses the importance of using operant condition ...
•Reflective Log•Your reflective log should include the.docxtawnyataylor528
•
Reflective Log
•
Your
reflective
log
should include the following
•
What was your role within the business simulation company?
Demonstrate how you used the resources critically to make decisions
while you were running the company.
.
•The philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke disagreed on the un.docxtawnyataylor528
•The philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke disagreed on the understanding of political authority, with Locke taking what is commonly called the “liberal” view. Choose a side (be brave perhaps; take a side you actually disagree with). Using the writings of each given in our class text or at the Websites below, make your case for the side you chose and against the other side. Identify one (1) modern situation in the world where these issues are significant.
Philosophers Debate Politics
•Chapter 24 (pp. 768-9)
•Hobbes: text at
http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-contents.html
;
Summary at http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hobbes-moral/; also
http://jim.com/hobbes.htm
•Locke: text at http://www.thenagain.info/Classes/Sources/Locke-2ndTreatise.html; General
background of the concept at
http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/teachers/lesson_plans/pdfs/unit1_12.pdf
.
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Managing Organizational Change Final DraftJames Smith
The document discusses organizational change and the role of industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists in managing change. It addresses key factors needed for successful change, including buy-in from leaders, employee engagement, and aligning stakeholder values. Research trends in organizational psychology are examined, focusing on topics like workgroup emotional climate and the role of discourse in strategic change. Theoretical frameworks on change include the importance of employee engagement and values alignment. The role of I/O psychologists is to consult organizations and develop interventions targeting areas needing development, and coach leaders to institutionalize lasting changes. Recommendations include using employee empowerment strategies and aligning management and stakeholder values to drive strategic change.
This dissertation explores factors that impact employee performance and well-being within organizations. Chapter 1 introduces the topic and outlines 4 research objectives: 1) determine factors influencing employee performance; 2) investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and well-being; 3) examine how organizational culture impacts behavior and performance; and 4) evaluate employee reactions to organizational change. The study aims to provide empirical insights and practical implications for management.
This dissertation explores factors that impact employee performance and well-being within organizations. It aims to add empirical insights through four main objectives: 1) determine primary factors influencing performance; 2) investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and well-being; 3) examine the influence of organizational culture; and 4) evaluate employee reactions to organizational change. The study seeks to provide quantitative data and practical implications to inform management practices and enhance employee outcomes. A literature review covers key theories in organizational behavior, including classical management, human relations, and contemporary frameworks. Organizational culture and its effect on behavior will also be investigated.
This document summarizes a research article from the International Journal of Management that examines the relationships between self-leadership focused behavioral strategies, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and performance outcomes. The study aims to identify the direct and indirect effects of self-leadership on performance, and whether intrinsic and extrinsic motivation mediate this relationship. The study was conducted with 229 lecturers at Cenderawasih University using questionnaires and path analysis. Key findings were that self-leadership had a direct, positive effect on performance, and extrinsic motivation significantly mediated the relationship between self-leadership and performance, while intrinsic motivation did not.
106 International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 8, Number 1, Winter 2011
FREEDOM AT WORK: PSYCHOLOGICAL EMPOWERMENT
AND SELF-LEADERSHIP
John H. Wilson
Regent University
ABSTRACT
In spite of much conceptual work, there is a paucity of empirical research into the
relationship between the constructs of psychological empowerment and self-leadership. This study
examined whether employee psychological empowerment perceptions are related to employee
engagement in behavioral and natural rewards self-leadership strategies, and whether these
relationships are strengthened for employees with an internal locus of control. The findings
demonstrated a significant positive relationship between psychological empowerment and both
behavioral and natural rewards self-leadership strategies. Further, internal locus of control was
found to moderate this relationship in regards to behavioral self-leadership strategies, but not
natural rewards self-leadership.
Keywords: Psychological Empowerment, Self-Leadership, Locus of Control, Organizational Leadership
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, there has been much interest in the extant literature about psychological
empowerment, employee assessments about their autonomy in task performance rather than mere
choices about how to accomplish assigned tasks (Bordin, Bartram, & Casimir, 2007; Spreitzer,
1995; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990). Psychological empowerment differs from role empowerment,
also called environmental empowerment, which relates to the effort on the part of organizational
executives, to transfer some choices or decision making power from managers to operational-
level employees (Labianca, Gray, & Brass, 2000; Logan & Ganster 2007; Meyerson & Kline,
2008). Therefore, role empowerment deals more with granting decision making power and
access to resources, while psychological empowerment focuses on the degree that an individual
perceives they are empowered.
Prominent authors in the field of empowerment have asserted that self-leadership
behaviors are the critical element for effective results in autonomous work environs described in
empowerment models (Carson & King, 2005; Houghton & Yoho, 2005; Manz, 1992). For
instance, DiLiello and Houghton (2006) suggested that self-leadership has much potential for
aiding organizations in responding to new challenges in the 21st century. Likewise, Carson and
King (2005) suggested, “empowerment and self leadership are avenues to influence and or
improve direction and motivation within organizations by placing greater emphasis on employee
mindset and skill development for each individual in the workplace” (p. 1050). Individuals who
display self-leadership will seek ways to direct their own activities through behavioral strategies,
through natural reward drawn from their work, and through cognitive thought strategies. (Manz
& Sims, 1980; Sims & Manz, 1995). The inducement towards empowerment p.
This study investigates the relationship between organizational culture and attitudes toward organizational change in Malaysian companies. Based on prior research, the study developed a questionnaire to assess four types of organizational culture (communal, fragmented, networked, mercenary) and three components of attitudes toward change (affective, cognitive, behavioral). The questionnaire was administered to 258 Malaysian manufacturing companies. The results showed a relationship between organizational culture and attitudes toward change, with some cultures more accepting of change than others. The implications are that understanding this relationship can help managers implement changes more effectively.
Van Leeuwen J.C.R. (2014). The Leadership GameRico Leeuwen
The document discusses a study that investigated the influence of vertical versus shared leadership on team success. Team success was measured by team performance, group development, and engagement. Participants were divided into teams with either a formally appointed vertical leader or shared leadership. Teams played a computer game and had to solve puzzles. Results showed the leadership manipulation failed, as none of the teams met the definitions of vertical or shared leadership. However, informal vertical leadership was compared to shared leadership and found to have no significant difference on team success. The study sought to better understand team dynamics and the role of leadership in teams.
The document discusses various factors that influence team effectiveness, including group psychological traits like cohesion, norms, affects, cognition, certainty, and attribution biases. It examines Belbin's team role theory and describes different types of teams. The conclusion is that cognitive and affective dimensions impact outcomes differently and that factors influencing effectiveness depend on the type of team.
This study examined managers and employees at a single organization to understand how gender impacts team outcomes. A survey of 100 managers found that female managers communicated more with employees but were also more influenced by groupthink. A separate survey of 200 employees found that female employees contributed more to team outcomes than male employees. The study aimed to provide insights for researchers, managers, and HR professionals on organizational behavior and team dynamics.
Organizational Behavior: A Study on Managers, Employees, and TeamsMuhammad Tawakal Shah
In recent decades, there has been a tremendous shift in the structure and operation of organizations.
Advancements in technology and skill diversity have fostered a modern workplace of skill and workflow
interdependencies. Hence, for success in today’s business world, it is imperative for organizations to
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shows that female managers have higher communication skills when compared to male managers,
but are also more influenced by group think. A total of 200 employees from this organization were also
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Theoretically, it is important to understand how and why teamwork affects people’s success in the
workplace. Practically, it is important for managers to know whether teamwork affects performance
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This paper proposes a new theory of team coaching with three distinguishing features: (1) it focuses on the functions that coaching serves for a team rather than specific leader behaviors, (2) it identifies when coaching interventions are most effective during the task performance process, and (3) it explains when team-focused coaching is likely to facilitate performance. The paper reviews existing approaches to team coaching and draws on them to develop testable propositions for a comprehensive research-based model of effective team coaching.
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This document provides an overview of organizational behavior. It defines organizational behavior as relating to the process of conducting managerial work. Studying organizational behavior provides benefits such as skill development, personal growth through understanding human behavior, enhancing organizational and individual effectiveness, and sharpening common sense. The document then summarizes several important approaches in organizational behavior history, including classical management, the Hawthorne studies, the human relations movement, contingency approach, and positive organizational behavior. It outlines three levels of analyzing organizational behavior: individual, group, and organizational levels. Key topics in each level are also listed. [/SUMMARY]
Motivation Related to Work A Century of ProgressRuth Kanf.docxgilpinleeanna
Motivation Related to Work: A Century of Progress
Ruth Kanfer
Georgia Institute of Technology
Michael Frese
National University of Singapore and Leuphana
University of Lueneburg
Russell E. Johnson
Michigan State University
Work motivation is a topic of crucial importance to the success of organizations and societies and the
well-being of individuals. We organize the work motivation literature over the last century using a
meta-framework that clusters theories, findings, and advances in the field according to their primary
focus on (a) motives, traits, and motivation orientations (content); (b) features of the job, work role, and
broader environment (context); or (c) the mechanisms and processes involved in choice and striving
(process). Our integrative review reveals major achievements in the field, including more precise
mapping of the psychological inputs and operations involved in motivation and broadened conceptions
of the work environment. Cross-cutting trends over the last century include the primacy of goals, the
importance of goal striving processes, and a more nuanced conceptualization of work motivation as a
dynamic, goal-directed, resource allocation process that unfolds over the related variables of time,
experience, and place. Across the field, advances in methodology and measurement have improved the
match between theory and research. Ten promising directions for future research are described and field
experiments are suggested as a useful means of bridging the research–practice gap.
Keywords: motivation, resource allocation, goals, self-regulation, intrinsic motivation
Motivation related to work remains one of the most enduring
and compelling topics in industrial/organizational (I/O) psychol-
ogy. As part of the larger field of motivational science, motivation
related to work examines fundamental questions about the influ-
ence of nonability person attributes (e.g., motives, traits, goals),
work ecologies, and the mechanisms and processes involved in
purposive action. Work motivation affects the skills that individ-
uals develop, the jobs and careers that individuals pursue, and the
manner in which individuals allocate their resources (e.g., atten-
tion, effort, time, and human and social capital) to affect the
direction, intensity, and persistence of activities during work. At
the same time, work motivation is a topic of critical importance to
public policymakers and organizations concerned with developing
work environments, human resource policies, and management
practices that promote vocational adjustment, individual well-
being, and organizational success. As such, work motivation
stands at the nexus of society, science, and organizational success.
The increasing importance of motivation over the last century is
reflected in both the number and nature of motivation-related
publications that have appeared in Journal of Applied Psychology
(JAP). As shown in Figure 1, the number of these publications (as
indexed by k ...
Journal of Organizational Behavior J. Organiz. Behav. 31, .docxSusanaFurman449
Journal of Organizational Behavior
J. Organiz. Behav. 31, 24–44 (2010)
Published online 22 May 2009 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/job.621
Towards a multi-foci approach to
workplace aggression: A meta-analytic
review of outcomes from different
yperpetrators
M. SANDY HERSHCOVIS1* AND JULIAN BARLING2
1I. H. Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
2Queen’s School of Business, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Summary Using meta-analysis, we compare three attitudinal outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, affective
commitment, and turnover intent), three behavioral outcomes (i.e., interpersonal deviance,
organizational deviance, and work performance), and four health-related outcomes (i.e.,
general health, depression, emotional exhaustion, and physical well being) of workplace
aggression from three different sources: Supervisors, co-workers, and outsiders. Results from
66 samples show that supervisor aggression has the strongest adverse effects across the
attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. Co-worker aggression had stronger effects than outsider
aggression on the attitudinal and behavioral outcomes, whereas there was no significant
difference between supervisor, co-worker, and outsider aggression for the majority of the
health-related outcomes. These results have implications for how workplace aggression is
conceptualized and measured, and we propose new research questions that emphasize a multi-
foci approach. Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
I admit that, before I was bullied, I couldn’t understand why employees would shy-away from doing
anything about it. When it happened to me, I felt trapped. I felt like either no one believed me or no
one cared. This bully was my direct boss and went out of his way to make me look and feel
incompetent. . . I dreaded going to work and cried myself to sleep every night. I was afraid of
losing my job because I started to question my abilities and didn’t think I’d find work elsewhere.
(HR professional as posted on a New York Times blog, 2008).
Introduction
Growing awareness of psychological forms of workplace aggression has stimulated research interest in
the consequences of these negative behaviors. Workplace aggression is defined as negative acts that are
* Correspondence to: M. Sandy Hershcovis, I. H. Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba,
Canada. E-mail: [email protected]
yAn earlier version of this study was presented at the 65th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Honolulu, HI.
Received 28 April 2008
Revised 17 March 2009
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 4 April 2009
mailto:[email protected]
www.interscience.wiley.com
25 AGGRESSION META-ANALYSIS
perpetrated against an organization or its members and that victims are motivated to avoid (Neuman &
Baron, 2005; Raver & Barling, 2007). Much of this research (e.g., .
Burnout, Employee Engagement, and Coping in High-Risk Occupa.docxcurwenmichaela
Burnout, Employee Engagement,
and Coping in High-Risk Occupations
L
Jennifer Falkoski, PsyD
This study assessed whether there were any significant relationships among burnout,
type of coping, and employee engagement in a population of employees actively working
in the medical and mental health fields. It also evaluated preferred workplace motivators
across two overarching job categories: medical and mental health caregivers and admin
istrative and supporting roles. The results showed that as employee burnout increased,
so did the use of more harmful coping mechanisms. The study also found an inverse
relationship between emotional exhaustion and employee engagement. Additionally,
employee engagement and personal accomplishment were positively related. Employee
preferred workplace motivators across two job-overarching job categories were also
assessed. The highest-ranking employee-preferred workplace motivators identified in the
participant sample were nature of the work itself, responsibility, salary, relationship with
peers, and professional growth.
Burnout
Burnout is a phenomenon that has been
studied in organizations for more than 20
years. The applied research on burnout was
initially examined within industries that
had a high rate of interpersonal interaction
(Maslach & Leiter, 1997, 2008). More spe
cifically, these industries included human
services, health care, and education. Over
the last two decades, research in this area
has expanded to all industries, including
international companies.
One downside to the extensive research
in this area is that the term "burnout" has
lost its meaning in the workplace (Maslach
& Leiter, 1997). People have become inured
to this term and expect burnout with
any type of job. Burnout's perception
as an inevitable state has made it increa
singly more difficult to manage in the
workplace.
It is imperative that organizations con
tinuously find ways to enhance protective
factors against burnout in the workforce,
especially because most companies are
dynamic in nature. Maslach and Leiter
(1997) cite several contemporary factors
that affect burnout in the workplace. These
factors include less intrinsic work, global
economics, increase in the use of technol
ogy to run business operations, redistri
bution of power, and failing corporate
citizenship. Employees who are experienc
ing burnout also report feeling overloaded
at work, a lack of control over their own
work, unrewarded by their work, a lack of
community within the organization, unfair
/011mal of Psyc/10/ogical lssues in Orga11izatio11al Culture, Volume 2. Number,!, 2012 02012 Bridgepoint Education. lnc. and \VilL')' PL·rindicals, Inc
Pub!ishl'd onlinl' in \VilL')' Onlinl' Library (wikyunlindibr.iry.com), DOI: 10.1002/jpuc.20085 49
treatment, and conflicting personal values with
company values (Maslach & Leiter, 1997).
Burnout is a powerful .
Burnout, Employee Engagement, and Coping in High-Risk Occupa.docxjasoninnes20
Burnout, Employee Engagement,
and Coping in High-Risk Occupations
L
Jennifer Falkoski, PsyD
This study assessed whether there were any significant relationships among burnout,
type of coping, and employee engagement in a population of employees actively working
in the medical and mental health fields. It also evaluated preferred workplace motivators
across two overarching job categories: medical and mental health caregivers and admin
istrative and supporting roles. The results showed that as employee burnout increased,
so did the use of more harmful coping mechanisms. The study also found an inverse
relationship between emotional exhaustion and employee engagement. Additionally,
employee engagement and personal accomplishment were positively related. Employee
preferred workplace motivators across two job-overarching job categories were also
assessed. The highest-ranking employee-preferred workplace motivators identified in the
participant sample were nature of the work itself, responsibility, salary, relationship with
peers, and professional growth.
Burnout
Burnout is a phenomenon that has been
studied in organizations for more than 20
years. The applied research on burnout was
initially examined within industries that
had a high rate of interpersonal interaction
(Maslach & Leiter, 1997, 2008). More spe
cifically, these industries included human
services, health care, and education. Over
the last two decades, research in this area
has expanded to all industries, including
international companies.
One downside to the extensive research
in this area is that the term "burnout" has
lost its meaning in the workplace (Maslach
& Leiter, 1997). People have become inured
to this term and expect burnout with
any type of job. Burnout's perception
as an inevitable state has made it increa
singly more difficult to manage in the
workplace.
It is imperative that organizations con
tinuously find ways to enhance protective
factors against burnout in the workforce,
especially because most companies are
dynamic in nature. Maslach and Leiter
(1997) cite several contemporary factors
that affect burnout in the workplace. These
factors include less intrinsic work, global
economics, increase in the use of technol
ogy to run business operations, redistri
bution of power, and failing corporate
citizenship. Employees who are experienc
ing burnout also report feeling overloaded
at work, a lack of control over their own
work, unrewarded by their work, a lack of
community within the organization, unfair
/011mal of Psyc/10/ogical lssues in Orga11izatio11al Culture, Volume 2. Number,!, 2012 02012 Bridgepoint Education. lnc. and \VilL')' PL·rindicals, Inc
Pub!ishl'd onlinl' in \VilL')' Onlinl' Library (wikyunlindibr.iry.com), DOI: 10.1002/jpuc.20085 49
treatment, and conflicting personal values with
company values (Maslach & Leiter, 1997).
Burnout is a powerful ...
This is from class AH111Quality, Access and CostIn a one to two .docxchristalgrieg
This is from class AH111Quality, Access and Cost
In a one to two page paper identify the impact that technology has on quality, access, and cost of healthcare.
Be sure to cite your references.
This is Chapter 6 from the book:
Johnson, C.M., Mawhinney, T. C., & Redmon, W.K. (2001). Handbook of organizational performance: Behavior analysis and management.New York, NY: Sage The Hawthorn Press, Inc
In-text citation:
(Johnson, Mawhinney & Redmon, 2001)
Chapter 6
Training and Development in Organizations: A Review of the Organizational Behavior Management Literature
There are several excellent literature reviews and other discussions on personnel training in organizations in the industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology literature (Campbell, 1971; Eden, 1987; Goldstein, 1980, 1991; Latham, 1988, 1989; Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992; Wexley, 1984). These works have had an impact on the field of training and have contributed to the development and quality of training research. With few exceptions, however, these reviews have ignored organizational behavior management (OBM) training research. The present chapter attempts to fill that gap and extend earlier treatments of OBM training (Reid, Parsons, and Green, 1989; Ross, 1982). The chapter begins with a review of the OBM training literature followed by a critique and suggestions for future research.
Space constraints preclude treatment of the entire training literature from a behavior analytic perspective. Thus, I focus primarily on research investigating the process of instruction and skill acquisition of people employed in organizations. Research investigating transfer of training strategies is not emphasized because several excellent papers on generalization and maintenance already exist in the I/O (Baldwin and Ford, 1988), education (Royer, 1979), and behavior analysis (Stokes and Baer, 1977; Stokes and Osnes, 1989) literatures. Research where training was peripheral to other organizational interventions (e.g., Fox and Sulzer-Azaroff, 1989; Komaki, Blood, and Holder, 1980; Rowe, 1981; Streff, Kalsher, and Geller, 1993) is also excluded. Finally, research focusing primarily on trainee reactions to programs is not discussed (Reid and Parsons, 1995, 1996).
The author would like to express appreciation to Thomas S. Critchfield, Richard K. Fleming, and the editors for their comments on an earlier version of this chapter.
THE IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUCTION
Some suggest that training does not play as important a role in behavior change as consequences. In a discussion of organizational change, Murphy and Remnyi (1979) state that antecedent stimulus control techniques are not likely to yield long-term changes in behavior unless consequent stimuli are controlled. Similarly, Geller (1990) notes that workshops and training programs cannot maintain safe behavior or reduce work injuries because natural contingencies are not in place to support safe behavior. He stresses the importance of using operant condition ...
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•Reflective Log•Your reflective log should include the.docxtawnyataylor528
•
Reflective Log
•
Your
reflective
log
should include the following
•
What was your role within the business simulation company?
Demonstrate how you used the resources critically to make decisions
while you were running the company.
.
•The philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke disagreed on the un.docxtawnyataylor528
•The philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke disagreed on the understanding of political authority, with Locke taking what is commonly called the “liberal” view. Choose a side (be brave perhaps; take a side you actually disagree with). Using the writings of each given in our class text or at the Websites below, make your case for the side you chose and against the other side. Identify one (1) modern situation in the world where these issues are significant.
Philosophers Debate Politics
•Chapter 24 (pp. 768-9)
•Hobbes: text at
http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-contents.html
;
Summary at http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hobbes-moral/; also
http://jim.com/hobbes.htm
•Locke: text at http://www.thenagain.info/Classes/Sources/Locke-2ndTreatise.html; General
background of the concept at
http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/teachers/lesson_plans/pdfs/unit1_12.pdf
.
•From the first e-Activity, examine two (2) economic effects that yo.docxtawnyataylor528
•From the first e-Activity, examine two (2) economic effects that you believe the Iranian elections have on other countries that are currently allies with this nation. Provide a rationale for your response.
•Suggest two (2) factors that make the United States, Saudi Arabia, and the European Union allies on the world stage of politics. Provide two (2) pieces of evidence to support your rationale.
.
• What are the NYS Physical Education Standards, and how do they ali.docxtawnyataylor528
• What are the NYS Physical Education Standards, and how do they align with the National PE standards?.
• What is adaptive physical education? Are there a set of standards? If so, what are they?
• Create a chart or table listing each set of standards, and show their alignment.
.
• Choose a health problem in the human population. Some examples i.docxtawnyataylor528
• Choose a health problem in the human population. Some examples include cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer of a specific organ, an infectious disease, etc.
• Describe the biological and physiological aspects of the health problem and potential chemical treatments or pathways that are affected.
• Discuss the natural progression of chronic diseases, or the natural history of infectious or exposure-related illnesses.
• What are the potential outcomes of the disease (recovery or death), and what leads to those potential outcome(s)?
• The paper should be at least 975 words in length.
• Include a list of references in APA format, including the information used from the modules.
.
•Key elements to GE’s learning culture include active experimentat.docxtawnyataylor528
•Key elements to GE’s learning culture include active experimentation and action-based learning, as the talented people GE attracts and recruits apply themselves to unravel the most challenging problems of the future. GE leaders are evaluated on how well they guide the professional growth of their people, providing counsel and goal setting. Leaders are responsible for ensuring functional competence and overall business excellence of their teams, in an operating climate that emphasizes unyielding integrity.
•Use GE’s website write a 3-4 page (body of the paper should be 3-4 pages) paper discussing how training, development, and learning programs have contributed to GE’s success Review the following information about GE’s Training and Development to help get you started:
Leadership and Learning Programs – to go to the website click on the links below
•Entry-level Leadership Programs:
GE's Corporate Entry-level Leadership Programs offer recent college graduates prized development opportunities that combine real-world experience with formal classroom study. Through a series of rotating assignments — typically over a period of two years — young professionals receive accelerated professional development, world-class mentors, and global networking that cuts across GE's businesses.
•Experienced Leadership Programs:
Experienced professionals who wish to accelerate their careers find fitting opportunity in our Experienced Leadership Programs. The programs position high-potential talent in collaboration with some of the top innovators in their fields, offering intensive on-the-job development in the areas of Corporate Audit, Human Resources and Sales and Marketing.
•John F. Welch Leadership Development Center:
At GE, learning is a cultural force and Crotonville is its epicenter. For more than 50 years, the legendary John F. Welch Leadership Center has been at the forefront of real-world application for cutting-edge thinking in organizational development, leadership, innovation and change. Established in 1956, the 53-acre corporate learning campus was the first of its kind in the world.
The Crotonville campus attracts the world's brightest and most influential minds in academia and business. Every year, for thousands of our people from entry-level employees to our highest-performing executives, a journey to Crotonville is something of a pilgrimage — a transformative learning experience that, for many, becomes a defining career event.
.
• This summative assessment can be completed in class or at any .docxtawnyataylor528
• This summative assessment can be completed in class or at any other convenient location.
• Students are required to complete this task using digital tools and ensure to submit in an acceptable format, e.g. .docx, .pdf, .pptx, or as advised by your assessor.
• Please use the following formatting guidelines to complete this assessment task:
• Font Size: 12; Line Spacing: Double; Font Style: Times New Roman
• Assessment activities can be completed either in real workplace environment or in a simulated environment such as your classroom. In both cases, appropriate evidence of the assessment activities must be provided.
Instruction to Assessors:
https://zealtutors.com/2021/05/11/assuming-your-organization-was-awarded-the-following-tender-atm-id-naa-rft-20xx-105/
• You must assess student’s assessment according to the provided Marking Criteria.
• You must complete and record any evidence related to assessment activities including role-plays and presentations using appropriate forms which must be attached with student assessment submission.
• You must provide students with detailed feedback within 10 working days from submission.
Assuming your organization was awarded the following tender:
ATM ID: NAA RFT 20xx/1058
Agency: National Archives of Australia
Category: 81110000 – Computer services
Close Date & Time: 15-Aug-20xx 2:00 pm (ACT Local Time)
Publish Date: 15-Jul-20xx
Location: ACT Canberra
ATM Type: Request for Tender
APP Reference: NAA20XX-1
Multi Agency Access: No
Panel Arrangement: No
Description:
A service provider is being sought for the technical upgrade of the Archives’ website Destination: Australia. In order to ensure the best value for money and optimal functionality (for the website and related exhibition interactive) going forward, it is necessary for the website to be transferred from a proprietary CMS to a commonly available CMS (including, but not limited to, an Open Source CMS).
https://4assignmenthelpers.com/assuming-your-organization-was-awarded-the-following-tender-atm-id-naa-rft-20xx-105/
The website will enable the National Archives of Australia to collect user contributed data about the photographic collection featured on the site. The interface must be modern, engaging and user-friendly, designed to meet the needs of people of all ages, and differing levels of computer and English literacy. The website must interact successfully with an exhibition interactive via an existing API. There is an option for hosting, maintenance and support services to be provided from contract execution until 31 December 2019.
Timeframe for Delivery: November/December 20XX with a possible extension of up to 3 years for hosting and maintenance.
http://assignmenthelp4u.com/assuming-your-organization-was-awarded-the-following-tender-atm-id-naa-rft-20xx-105/
The Requirement
The National Archives of Australia (Archives) (the Customer) is responsible under the Archives Act 1983 (Cth) for the preservation and storage of .
• 2 pages• APA• how the airport uses sustainability at the o.docxtawnyataylor528
• 2 pages
• APA
•
h
ow the airport uses sustainability at the operational side/airside (everything behind the gate and basically where the airplanes are) at an airport
• e.g. use of electric cars at the airfield, like buses for passengers etc.
• Due 6 PM (NY Time)
Thank you so much!
.
¿Lógico o ilógicoIndicate whether each of the doctors statemen.docxtawnyataylor528
¿Lógico o ilógico?
Indicate whether each of the doctor's statements is
lógico
or
ilógico
.
"En este hospital se prohíben exámenes médicos."
"Esta mañana se me rompió la mano; tuve que cancelar todas las citas de esta semana."
"Se necesitan medicinas porque hay pacientes enfermos."
"En mi consultorio se regalan radiografías."
"A un enfermero se le cayeron unas botellas; por eso el paciente se quitó los zapatos."
Oraciones con
se
Rewrite the sentences using
se
.
Modelo
Buscamos médicos bilingües.
Se buscan médicos bilingües.
No pueden hablar por teléfono.
Mariela sufre muchos dolores de cabeza. Debe trabajar más.
Fiebre
se escribe así: efe - i - e - be - ere - e.
A Felipe no le gustan mucho las películas; va al cine constantemente.
Conversaciones
Choose the correct adverbs to complete the conversations.
—Éstas son las pastillas que usted debe tomar. Recuerde, son cuatro pastillas al día; debe tomarlas...
—Perdone, doctora, ¿puede hablar más ? Es que con este dolor de cabeza escucho.
—¿Te enfermas ?
— , me enfermo una vez al año.
—¿Qué te dijo el médico?
—Que debo nadar una hora, tres veces por semana porque siento dolor en los huesos. La natación es muy buena para la circulación y no lastima los huesos.
Adverbios
Fill in the blanks with words from the list. Two words will not be used.
a tiempo
casi
muchas veces
poco
rápido
tarde
Mi amigo Onofre y yo estudiamos medicina. A nuestra profesora de biología le importa mucho la puntualidad. Si los estudiantes llegan
(1) [removed],
ella está de buen humor; pero si no, ¡ojo (
watch out
)!
(2) [removed]
Onofre y yo llegamos
(3) [removed]
a clase, y ahora bajaron nuestras notas (
grades
). ¡Vamos a tener que caminar
(4) [removed]
a clase!
.
·Which of the following is considered a hybrid organizational fo.docxtawnyataylor528
·
Which of the following is considered a hybrid organizational form?
·
sole proprietorship
·
corporation
·
limited liability partnership
·
partnership
.
·Write aresearch paper of three (3) body pages on a narrow aspec.docxtawnyataylor528
·
Write aresearch paper of three (3) body pages on a narrow aspect of the topic
“
how a specific innovation or discovery from the past has impacted or changed some aspect of human history.”
The paper may be either an argumentative or analytical essay. Utiliz
e
at least three
high-quality academic references that you access through FDU on-line or physical libraries.
At least one must be a scholarly/peer reviewed article.
Use of Wikipedia, blogs, .com websites of people not known as experts in their fields, and similar sources do
not
meet this “high-quality” requirement.
·
Develop a clear thesis statement that you will support in your paper. This requires researching, analyzing, appropriately quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing the resources as well as synthesizing material. Utilize information from your resources to draw implications that support your thesis. Be SPECIFIC and EXPLICIT in providing data and in drawing conclusions
·
Your paper will be written in APA format and must include:
·
Title page
·
Abstract
·
Fully researched body with appropriate in text citations
·
References
·
Appendices (if appropriate)
Cover, Abstract/Prefatory Information, References, Appendix, Illustrations and other support materials
are in addition
to the three body pages noted above.
Your paper
must
be double space, 12 pt. Times New Roman, with paragraph indents, no extra spaces between paragraphs, on US letter paper. Margins must be 1 inch top, bottom and
both sides, with alignment flush left and uneven, or
ragged
, on right.
·
In-text citations (including secondary source citations) and references must follow APA guidelines as covered in class and in handouts that are distributed to you.
Your OUTLINE/graphic organizer will be graded separately and will be worth 10 points. Your paper will be worth 90 points, for a total of 100 points on this assignment.
.
·InterviewConduct an interview and document it.During this c.docxtawnyataylor528
·
Interview
Conduct an interview and document it.
During this course we have learned about organizational culture and structure, we have spoken of feedback and job types. As project that pulls together all concepts from this course you will conduct an interview. Document the interview and draw a conclusion in a short four to five sentence summary of the experience.
1.
create 8 to 10 professional and quality interview questions
2.
decide how you are going to document the interview (audio, video or type)
3.
conduct the interview
4.
confirm that the interview was documented
5.
write the summary paragraph
6.
submit your assignment
The topic and interviewee are to be of your choice and should allow you to learn something that will help in pursuit of your career.
.
·Submit a 50- to 100-word response to each of the followin.docxtawnyataylor528
·
Submit
a 50- to 100-word response to
each of
the following questions:
o
Understanding a Will
1.
What is
a will and what is
the benefit of having
one
?
2.
Why is it important to also have a living revocable trust with a will?
o
Creating a Durable Power of Attorney for Health Care
What is a Durable Power of Attorney for Healthcare? What information does the document provide? How is this document related to an advance directive (aka living will)?
o
Understanding the Purpose of the Must-Have Documents
4.
Why might these forms need to be
updated?
How would you go about making these updates to ensure they are valid?
5.
In what ways did you find any of these forms to be difficult to complete? What did you learn as a result of completing these forms?
.
·Section 3·Financial management, quality and marketing asp.docxtawnyataylor528
·
Section 3
·
Financial management, quality and marketing aspects of the organization
·
Financial
·
Analysis of the service reimbursement for the organization (State, Federal, Insurance and Private Pay)
·
Methods of funding
·
Research issues
·
Quality and Ethics
·
Accreditation
·
Awards
·
Regulation
·
Ethical issues regarding who receives care at the organization
·
Marketing
·
Strategies
·
Branding
·
Community and employee involvement
·
Section 4
·
Impact of economic and outside influences to the organization
·
National and world economy impact
·
Explanation of the sustainability of this organizational care model
·
Healthcare reform
·
Regulations
·
Section 5
·
Conclusion for your paper and combine all the sections into a project paper
·
Recap the info regarding organization
·
Glimpse into the future for the organization based on your learning
·
Combine all parts into a APA formatted product
.
·Why is the effort to standardize the language used in reporti.docxtawnyataylor528
Standardizing the language used in reporting clinical trials through MedDRA is important for harmonization worldwide because it allows for consistent interpretation of data across all clinical trials and countries. Using a common language and terminology in MedDRA ensures that adverse events, medical conditions, and other outcomes are classified and coded in the same way. This consistency and harmonization facilitates the sharing and comparison of data from different clinical trials and populations.
·Humans belong to the genus Homo and chimpanzees to the genus .docxtawnyataylor528
·
Humans belong to the genus Homo and chimpanzees to the genus Pan, yet studies of primate genes show that chimpanzees and humans are more closely related to one another than each is to any other animals. In light of this result, some researchers suggest that chimpanzees should be renamed as members of the genus Homo. Discuss at least three (3) practical, scientific, and / or ethical issues that might be raised by such a change in naming. aleast 400 words.
.
·Crash House II and add resources and costs—remember, only crash.docxtawnyataylor528
·
Crash House II and add resources and costs—remember, only crash tasks on the critical path and start with the lowest cost.
•
Perform resource allocation and crash House II for House III homework.
I need an Email address to send the attachment I can't uploade it here.
.
·What is the main difference between the approaches of CONFLICT .docxtawnyataylor528
Conflict theory views crime as a product of social and economic forces that promote inequality and competition, while functionalist theory sees crime as inevitable and even somewhat beneficial to society. The media is often criticized for portraying women as sexual objects rather than as complete human beings, and some think boundaries should restrict overly sexualized or degrading portrayals out of respect for human dignity.
·What is the work of art’s historical and cultural context·.docxtawnyataylor528
·
What is the work of art’s historical and cultural context?
·
Does the work adhere to the conventions of the style movement / artistic period, or does it go against those conventions?
·
How are the two works of art similar? How are they different?
o
What can we conclude from those similarities and differences?
Your draft should be 2 – 3 pages long and include at least
four
scholarly sources (two for each work of art). Check out these databases from the
Shapiro Library website
to help you get started:
·
JSTOR: you can search by subject; “Art & Art History” is your best bet here
·
Project MUSE: you can search for articles by subject here as well; look for articles under “Art and Architecture”
.
·Review the steps of the SDLC. Explain why quality service deliv.docxtawnyataylor528
·
Review the steps of the SDLC. Explain why quality service delivery depends on the execution of the service delivery life cycle. Discuss the aspects of the SDLC that are critical to quality service management. Explain your answer.
·
From the e-Activity, explain how the service delivery model used within an organization impacts an IT organization at the enterprise level.
.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
2. favourable interpersonal
norms. In addition, lower diversity of proactive personality
amongst team members had
an indirect association with team proactive performance via its
negative effect on
favourable interpersonal norms.
'Teams are remarkably passive and accepting even when given
work that is inappropriate
for performance by a team, when the design of the team's task is
flawed, or when
contextual supports for teamwork are unavailable or inadequate
. . . "
Oldham and Hackman (2010, p. 474)
As suggested in the above quote, some work teams can be
overly passive and adaptive
when a more appropriate response might be to take charge and
proactively change the
situation. Yet, despite considerable research on individual-level
proactivity (Bateman &
Crant, 1993; Frese & Fay, 2001; Parker, Williams, & Turner,
2006), few studies have
focused on what drives this behaviour at the team level. As
Oldham and Hackman (2010,
p. 474) concluded little is known about the roots of this
passivity or what it would
take to foster greater team proactivity about such matters. It
would be good to know
more'. In this study, we focus on the determinants of team
proactive performance
and the processes through which team proactive performance is
achieved. We
consider four types of ambient stimuli that could influence the
proactivity of the team
3. * Correspondence should be addressed to Dr Helen M.
Williams, School of Business and Economics, Swansea
University,
Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK (e-mail: [email protected]).
DOI: 10.1348/096317910X502494
302 Helert M. Williams et al.
(work design, leadership, norms, team composition), and the
possible mediating role of
favourable interpersonal norms. Our study suggests unique
insights into factors that lead
teams to take charge and initiate change in their environment or
the team.
Team proactive performance
Most research and theory has considered the concept of
proactivity at the individual
level. Individual-level proactive behaviour refers to self-
starting, future-focused action in
which the individual alms to change the external situation, such
as improving work
methods, or to change some aspect of his/her self, such as
improving one's performance
by actively seeking feedback from a supervisor (Parker et al.,
2006). Such behaviour is
more active, change oriented, and future focused than either
core task performance or
adaptive performance, and, as such, is particularly important in
uncertain contexts in
which there is a lack of predictability in the inputs, processes,
or outputs of work
systems (Griffin, Neal, & Parker, 2007). When uncertainty is
4. high, work-roles cannot be
formalized precisely; they must emerge dynamically in response
to changing conditions
and demands. Proficient compliance with specifications is not
sufficient; nor is it
enough just to adapt and respond to these dynamic changes.
Individuals need to
take charge of situations, anticipate problems before they arise,
and initiate change in the
work system and work-roles. Researchers have shown the
importance for individual and
organizational outcomes of such individual-level proactivity
(Fuller & Marier, 2009).
Our focus in the current paper is on proactive teams rather than
proactive
individuals. We propose that team proactive performance is a
team-level concept that
has theoretical similarity with individual-level proactive
performance and thus define
proactive team performance as the extent to which a team
engages in self-starting,
future-focused action that aims to change the external situation
or the team itself.
Examples of proactive team behaviours include the team
introducing new work
methods, the team preventing problems rather than only reacting
to them, or the team
scanning the environment to identify potential opportunities.
Such team proactivity is
collective in emphasis: it is about the way the team behaves as a
group, that is, as an
interdependent and goal-directed combination of individuals
(Morgeson & Hofmann,
1999). As such, proactive team performance is not the same as
the sum of individual
5. team member proactive performances, such as multiple
individual team members acting
proactively to contribute to individual or team goals (Strauss,
Griffin, & Rafferty, 2009).
Individuals within a team tnight behave proactively, such as by
introducing new
methods, but unless this effort is coordinated, the team Itself
might not be proactive.
Team proactive performance is an emergent property of teams
that reflects and
shapes team interactions. When a team carries out its tasks,
team members interact w îth
each other to plan how they wUl meet their goals, monitor goal
achievement, monitor
external conditions, and coordinate interdependent activities
(Marks, Mathieu, &
Zaccaro, 2001). Through these interactions, team members
develop shared and enduring
ways of responding to challenges in the environment, which
then become the team's
behavioural patterns. For some teams, these interactions lead to
the team trying to meet
their goals in proactive ways, such as by platming ahead to
prevent future problems.
Other teams collectively develop routines for managing these
processes of goal setting,
monitoring, and performing in more passive ways. Team
proactive performance, whilst
distinct from individual-level proactive performance in
structure (because it is composed
of the interactions of team members rather than individual
behaviour), is thus similar to
individual-level proactive performance in function (Morgeson &
Hofmann, 1999).
6. Team proactive performance 303
There are relatively few studies of team proactive behaviour,
but those that do exist
suggest that proactive teams achieve positive outcomes. Hyatt
and Reddy (1997) found
that proactive behaviour of maintenance work groups was
positively related to the
response time of teams. Kirkman and Rosen (1999) found that
team proactive behaviour
was positively linked to team-level customer service and
productivity. Similarly, Tesluk
and Mathieu (1999) found that road crews who used highly self-
starting strategies to
manage performance barriers (e.g., taking advantage of low-
workload times to improve
methods) were most effective. Finally, Druskat and Kayes
(2000) found that team
proactivity in problem solving (defined as anticipating and
heading off problems
through proactive investigation, assessment, and action)
predicted team learning and
team performance in short-term student project teams.
Determinants of team proactive performance
Understanding the determinants of team proactive performance
is important because
one cannot simply assume homology across levels. As Chen,
Bliese, and Mathieu (2005)
argued: 'if researchers find that relationships are homogolous
across levels of analysis, it
adds to the parsimony and breadth of theories. In contrast,
should relationships not
prove to be homogolous across levels, it signals a boundary
7. condition and a need to
refine theories and to better understand how the processes
operate at each distinct
level' (p. 376). Moreover, team proactive performance is
distinct from other team-level
performance concepts that have had more attention, such as
team adaptability. Kirkman
and Rosen (1999) identified team empowerment (i.e., the team's
collective feelings of
meaning and control) as a determinant of team proactive
performance, and
empowerment in turn was predicted by external team leader
behaviours,
production/service responsibilities, team-based HR policies, and
social structure.
Likewise, Tesluk and Mathieu (1999) found that proactive crew
management strategies
were predicted by self-management, leadership, and teamwork
processes. However, the
mediating links between the variables of work design,
leadership, and team processes
were not considered in these studies, and team composition was
not examined as a
determinant.
Our study seeks to expand understanding of the determinants of
team proactive
performance by considering a broader range of team-level
variables than considered
thus far (see Figure 1 for model). To identify predictors, we
draw on Chen and Kanfer's
(2006) categorization of factors that influence team motivation
and behaviour. These
scholars proposed a reorganization of person and situation
factors according to their
stimulus characteristics, not their impact. They identified
8. ambient and discretionary
inputs to teams. Ambient stimuli refer to team-oriented stimuli
that pervade the team as
a whole, such as socio-technical aspects of work like work
design, whereas
discretionary stimuli are those that are directed at or presented
to specific team
members, such as personalized feedback to individual team
members or rewards at an
individual level. In the current study, we focus on ambient
stimuli because these have
stronger and more direct effects on team-level motivation and
performance than
discretionary stimuli (Chen & Kanfer, 2006). Of the four
categories of ambient inputs
identified by Chen and Kanfer (2006), we include three
categories for which there are
clear theoretical reasons to expect associations with proactive
performance: work
design (i.e., team self-management), leadership (i.e., the
transformational leadership of
the team leader), and norms (i.e., the extent to which there are
favourable interpersonal
norms within the team). We expected these stimuli to operate
similarly to how they
304 Helen M. Williams et al.
Mean level of proactive
personality
Transformational
leadership
9. Proactive personality
diversity
Self-management
H3
Favorable
interpersonal
norms
Team
proactive
performance
H8
H7
Figure I. Hypothesized model.
operate at the individual level of analysis. We did not include
team feedback, the fourth
category of ambient stimuli identified by Chen and Katifer,
because we expected
feedback to be more important for fostering core, proficient
performance rather than
proactive performance.
In addition to work design, leadership, and norms, we included
team composition as
a determinant. Specifically, we considered both the mean level
of individual proactive
personality and the diversity of proactive personality within the
10. team. Although past
research has investigated how the proactive personality of
individuals affects individual-
level proactivity (e.g., Parker et al., 2006), research has not
investigated how team
member personality characteristics combine to affect team-level
proactivity. Team
composition has been found to be a key factor in predicting
team effectiveness (e.g., see
Ilgen, Hollenbeck, Johnson, & Jundt, 2005; Williams & Allen,
2008, for reviews) and, as
we elaborate shortly, there are compelling reasons to consider
this attribute of teams in
relation to team proactive performance. The inclusion of team
composition means we
test a hybrid theory of homology (Chen et al., 2005) that
identifies certain homologous
predictors across levels (e.g., leadership, self-management), but
also some predictors
that are only meaningful at the group level (team composition).
Work design: Team self-mar)agemer)t
In terms of work design, our focus is on team self-management.
Self-managing teams are
interdependent groups of individuals who assume collective
responsibility for the day-
to-day operations of the team (Goodman, Devadas, & Griffith-
Hughson, 1988; Parker &
Wall, 1998). Members of self-managing teams typically
experience greater variety,
feedback, task significance, and task identity as a result of the
self-managing design, but
the most important feature is the greater collective autonomy
that individuals have over
their activities. For example, self-managing production teams
11. typically allocate tasks
amongst themselves, decide on the timing of their methods, and
take responsibility for
aspects such as quality and machine maintenance. In essence,
team self-management is a
form of shared leadership focused around decision-making, with
shared leadership
Team proactive performance 305
defined as 'an emergent team property that results from the
distribution of leadership
influence across multiple team members' (Carson, Tesiuk, &
Marrone, 2007, p. 1218).
At the individual level of analysis, job autonomy has been
identified as one of the
most consistent determinants of proactive behaviours, such as
proactive problem
solving and idea implementation (Parker et al., 2006), personal
initiative (Frese, Kring,
Soose, & Zempel, 1996), voice (LePine & Van Dyne, 1998), and
suggesting
improvements (Axtell et al., 2000). We suggest the same
positive effects of autonomy
operate at the team level. Self-managing teams allow team
members the control and
opportunity to manage their demands (variances) more actively.
In essence, team
autonomy 'allows' the team to be more proactive. Self-
management also increases the
team's motivation to be proactive. Thus self-managing teams,
through greater task
control and engagement in challenging tasks, develop a shared
12. sense of collective
efficacy that they can shape their environment in a proactive
way. Prior research shows
that self-management enhances collective efficacy which in turn
drives performance
(Chen & Katifer, 2006). Team self-management could also
etihance team proactive
performance through a cross-level process in which team self-
management, because of
the greater autonomy it affords individuals as well as teams,
results in greater individual
proactive motivation which in turn drives individual proactive
behaviour. Although we
do not test this cross-level process, it provides a further
explanation as to why team self-
management might affect team proactive performance. In sum,
there is good reason to
expect that team self-management will be associated with team
proactive performance,
as indeed shown by two team-level studies (Kirkman, Rosen,
Tesiuk, & Gibson, 2004;
Tesiuk & Mathieu, 1999). We aimed to replicate these findings.
Our hypothesis is:
Hypothesis I: Team self-management will be positively related
to team proactive performance.
Group norms: Favourable interpersonal norms
Norms are informal 'rules' present in a group that regulate the
behaviour of members
belonging to the group and establish a common code of conduct
(Feldman, 1984). Chen
and Klimoski (2003) argued that interdependent contexts
amplify the importance of
group norms and climate. Here we focus on interpersonal
13. norms, or the code of
conduct by which team members typically treat each other.
Favourable interpersonal
norms are especially important for proactivity because engaging
in proactive behaviour
can be interpersonally 'risky' (Parker etal., 2006). At the
individual level, it is theorized
that individuals weigh up the likely benefits and risks before
deciding whether to take
charge at work (Morrison & Phelps, 1999). Perceived risks are
enhanced when
individuals fear they might be put down or not respected by
colleagues. According to
Dutton, Ashford, Lawrence, and Miner-Rubino (2002), when
deciding whether to
engage in discretionary behaviour, individuals engage in
contextual sensemaking
assessing 'whether or not the context is favorable for taking
some type of action'
(p. 355). In support of this, relationship quality between the
individual and the people
with whom they were to sell was important in predicting issue
selling (Ashford,
Rothbard, Piderit, & Dutton, 1998), a proactive behaviour in
which individuals try to
itifluence the organizational agenda by 'selling' issues to
leaders. Further, Parker et al.
(2006) found team members' trust in co-workers to be positively
related to engaging in
individual-level proactive work behaviour.
We propose the importance of a favourable interpersonal
context at the team level.
In deciding whether to suggest ideas or start discussions with
other team members
14. 306 Helen M. Williams et al.
regarding how an anticipated problem can be overcome, team
members will assess the
way they work together and decide whether the within-team
environment is supportive
(or favourable) for taking such action. If the norms include team
members' supporting
and respecting each other, they will more likely take the risk of
being proactive.
Moreover, when there are favourable interpersonal norms, one
team member putting
forward suggestions will start positive discussions amongst
team members, thus
encouraging more ideas to be put forward by the team. Some
support for this idea
comes from Tesluk and Mathieu (1999), who found that team
work processes of
coordination, potency, and familiarity were positively related to
problem-management
actions and strategies. Likewise, Zárraga and Bonache (2005)
found a 'high care'
atmosphere (incorporating issues such as respect within the
team) facilitated the
transfer and creation of knowledge in self-managed teams.
Similarly, team psychological
safety has been found to be important to team learning
behaviour (Edmondson, 1999),
and team norms supporting itinovation predict team innovation
(Anderson & West,
1998). We therefore suggest that, for the team to be proactive, it
requires members to
appraise the interpersonal norms as favourable so that they are
willing to speak out and
15. challenge the status quo, and are prepared to put forward
suggestions and ideas for
improvement. We hypothesize that:
Hypothesis 2: Favourable interpersonal norms within the team
will be positively related to team
proactive performance.
Leadership: Transformational team leader
According to Chen and Kanfer (2006), leadership arguably
represents the most
important of all contextual factors which might affect individual
and team motivation'
(p. 40). A key type of ambient leadership, directed towards the
team as a whole, is
transformational leadership. Transformational leaders motivate
teams by transforming
the values and priorities of team members and inspiring them to
perform beyond
expectations (Bass, 1985). Bass's (1985) four components of
transformational leadership
(idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual
stimulation, and individualized
consideration) collectively inspire followers to achieve more
than was thought possible.
Importantly for proactivity, transformational leaders encourage
followers to question
assumptions and think about ne^v ways of doing tasks.
Consistent w îth these ideas,
transformational leadership has been show n̂ to lead to positive
individual and
organizational outcomes (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Judge & Bono,
2000). At the team level,
research from military units in America (Bass, Avolio, Jung, &
Berson, 2003) and
16. Singapore (Um & Ployhart, 2004) has found that unit
commanders' transformational
leadership predicts unit performance in operational training
exercises. Like'wise, Keller
(1992) found that transformational leadership in research and
development teams
predicted superior technical quality of products produced by
these teams.
In the current study, v̂ e focus on team leaders who are 'hands-
on' within the team.
We suggest that one reason transformational leadership affects
team proactivity is
because transformational leaders encourage team self-
management. Transformational
leaders support individual development (Avolio & Gibbson,
1988) and inspire
individuals to want to engage in more challenging tasks, and
thereby promote greater
collective self-management. In accordance with these
arguments, at the organizational
level, CEO's transformational leadership has been found to be
positively related to
empowerment (Jung, Choŵ , & Wu, 2003). Another reason
transformational leadership
Team proactive performance 307
tnight affect team proactive performance is via its effect on
interpersonal norms. At the
individual level, managers can have a significant impact on the
climate for innovation
and proactivity (Morrison & Phelps, 1999). Transformational
team leaders also affect
17. team performance through infiuencing a shared vision and
increased team reflexivity
(Schippers, Den Hartog, Koopman, & van Knippenberg, 2008).
Leadership (including
individual consideration) has also been found to be related to a
positive group
atmosphere (e.g., active, open, friendly; Bierhoff & Müller,
2005) and team leaders
actively involved in teams facilitate a 'high care' atmosphere
within-teams (Zárraga &
Bonache, 2005).
In sum, we hypothesize that transformational leadership of the
team leader will
facilitate both self-management and favourable interpersonal
norms, and thus in turn
affect team proactive performance. Our hypothesis allows us to
test whether
individual-level findings of a positive link between
transformational leadership and
proactive behaviour (Belschak & Den Hartog, 2010; Rank,
Nelson, Allen, & Xu, 1999;
Strauss et al., 2009) apply to teams. Moreover, we test
mechanisms through
which transformational leadership might affect team proactive
performance. Our
hypotheses are:
Hypothesis 3: Transformational leadership will be positively
related to team proactive
performance.
Hypothesis 4a: The effect of transformational leadership on
team proactive performance will be
mediated by the self-management of the team.
18. Hypothesis 4b: The effect of transformational leadership on
team proactive performance will be
mediated by favourable interpersonal norms.
Team compositior): Proactive personality mean and diversity
As Morgeson and Hofmann (1999) stated, the composition of a
unit can have 'a
pronounced influence on collective behaviour and systems of
interaction, thereby
infiuencing the phenomena that ultimately emerge' (p. 258). Of
particular importance
are underlying psychological characteristics (often referred to
as deep-level composition
variables) such as personality factors, values, and attitudes
(Bell, 2007). For example, a
meta-analysis by Bell (2007) concluded that mean levels of
conscientiousness, openness
to experience, and coUectiveness were strong predictors of team
performance. In regard
to predicting team proactivity, whilst other personality factors
might be important, we
focus on team members' proactive personality, a behavioural
tendency involving
showing initiative, identifying opportunities, taking action, and
persevering in attempts
to enact change (Bateman & Crant, 1993). At the individual
level, proactive personality
has been found to predict proactive problem solving (Parker et
al., 2006), individual
innovation (Seibert, Kraimer, & Crant, 2001), entrepreneurship
(Crant, 1996), as well as
proactive work behaviour (Parker & Collins, 2010).
Investigating whether the impact of
proactive personality extends to the team level is an important
first step in understanding
19. how team composition relates to team proactive performance.
Team members with a proactive personality are inclined to put
forward ideas and
make suggestions as to how to improve the way work is done, as
well as to spot
potential problems and think of ways to get around them.
Consequently, the greater the
number of team members with proactive personalities the more
suggestions and ideas
the team will consider. Moreover, interaction amongst team
members with proactive
308 Helen M. Williams et al.
personalities is likely to stimulate team discussions resulting in
the team anticipating
problems and/or generating collective ideas about improving
things. We therefore
propose that the mean level of proactive personality in the team
will be positively
related to team proactive performance. In addition, we suggest
that a mechanism
through which this will manifest is self-management.
Individuals with a proactive
personality are more likely to engage in self-managed activities
(Parker & Sprigg, 1999),
which in turn will lead to increased team proactive
performance. For example, if the
team contains several members with a proactive personality,
these team members will
likely make the most of the opportunity to be more self-
managing, and will take on more
responsibility for activities such as task allocation. Through
20. processes such as role
modelling, others in the team will see their peers being self-
managing and will be more
likely to take up responsibility themselves.
Hypothesis 5: The mean level of proactive personality in the
team will be positively related to
team proactive performance.
Hypothesis 6: The effect of the mean level of proactive
personality in the team on team
proactive performance v^ill be mediated by self-management.
Another aspect of team composition likely to be important is
diversity in proactive
personality. Muchinsky and Monahan's (1987) distinction
between supplementary
and complementary models of person-organization fit is helpful
in this regard.
A supplementary model suggests that for some types of
personality, job performance
will be facilitated by homogeneity in personality (i.e., low
diversity) as team members
will be more compatible ^ t h those with a similar personality
(Neuman, Wagner, &
Christiansen, 1999). In contrast, a complementary model
suggests that the team
performance can be improved by diversity when 'each member
adds unique attributes
that are necessary for the team to be successful' (Neuman et al.,
1999, p. 31).
We base our hypotheses about proactive personality diversity on
a supplementary
model. Having passive team members (i.e., those law in
proactive personality) is
21. unlikely to be beneficial to the team in terms of team proactive
performance. Passive
team members are less likely to put forward suggestions.
Moreover, team members with
proactive personalities will be more likely to support others'
attempts to be proactive
because they themselves Uke to take charge and shape the
environment. They will
probably better understand the effort involved in being
proactive than passive team
members, and so actively endorse this effort. Equally, they
might experience frustration
towards colleagues who prefer to react or adapt to change,
rather than initiate it, and
who are different from themselves. They may also feel that they
are contributing more to
the team effort than other team members who have less
proactive personalities. All this
will reduce the likelihood that proactive ideas become
implemented within a team.
Having a team composed of both proactive and passive members
will also likely
affect the interpersonal norms. Diversity in job satisfaction of
team members has been
found to be associated with reduced cohesion (Harrison, Price,
& Bell, 1998) and less
social integration (Van der Vegt, 2002), while diversity in
values has been found to
be related to increased conflict (Jehn, Northcraft, & Neale,
1999). Although at the
individual level and focusing on perceived rather than actual
dissimilarity, WiUiams,
Parker, and Turner (2007) found perspective taking is lower
amongst team members
who perceive themselves to be dissimilar from their fellow team
22. members in terms of
work style. Thus, differences amongst team members approach
to work can be
important to within-team relationships. Differences in the levels
of proactive personality
Team proactive performance 309
of team members may therefore negatively affect the
interpersonal atmosphere within
the team, for example, through reduced perspective taking
amongst team members,
increased arguments and disagreements within the team, lower
cohesion, and social
integration. We therefore propose that diversity in proactive
personality within the team
will decrease team proactive performance, and we expect that
this negative effect will
be due in part to the detrimental effect that diversity will have
on favourable
interpersonal norms.
Hypothesis 7: Proactive personality diversity will be negatively
related to team proactive
performance.
Hypoútesis 8: The effect of proactive personality diversity on
team proactive performance will
be mediated by favourable interpersonal norms.
Method
Procedure and sample
The study was conducted within a petrochemical processing
23. plant based in the UK.
The teams studied were shift teams consisting of production
technicians carrying out
day-to-day plant operations such as distillation, steam and
energy generation, and
ensuring pump reliability. At the time of the study, the process
of moving from
traditionally managed to self-managing teams had occurred with
varying degrees of
success across different areas of the plant. The change process
involved removing a shift
supervisor and broadening the roles of the production
technicians. Within each team,
one production technician was appointed the lead technician
(i.e., team leader). These
lead technicians were 'hands-on' members of the team who acted
as the central link
between the team and upper management. The average team size
was 7.16 members
CSD = 3.75).
The independent variables were measured via a questionnaire
that researchers
administered to all teams within the plant during work time. The
survey response rate
was 66% (N = 289) with an average within-team response rate
of 79%. When aggregated
to the team level, this produced usable survey data on 55 teams.
As the lead technicians
were integral members of the team, their scores were used along
with the other team
members for all the measures except transformational
leadership, for which they were
excluded as they were the specific focus of that measure.
To avoid common method variance, external ratings were used
24. to measure team
proactive performance. Plant engineers were asked to rate teams
with whom they had
regular contact on a daily basis. The self-managing teams
reported to the plant engineers
once the shift supervisors were removed from the hierarchy. In
total, 38 engineers
returned ratings, resulting in 47 teams being rated by between 2
and 5 engineers (average
number of ratings per team = 3.22). The final sample in this
study was 43 teams.
Measures
Proactive persoriality corvposWon
Individual-level proactive personality (a = .85) was assessed
using four of the
highest loading items from Bateman and Crant's (1993)
proactive personality scale.
This measure has proven reliability and validity (e.g., Bateman
& Crant, 1993) and the
same abbreviated scale has been used elsewhere (e.g., Parker &
Sprigg, 1999). Example
310 Helen M. Williams et al.
items include: 'If I believe in an idea, no obstacle will prevent
me from making it
happen' and 'I am excellent at identifying opportunities'.
Responses ranged from 1 (not
true at all) to 5 (very true). The mean level of proactive
personality was the individual
proactive personality measure aggregated to the team level.
25. Proactive personality
diversity was operationalized as the standard deviation in
proactive personality within
the team, which is the most appropriate measure of diversity for
interval variables
(Harrison & Klein, 2007).
Team self-management
Team self-management was assessed using a measure developed
specifically for this
study. Focus groups were conducted with 10 engineers and one
senior manager who
had been involved in the planning and implementation of self-
managed teams at the
chemical plant. The goal of the focus groups was to identify
activities that the team
would have been doing prior to the introduction of self-
managing teams, as well as all
the activities that self-managed teams should be doing once the
shift supervisors had
been removed. The resulting list comprised 19 activities.
Production technicians on the
teams were then asked to rate the extent to which they were
involved in each activity on
a scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (a great deal). To identify items
reflecting self-
management, an exploratory factor analysis was conducted
using maximum-likelihood
extraction method and oblimin rotation. This analysis indicated
that the items loaded
onto three factors which, as expected, varied in their degree of
self-management.
Example items from the 10-item self-managing factor are: 'help
to monitor the team's
overall performance', 'help to set long-term training goals for
26. the team', and 'help to
select new team members'. These are all examples of activities
traditionally carried out
by supervisors, but which are carried out by team members as
self-managing teams. The
other two factors that reflected more traditional team tasks
included items such as 'carry
out housekeeping' and 'carry out own first-fix maintenance', w
ĥich are about the
breadth of tasks rather than the degree of self-management, and
are therefore not
considered further in the study.
Aggregation analyses showed there to be significant inter-rater
reliability,
ICC(l) = .101, F(6i) = 1.75, p < .01, and the mean r^g for the
measure as a whole
ŵ as .68. Although the r^g ̂ vas slightly lower than is desirable,
we considered it acceptable
because our measure of team self-management is what
Kozlowski and Klein (2000) refer
to as a cotifigural construct, which are constructs that 'emerge
from individuals but do not
coalesce as shared properties do' (p. 34). Although many self-
managing teams will have
higher than average levels of team members involved in self-
managing activities, it is not
necessary (nor perhaps appropriate) for team members to be
equally involved self-
managing activities. Consequently, it is not unsurprising that
consensus amongst
members of the team was lower for this measure than for other
measures in our study.
Indeed, some even argue it is not necessary to demonstrate
within-team agreement for
cotifigural constructs (Kozlowski & Klein, 2000). In terms of
27. between-group variance, the
ICC(2) was .43. The nature of our measure might partly explain
why this is lower than the
.70 value which is typically considered acceptable. Another
factor is that the team sizes
within our sample were small, which lowers ICC(2) (see Bliese,
2000). Schippers et al.
(2008) argued that w ĥen this is the case researchers should rely
on r^g and ICC(l) when
considering the appropriateness of aggregation. We therefore
concluded there was
sufficient support for the aggregation of our measure to the
team level.
Team proactive performartce 31 I
Based on the focus group and interviews with plant managers,
we identified two
distinct areas within the plant. One area was regarded by our
contacts to be taking to self-
managed team working well and the other area was struggling.
A sigtiificant difference in
the expected direction was found in our measurement of team
self-management in these
areas, i(33) = i.OO,p < .01, thus helping to support the validity
of our measure.
Favourable interpersonal norms
Favourable interpersonal norms (a = .72) was assessed via three
highest-loading items
from an adaptation of Donovan, Dragow, and Munson's (1998)
measure of co-workers'
fair interpersonal treatment, which was demonstrated by
28. Donovan et al. to be both
reliable and valid. The items are: 'my team-mates put each other
down', 'my team-mates
argue with one another', 'my team-mates treat each other with
respect'. FoUow îng
Donovan et al., a three-point response scale was used such that
negatively keyed items
were coded: 1 (yes), 2 (cannot decide), and 3 (no).
Consequently, a high score
represents favourable interpersonal norms. Donovan et al.'s
original scale was at the
individual level, but our analyses indicated adequate within-
group agreement (mean
ŵg = -72) and, given the team sizes within the sample sufficient
inter-rater reliability
(̂ •(63) = 2.04, p < .001; ICC(l) = .14, ICC(2) = .51), justifying
aggregation of the
measure. Finally, in support of the validity of this measure, we
found that the teams'
ratings of favourable interpersonal norms was significantly
correlated to engineers'
ratings of the cohesion of the teams (r = .51, p < .01), which
although a narrower
construct than favourable interpersonal norms, is a construct
that would be expected to
correlate with the survey measure.
Transformatíonal leadership
Transformational leadership (a = .92) was measured using 10
items from Bass and
Avolio's (1997) Multifactor Leadership Questiormaire 5-X,
which they demonstrated to
be both a reliable and valid measure. Items tapped each of the
four components of
29. transformational leadership and the relative factor loadings
obtained in Bass and Avolio's
analyses, as well as their relevance to our study context, were
considered in item
selection. Example items include (how often does your team
leader): 'do things that
build my respect for him/her?', 'talk enthusiastically about what
needs to be done?', 'get
us to look at problems from many different angles?', 'treat each
team member as an
individual with unique needs and abilities?'. The response scale
ranged from 1 (never) to
5 (always). Team members (excluding the lead technician) were
asked to rate their lead
technician, and these ratings were aggregated to produce the
team-level transforma-
tional leadership score. Aggregation was demonstrated to be
appropriate due to
adequate within-group agreement (mean rwg = .95) and, given
the team sizes within the
sample, sufficient inter-rater reliability (F(65)= 5.06, p < .001;
ICC(l) = .24,
ICC(2) = .67).
Team proactive performance
Team proactive performance (a = .78). The measurement model
we apply is the
aggregate model (Chan, 1998) or global composition model
(Kozlowski & Klein, 2000)
in which the referent is the team, and the aggregate is based on
an aggregate-level
measure (in this case, an external rating for the team).
Engineers were asked to rate
teams in terms of their 'use of initiative to make the most of
opportunities and being
30. 312 Helen M. Williams et al.
proactive in the way it deals with problems' and the extent to
which the team 'comes up
with novel ideas and solutions to problems'. Both items tap the
self-starting, change-
oriented behaviours that characterize proactivity. The response
scale ranged between
1 (very low) and 5 (very high). The mean r^^ across the teams
was .84, ICC(l) was
.22 (^60) = 2.94, p< .001), and ICC(2) was .66. We therefore
concluded that there
was sufficient within-team agreement amongst raters to average
the engineers' ratings
for each team.
Confirmatory factor analysis of predictors
Cotifirmatory factor analysis using LISREL 8.3 Göreskog &
Sörbom, 1999) with
covariance matrix as input was conducted to assess the factorial
validity of each of the
team-report measures. As our sample was small given
recommendations for parameter-
to-sample ratios w îthin structural equation modelling (Bentler
& Chou, 1987), we
created item parcels (Landis, Beal, & Tesluk, 2000). For
transformational leadership, we
created an item parcel for each of the four components of
transformational leadership;
for self-management, v/e randomly assigned four items to one
parcel and three items to
each of the other two parcels; for proactive personality, we
31. randomly assigned two items
to each of the two parcels; and for favourable interpersonal
norms, we randomly
assigned two of the three items to one parcel, and the remaining
item refiected the
second parcel.
We used maximum-likelihood estimation, and in addition to chi-
squared values, we
also report the root mean squared error of approximation
(RMSEA; Steiger, 1990), for
which values of less than .10 are desired (Kelloway, 1998).
These measures can, however,
be affected by sample size. We therefore also report the
comparative fit index (CFI;
Bentler, 1990) which Hu and Bentler (1998) suggested to be
most appropriate for small
sample sizes (< 250 cases). CFI values lower than .90 are
considered to indicate a poor fit.
Although the hypothesized four-factor model provides only a
modestly good fit to
the data [x^(38) = 149.81,^ < .01; RMSEA = .11; CFI = .91], an
alternative one-factor
model was a poor fit [x^(44) = 654.49, p < .001; RMSEA = .24;
CFI = .45], and was
significantly poorer than the four-factor model (Ax^(3) =
504.68, p < .05). The four-
factor model ŵ as also a significantly better fit than various
three-factor models that
combined measures for those scales most closely
intercorrelated. For example, the
model in w ĥich transformational leadership and favourable
interpersonal norms w êre
combined into a single factor was a significantly poorer fit than
the four-factor model
32. [X^(4l) == 238.45, p<.OV, RMSEA = .11; CFI = .79; Ax^(3) =
88.64, j5 < .001].
Moreover, all model parameters in the four-factor hypothesized
model were significant
and loaded highly onto their intended factor (see Appendix).
This provides support for
the discritninant validity of our measures; a conclusion
supported by the fact that the
highest correlation between the latent constructs was .30 which
indicates the
constructs are sufficiently distinct from one another to be
considered separately.
We also tested the convergent and discriminant validity of the
constructs using the
approach advocated by Fornell and Larcker (1981). The average
variance extracted
for each of the underlying constructs of interest was .67, .51,
.80, and .73 for
transformational leadership, self-management, proactive
personality and favourable
interpersonal norms, respectively. As the average variance
extracted for each latent
constructs exceeds .50, we can conclude that the variance
captured by the construct is
larger than the variance due to measurement error (Fornell &
Larcker, 1981), thus
demonstrating convergent validity. In addition, the average
variance extracted was
Team proactive performance 313
greater than the squared correlations between constructs, thus
demonstrating
33. discriminant validity (Fomell & Larcker, 1981).
Results
Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics and zero-order
correlations among study
variables, conducted at the team level. Overall, the zero-order
correlations support our
model, although a notable exception to this is that
transformational leadership and self-
management are not significantly correlated (r = .11, ns).
However, to investigate the
hypothesized relationships whilst taking into account the other
study variables; we
tested our model using observed variable path analysis
(Kelloway, 1998). The analyses
discussed below were conducted controlling for team size, and
an inspection of
modification indices did not indicate the need to specify any
specific pathways. It is
important to note that, because the analyses were conducted at
the team level (N = 43),
it was not appropriate to compute a full structural model.
Table I . Descriptive statistics and correlations among study
variables
1. Team size
2. Mean level of team proactive
personality
3. Team proactive personality
diversity
4. Transformational leadership
5. Favourable interpersonal norms
6. Self-management
36. .09
.45** . 3 1 * -
^p < .,*p < .05;**p < .01.
Our findings indicate that a fully mediated version of our
hypothesized model (i.e., no
direct pathways between the independent variables and team
proactive performance)
provides a reasonable fit to the data, x^(9) = 12.88,/? > .05;
RMSEA = .10; CFI = .90.
We compared this model against other theoretically plausible
models as recommended
Kelloway (1998). First, we compared the fully mediated model
to a partially mediated
version. Specifically, we added three direct paths from the mean
level of proactive
personality, proactive personality diversity, and
transformational leadership to team
proactive performance. As shown in Table 2, this model was a
less good fit to the data
(^^(jS) = 12.67, p > .05; RMSEA = .17; CFI = .88).
The second alternative model to which we compared our fully
mediated model
predicted both mediators to be important in the relationship
between each of the
compositional and transformational leadership variables and
team proactive perform-
ance (i.e., we added paths from the mean level of proactive
personality to favourable
interpersonal norms and from proactive personality diversity to
self-management). This
model provided a relatively good fit to the data (x^(7) =
10.47,/> > .05; RMSEA = .11;
CFI = .91); however, tests of comparative fit suggest this
37. additional mediators model
was not significantly different from the hypothesized model,
(Ax^(2) = 2.4l,p> .05).
We therefore also considered indices of model parsimony using
the parsimonious
normed fit index (PNFI; James, Mulaik, & Brett, 1982). With
this fit index, comparatively
314 Helen M. Williams et al.
Table 2. Summary of models tested and LISREL fit statistics
Model df RMSEA CFI PNFI
Fully mediated model 12.88 9 .10 .90 .35
Alternative model I (partially mediated version of 12.67 6 .17
.88 .24
fully mediated model)
Alternative model 2 (full mediation with both 10.47 7 .11 .91
.28
mediators related to all independent variables)
Memot/ve mode/3 (partial mediation with both 10.14* 4 .20 .89
.17
mediators related to all independent variables
A/ternot/Ve mode/4 (direct effects version of fully 40.21** 4
.28 .38 .20
mediated model)
Adjusted hypothesized model (fully mediated model 13.54 10
38. .09 .90 .39
with pathway between transformational leadership
and self-management removed)
*p < .05;**/) < .01.
higher values are considered an indication of more parsimonious
fit, but there are no
common thresholds, so Kelloway (1998) recommends choosing
the model with the
highest value. As the PNFI for the hypothesized model (PFNI =
.35) was greater than for
the partially mediated version (PFNI = .24), we conclude that
the hypothesized model
is a better fit to our data.
A third alternative model was a partially mediated version of
the second alternative
model (i.e., in addition to the added mediation paths, we also
added three direct paths
from the mean level of proactive personality, proactive
personality diversity, and
transformational leadership to team proactive performance).
This model was a poor fit
to the data; x^(4) = 10.14, p < .05; RMSEA = .20; CFI = 0.89.
The final alternative model to which we compared our fully
mediated model was a
direct model whereby self-management and favourable
interpersonal norms were not
mediators (i.e., we removed the paths between mean level of
proactive personality and
self-management, transformational leadership and self-
management, transformational
leadership and favourable interpersonal norms; and proactive
personality diversity
39. and favourable interpersonal norms). Again, this model was a
poor fit to the data;
^2(10) = 40.21,p < .001; RMSEA = .28; CFI = .38.
Figure 2 shows the significant pathways for the fully mediated
model. Both team
self-management (ß = 0.27, p < .05) and favourable
interpersonal norms (ß = 0.42,
/>< .01) were positively related to team proactive performance,
thus supporting
Hypotheses 1 and 2. In relation to the effects of the independent
variables,
transformational leadership was positively related to favourable
interpersonal
norms (ß = 0.51, p < .01^ but unrelated to self-management (ß =
0.12, ns).
This non-significant finding means that Hypothesis 4a is not
supported by our data.
The mean level of proactive personality was, however,
positively related to self-
management (ß = 0.51, /? < .01) and proactive personality
diversity was negatively
related to favourable interpersonal norms (ß = -0.32, p < .01).
Squared multiple
correlations show the model explains 27, 44, and 27% of the
variance in team proactive
performance, interpersonal norms, and self-management,
respectively.
Apart from Hypothesis 4a, the sigtiificant pathways are in
accordance with our
mediation hypotheses (i.e.. Hypotheses 4b, 6, and 8). However,
it is not sufficient to
demonstrate a relationship between independent variable and
mediator, and mediator
40. Team proactive performance 315
Mean level of proactive
personality
Transformational
leadership
Proactive personality
diversity
Self-management
Favorable
interpersonal
norms
Team
proactive
performance
. 4 2 "
-.32
Figure 2. Significant pathways in supported model. Note. *p <
.OS, **p<.Q. Team proactive
performance: R^ = .27; favourable interpersonal norms; R^ =
.44; self-management R^ = .27. Team
size was controlled for in the model; an inspection of the
41. modification indices did not indicate that any
specific pathways needed to be modelled.
and dependent variable. Rather, there should be a non
significant relationship between
the independent variable and the dependent variable after
controlling for the mediator
(Baron & Kenny, 1986). Alternative model 1 was a test of these
relationships (it specified
direct and indirect pathways) and inspection of the pathways
shows team proactive
performance was not significantly related to mean level
proactivity (ß = 0.18, ns),
proactive personality diversity (ß = -0.08, ns), nor
transformational leadership
(ß = 0.06, ns).
A final condition of mediation put forward by Baron and Kenny
(1986) was that there
should be a significant relationship between the independent
variable and dependent
variable when the mediator was not controlled for. To test this,
we tested a model in
which there were otily pathways between the independent
variables and the dependent
variable. As expected, this model was a poor fit (x^(l) = 7.84, p
< .01; RMSEA = .40;
CFI = .77). Inspection of the pathways showed that both the
mean level of proactive
personality (ß = 0.33, p < .01) and transformational leadership
(ß = 0.25, p < .05)
were significantly related to team proactive performance; these
effects support
Hypotheses 3 and 5. Proactive personality diversity was not
significantly related to team
42. proactive performance (ß = -0.17, ns). However, although this
demonstrates that
proactive personality diversity does not directly affect team
proactive performance
there remains the possibility that the effect of proactive
personality diversity on team
proactive performance is indirect. Moreover, although a direct
effect between the
independent variable and dependent variable was a condition of
Baron and Ketmy's
(1986) test of mediation, it has more recently been suggested
that this condition is not
necessary, especially in small sample sizes (LeBreton, Wu, &
Bing, 2009). Instead,
LeBreton et al. recommend testing indirect effects, estimated as
the product-of-
coefflcients. Using procedures advocated by Preacher and Hayes
(2004) to conduct
Sobel tests, we found significant indirect effects for the
proactive personality diversity to
favourable interpersonal norms to team proactive performance
relationship (Z = 2.04,
p < .05) and the transformational leadership to favourable
interpersonal norms to team
proactive performance relationship (Z = 2.10, p < .03). There
was, however, a non-
significant indirect effect in the mean level of proactive
personality to self-management
316 Helen M. Williams et al.
to team proactive performance relationship (Z - 1.08, ns). Our
findings therefore show
that favourable within-team context mediates the effect of
43. transformational leadership
on team proactive performance, and that proactive personality
diversity has an indirect
negative effect on team proactive performance via its negative
effect on favourable
interpersonal norms. Self-management does not, however,
mediate the relationship
between mean level of proactive personality and team proactive
performance, nor is
there an indirect effect between these variables.
In sum, supporting Hypotheses 1 and 2, our findings show that
team proactive
performance is predicted by both self-management and
favourable interpersonal norms.
There was a direct relationship between transformational
leadership and team proactive
performance, thus supporting Hypothesis 3, and this effect was
found to be mediated
by favourable interpersonal norms, but not self-management.
Therefore, whilst
Hypothesis 4b is supported, the data does not provide support
for Hypothesis 4a.
Supporting Hypothesis 5, we found a direct relationship
between mean level of
proactive personality and team proactive performance, but
contrary to Hypothesis 6
this relationship was not mediated by self-management. Finally,
we found that proactive
personality diversity had an indirect negative effect on team
proactive performance via
favourable interpersonal norms, thus our data supports
Hypothesis 8, but not
Hypothesis 7.
Discussion
44. This study aimed to extend our understanding of the
determinants of team proactive
performance. Overall, some of our findings are unique to the
team level, such as the
importance of team composition, whereas other findings parallel
those at the individual
level, such as the importance of the ambient team stimuli of
self-management and
leadership for proactivity.
Key findings and their implications
Our study is the first to examine how the composition of the
team relates to its proactive
performance. The findings demonstrate the importance of
considering team members'
proactive personalities. The more proactive members in a team,
the greater its
innovation and taking charge behaviour. From a practical point
of view, this finding
suggests that if teams are working in uncertain environments
where team proactive
behaviour is important, one of the criteria to be used when
selecting team members
should be the extent to which the individual has a proactive
personality.
Some care does, however, need to be taken because, in addition
to finding that the
mean level of proactive personality was positively related to
team proactive behaviour,
our study also shows that diversity of proactive personality is
problematic. Specifically,
proactive personality diversity had a negative effect on
favourable interpersonal norms
which in turn was associated with team proactive performance.
45. Thus, a team is more
likely to be moderately proactive if it has several moderately
proactive individuals than if
it has some very proactive individuals and some very passive
individuals. Since proactive
behaviour involves challenging the status quo, passive
individuals might feel
uncomfortable in the presence of proactive others, and less
likely to endorse or actively
support their proactive efforts. At the same time, those
individuals who are being
proactive are doing so on their own volition, and when their
proactivity is not welcomed.
Team proactive performance 317
this might be demoralizing. More research is needed to test
these possibilities.
Importantly, our results are in accordance with the idea that
proactive personality
diversity operates within a supplementary model of person-
organization fit, such that
team members will be more compatible with those with a
similar level of proactive
personality. Our findings are also congruent with the now
substantial literature
demonstrating that non task-related forms of diversity have
detrimental effects on team
functioning and effectiveness (Mannix & Neale, 2005; Williams
& O'Reilly, 1998).
A further finding of our study is the role of self-management.
Teams who collectively
take on greater responsibility for their day-to-day tasks were
46. also those who were
identified by external raters as engaging in proactive problem
solving and innovation.
Our results add to the literature that suggests self-management
is related to individual-
level proactivity (Frese & Fay, 2001; Parker et al., 2006) and
team-level proactivity
(Kirkman & Rosen, 1999; Tesluk & Mathieu, 1999). From a
practical perspective, the
significance of this finding is high because, despite the
prevalence of teams in
the workplace, the introduction of genuine self-management is
relatively low. The
organization in which we collected data for this study is a case
in point. Whilst it had
officially implemented self managing teams, the reported self-
management of most
teams were, on average, low. Yet, if further studies with
longitudinal designs cotifirm our
findings, self-managing work designs might be a prerequisite
for team proactivity.
Further research is needed to understand exactly how team self-
management relates
to greater team proactive performance. Team self-management
might simply enable
team members to take charge of their environment because
members are in control of
critical variances. It is also likely that team self-management
motivates team members to
be more proactive, both through team-level processes (e.g., by
enhancing the collective
efficacy of the team to set more challenging goals) and through
enhancing individual
motivation (e.g., increasing employees' role breadth self-
efficacy or flexible role
47. orientation; Parker, 1998). Team self-management might also
have its effects through a
learning mechanism. Members of self- managing teams have
broadened experiences
which can lead to greater knowledge and thus more ideas for
improving performance.
The current study also demonstrated that favourable
interpersonal norms within
teams are associated with team proactive performance. This
finding supports the idea
that engaging in proactivity is a risky behaviour requiring a safe
and constructive
interpersonal environment in which individuals feel comfortable
deciding to take action
and be proactive. From a practical point of view, the finding
suggests it is not enough to
promote self-management; it is also important to ensure that
teams develop norms and
codes of conduct that are positive and supportive. There tnight
be a role for team
buuding or team development activities in developing this type
of team context.
Our study also supports the contention that leadership
influences team proactive
performance (e.g., Kirkman & Rosen, 1999; Tesluk & Mathieu,
1999). As existing
evidence of the relationship between transformational
leadership and proactivity has
been at the individual level, our findings extend past research
by showing that
transformational leadership also predicts team proactive
performance. Transformational
leadership is therefore a homologous predictor of proactivity.
More specifically, our
48. study suggests transformational team leadership results in
favourable interpersonal
norms within the team, rather than affecting the level of team
self-management per se.
This intriguing finding might have reflected the particular
leaders we focused on.
As hands-on team members, team leaders can influence teams to
behave in positive and
constructive ways through their role modelling and coaching.
However, encouraging
the team to be more self-managing might be more difficult
because, as team leaders, they
318 Helen M. Williams et al.
might feel responsible for taking on the management role
themselves. It is possible that
if we had assessed the transformational leadership style of the
managers external to the
team (i.e., the plant engineers), then there might have been a
stronger link between
leadership and self-management. Practically, these findings
suggest that coaching team
leaders in how they create such norms might be a powerful
intervention.
Limitations and future research
The findings of our study should be interpreted in light of its
limitations. First, our data
was cross-sectional so we cannot be entirely sure of causality.
For example, it is possible
that proactive teams are afforded more self-management by
managers. We think it
unlikely, however, that more proactive teams are allocated more
49. transformational
leaders or more proactive team members because team
membership was decided early
in the implementation of the team design. Nevertheless, a key
next step for research is
to test the model longitudinally.
A distinct strength of our study was the use of external ratings
of proactive
behaviour. This enabled us to avoid the possibility of same
source bias in many of our
key findings. There does, however, remain a possibility that
common method variance
affects the relationships between our independent and mediating
variables. None-
theless, even amongst variables that were assessed using self-
reports, different sources
were used. In particular, proactive personality diversity was
operationalized as a
standard deviation. Therefore although still self-report data, this
variable is not a
perceptual measure and therefore is a different 'source' than the
other self-report
measures that used means. In addition, as noted above, there is
factor analytic evidence
for the empirical distinctiveness of the self-reported measures.
We are therefore
confident that common method variance is not a major issue of
concern in this sample.
Our sample was, however, relatively small and thus the non-
significant finding
regarding the relationship between transformational leadership
and self-management,
and the non-supported mediation of mean level proactive
personality to self-management
50. to team proactive performance, might be due to a lack of
statistical power in detecting
effects rather than because they are not substantive. As small
sample sizes can increase
the chances of making a Type II error (Aguinis & Harden,
2009), it might be that we
concluded that there is no relationship between these variables
when one in fact exists.
Moreover, to reduce questionnaire length and hence facilitate
response rate, we used
shortened versions of some measures. Therefore, although we
have provided support
for the reliability and validity of the versions of the measures
we use in this study, the
shortened nature of our measures should be considered in
interpreting our findings.
Future research investigating the generalizability of our model
would therefore be
welcomed. As our teams came from a single context, future
research would also do well
to test our model in other types of teams and across other
industries.
It would also be interesting to investigate the processes by
which ambient and
indeed discretionary stimuli infiuence team self-management,
favourable within-team
context, and team proactive performance. As noted earlier, there
are both team-level
processes and cross-level processes that could be explored. We
also recommend multi-
level explorations of the dynamics through which individual and
team-level proactivity
are related, as well as an investigation of how team proactive
performance relates to the
51. other aspects of team performance such as team proficiency or
team adaptivity.
Moreover, the exact ways that teams develop shared norms and
behaviours around
proactivity (that is, how the phenomenon of team proactive
performance emerges)
Team proactive performance 319
deserves further inquiry. Finally, it would be valuable to
explicitly investigate
homologous models of relationships between determinants and
proactivity at the
individual and team level simultaneously. Our single-level
study was important in
suggesting some sLmüar relationships (e.g., the role of
leadership and self-management),
but expanding this type of work to a full multi-level framework
would be useful.
In sum, whilst causality has not been established in our study
and there are important
areas for future inquiry, our study supports the idea that team
proactive performance in
part arises from situational factors (team self-management,
transformational leadership)
and in part from the individuals that make up the team (team
composition), both of which
infiuence the interpersonal norms of team working. Our study is
one of the first to suggest
that too much diversity in personality might inhibit the
proactivity of a team. It appears
that, because of the nature of proactive behaviour, a
dysfunctional dynamic arises when
52. there are large discrepancies in team members' proactive
personality. Moreover, our
study suggests that organizations requiring teams who use their
initiative might consider
introducing self-managing work designs led by transformational
team leaders.
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Appendix
65. Model df RMSEA CFI
Hypothes/zed mode/(four-factor model) 149.81** 38
Alterr)ative model I (one-factor model) 654.49** 44
Alternative model 2 (three-factor model, transformational
238.45** 41
leadership and favourable interpersonal norms combined)
Alternative model 3 (three-factor model, transformational
leadership 380.00** 41
and self-management combined)
Alternative model 4 (three-factor model, transformational
leadership 320.98** 41
and proactive personality combined)
Alternative model 5 (three-factor model, self-management and
274.54** 41
favourable interpersonal norms combined)
Alternative model 6 (three-factor model, self-management and
311.83** 41
proactive personality combined)
.11
.24
.14
.19
.17
67. Favourable interpersonal norms 2
.87
.79
.83
.79
.69
.84
.69
.95
.84
.74
.96
t{SE)
I6.I2(.O4)
I3.96(.O6)
I5.O5(.O6)
I4.O2(.O6)
IO.62(.O4)
13.01 (.06)
IO.52(.O7)
12.94(.O7)
II.74(.O7)
9.53(.O8)
II.23(.O9)
Note. All t values are significant at the p < .00 level.
68. Interfactor correlations
1. Transformational leadership
2. Self-management
3. Proactive personality
4. Favourable interpersonal norms
1.00
.07
.22**
.30**
1.00
.29**
. 2 1 * *
1.00
.29** 1.00
**p < .01.
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