Topic from Molecular ecology in which its possible to sexual selection According to color Polymorphism In small animals Like fish,butterfly,birds In laboratory scale by applying Molecular makrers
The document discusses genetic and environmental polymorphism, which refers to differences in DNA sequences or phenotypes induced by environmental factors. It provides examples of various types of genetic polymorphism, including phenotypic, biochemical, immunological, chromosomal, and DNA polymorphisms. The manifestation of these polymorphisms can include variations in traits, proteins, antigens, blood groups, length of chromosomes, and DNA sequences. The importance of polymorphism studies is also highlighted for applications like forensics, transplantation, epidemiology, taxonomy, and understanding susceptibility to environmental factors and drugs.
This document provides an overview of genetic polymorphism and its relationship to periodontal disease. It begins with definitions of key genetic terms like allele, chromosome, DNA and discusses different types of genetic disorders. It then examines various human gene polymorphisms that have been associated with periodontal diseases, such as IL-1, IL-10, TNF-α, and FcγR gene polymorphisms. The document reviews studies that have investigated the relationship between these polymorphisms and chronic or aggressive periodontitis. It concludes by stating that identifying genetic risk factors could allow for more personalized prevention and treatment approaches for periodontal diseases in the future.
The document discusses different types of polymorphism, including balanced and non-balanced polymorphism. Polymorphism refers to the existence of two or more clearly different phenotypes in a population of a species. Balancing polymorphism specifically refers to the ability of natural selection to maintain stable frequencies of at least two phenotypes. There are three main types of natural selection: directional selection where allele frequency shifts in one direction, stabilizing selection where lower fitness alleles decrease until they vanish, and balancing selection where heterozygotes have higher adaptive value than homozygotes, conserving genetic polymorphism.
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how genetic factors affect individual responses to medications. The document discusses basic concepts like genes and alleles. It also covers the human genome project, genetic variation, gene mapping, cloning disease genes, and applications of various "omics" fields like pharmacogenomics. Pharmacogenomics aims to develop individualized drug treatments based on a person's genetic makeup.
Genetic polymorphisms are normal variations that occur in more than 1% of the population. Single nucleotide polymorphisms are the most common type, involving a change in a single DNA base pair. Polymorphisms can occur in coding and regulatory regions, and may affect protein function or expression levels. The interleukin-1 gene cluster contains polymorphisms that have been associated with increased severity of periodontitis, where individuals with certain IL-1 genotypes experience more rapid bone and tissue loss around teeth. Understanding genetic predispositions can help with early detection and prevention of more serious disease.
Genetic variation arises from mutations, gene flow between populations, and sexual reproduction. It is important for species survival and adaptation through natural selection. There are three main sources of genetic variation: mutation, sexual reproduction, and migration between populations. Genetic variation plays an important role in pharmacology by influencing individual responses to drugs and enabling gene therapy approaches like gene addition, gene repair, and altering gene expression through vectors.
Polymorphisms are genetic variations that occur in at least 1% of a population. They can involve single nucleotide variations or larger differences in DNA sequences. Most polymorphisms do not cause disease, but some can influence traits or increase susceptibility to certain diseases. Common types of polymorphisms include SNPs, indels, repetitive elements, and microsatellites. Polymorphisms are identified through laboratory techniques like DNA sequencing and can be distinguished from mutations, which are rare variations that alter normal DNA sequences.
contains descriptive and other studies on genetics and epigenetics and whole gene concepts from central dogma to future concepts . Dr Harshavardhan Patwal
The document discusses genetic and environmental polymorphism, which refers to differences in DNA sequences or phenotypes induced by environmental factors. It provides examples of various types of genetic polymorphism, including phenotypic, biochemical, immunological, chromosomal, and DNA polymorphisms. The manifestation of these polymorphisms can include variations in traits, proteins, antigens, blood groups, length of chromosomes, and DNA sequences. The importance of polymorphism studies is also highlighted for applications like forensics, transplantation, epidemiology, taxonomy, and understanding susceptibility to environmental factors and drugs.
This document provides an overview of genetic polymorphism and its relationship to periodontal disease. It begins with definitions of key genetic terms like allele, chromosome, DNA and discusses different types of genetic disorders. It then examines various human gene polymorphisms that have been associated with periodontal diseases, such as IL-1, IL-10, TNF-α, and FcγR gene polymorphisms. The document reviews studies that have investigated the relationship between these polymorphisms and chronic or aggressive periodontitis. It concludes by stating that identifying genetic risk factors could allow for more personalized prevention and treatment approaches for periodontal diseases in the future.
The document discusses different types of polymorphism, including balanced and non-balanced polymorphism. Polymorphism refers to the existence of two or more clearly different phenotypes in a population of a species. Balancing polymorphism specifically refers to the ability of natural selection to maintain stable frequencies of at least two phenotypes. There are three main types of natural selection: directional selection where allele frequency shifts in one direction, stabilizing selection where lower fitness alleles decrease until they vanish, and balancing selection where heterozygotes have higher adaptive value than homozygotes, conserving genetic polymorphism.
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how genetic factors affect individual responses to medications. The document discusses basic concepts like genes and alleles. It also covers the human genome project, genetic variation, gene mapping, cloning disease genes, and applications of various "omics" fields like pharmacogenomics. Pharmacogenomics aims to develop individualized drug treatments based on a person's genetic makeup.
Genetic polymorphisms are normal variations that occur in more than 1% of the population. Single nucleotide polymorphisms are the most common type, involving a change in a single DNA base pair. Polymorphisms can occur in coding and regulatory regions, and may affect protein function or expression levels. The interleukin-1 gene cluster contains polymorphisms that have been associated with increased severity of periodontitis, where individuals with certain IL-1 genotypes experience more rapid bone and tissue loss around teeth. Understanding genetic predispositions can help with early detection and prevention of more serious disease.
Genetic variation arises from mutations, gene flow between populations, and sexual reproduction. It is important for species survival and adaptation through natural selection. There are three main sources of genetic variation: mutation, sexual reproduction, and migration between populations. Genetic variation plays an important role in pharmacology by influencing individual responses to drugs and enabling gene therapy approaches like gene addition, gene repair, and altering gene expression through vectors.
Polymorphisms are genetic variations that occur in at least 1% of a population. They can involve single nucleotide variations or larger differences in DNA sequences. Most polymorphisms do not cause disease, but some can influence traits or increase susceptibility to certain diseases. Common types of polymorphisms include SNPs, indels, repetitive elements, and microsatellites. Polymorphisms are identified through laboratory techniques like DNA sequencing and can be distinguished from mutations, which are rare variations that alter normal DNA sequences.
contains descriptive and other studies on genetics and epigenetics and whole gene concepts from central dogma to future concepts . Dr Harshavardhan Patwal
Genetic and environmental factors are the two keys that make human phenotype variations. When the genomic DNA sequences on equivalent chromosomes of any two individuals are compared, there is substantial variation in the sequence at many points throughout the genome. The term polymorphism was originally used to describe variations in shape and form that distinguish normal individuals within a species from each other. These days, geneticists use the term genetic polymorphisms to describe the inter-individual, functionally silent differences in DNA sequence that make each human genome unique. In order to better understand the phenomenon of genetic polymorphism, an emphasis has been laid on the structures and functions of nucleotides, genes and nucleic acids, including their relationship with polymorphism.
Polymorphism can be caused by factors such as mutation, which is defined as a permanent transmissible change in DNA sequence. Mutations are classified based on where they occur somatic and germ line mutations) and the length of the nucleotide sequences they affect (gene-level and chromosomal mutations). The various types of polymorphisms include; single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), small-scale insertions/deletions, polymorphic repetitive elements, microsatellite variation and haplotypes.
Variations in DNA sequences may have a major impact on how human beings respond to disease, bacteria, viruses, toxins, chemicals, drugs, and other therapies. Many clinical phenotypes observed in diseases seem to have considerable genetic components.
Determining genetic polymorphism can be based on morphological, biochemical, and molecular types of information. However, molecular markers have advantages over other kinds, where they show genetic differences on a more detailed level without interferences from environmental factors, and where they involve techniques that provide fast results detailing genetic diversity. Some of the techniques used in studying polymorphisms include; PCR based techniques and techniques involving DNA based markers.
Key words: Genetic polymorphism, effects in a population,
Genetic variation refers to differences in genes between individuals of a population. It arises due to mutations, recombination during meiosis, gene flow between populations, and environmental factors. Genetic variation is important for evolution and survival of species as it provides raw materials for natural selection. While some genetic variations are harmful, others can provide benefits like disease resistance. Variations in genes involved in drug metabolism can impact individual responses to medications. Understanding genetic diversity is important for personalized medicine and drug development.
Genetic variation and its role in health pharmacologyDeepak Kumar
Genetic variation exists at different scales, from single nucleotide polymorphisms within individuals of a species to larger structural differences between species. Genetic variation arises through mutations, recombination, gene flow, genetic drift, and the interaction of these processes over time. The effective population size of a species influences how genetic variation is shaped by these evolutionary forces.
Genetic variations can arise in bacteria through several mechanisms:
1. Point mutations or DNA rearrangements can occur spontaneously during DNA replication.
2. DNA can be transferred between bacteria through transformation, transduction, or conjugation. Transformation involves uptake of naked DNA. Transduction involves transfer via bacteriophages. Conjugation involves direct contact between bacteria.
3. These mechanisms allow for acquisition of new genes and increase genetic diversity, which can provide advantages like antibiotic resistance but also influence bacterial pathogenesis.
Introduction
Approaches to Gene Therapy
Vectors in Gene Therapy
Non-viral Methods
Physical Methods for Improving DNA Transfer
Chemical Methods for Improving DNA Transfer
Advantages and Disadvantages of Gene Therapy
Applications of Gene Therapy
Challenges
Comparative genomics involves comparing the genetic material and genome sequences of different species to understand evolution, gene function, and disease. For cereals like wheat, rice, maize, and barley, comparative genomics has revealed conserved gene order and colinearity between species, helping to map genes. While rice has a small genome and was fully sequenced first, studies compare features across cereal genomes of different sizes to understand genome structure and evolution in grasses. Comparative genomics is improving our ability to predict gene function and location in related species.
Genetic variation occurs both within and among populations and is brought about by mutation, recombination, migration, and genetic drift. There are four main types of genetic variation: mutation, genetic recombination, migration, and genetic drift. Genetic variation is important as it allows individuals and populations to adapt to their environments. It plays a key role in health and pharmacology, for example in gene therapy which aims to treat diseases by replacing, inactivating, or introducing new genes.
This document discusses mutagenesis and genetic toxicology. It begins with an overview of DNA and the central dogma of biology. It then defines mutation and different types of mutations such as substitution, deletion, and insertion. It discusses chromosomal aberrations and the phenotypic expressions of mutations. It defines mutagenesis as the process of generating genetic mutations, which can be induced by mutagens. Common mutagens include chemicals, UV radiation, and ionizing radiation. Genetic toxicology identifies and analyzes agents that cause toxicity directed toward genetic material. Tests of genetic toxicology include the Ames assay, in vitro assays to detect chromosomal damage, and in vivo assays to detect effects on chromosomes. The comet assay is also discussed
Comparative genomics allows scientists to compare the genomes of different organisms to better understand genome structure and function. By aligning homologous genes, researchers can identify regions of similarity and difference between species that provide insights into evolution, gene function, and disease. The Ensembl database facilitates comparative genomic analyses across 69 vertebrate and eukaryotic species by allowing users to search for similar sequences, view alignments and gene trees, and integrate external genomic data. Comparisons between human and mouse genomes reveal approximately 85% identity in coding regions and gene structures but more divergence in intron sequences and lengths.
This document discusses cancer genomics and tumor sequencing. It explains that tumor genotyping helps clinicians individualize cancer treatments by matching patients to the best treatment based on their tumor's DNA alterations. Next generation sequencing methods have made it possible to sequence entire cancer genomes and identify additional targets for new cancer therapies. Large-scale projects like The Cancer Genome Atlas and the International Cancer Genome Consortium are analyzing hundreds of cancer genomes to better understand the molecular changes driving different cancer types.
This document discusses comparative genomics and the evolution of genes using Drosophila species as a model. It summarizes that 12 Drosophila genomes were compared phylogenetically and this comparison revealed patterns of gene family expansion and contraction over time as well as structural changes and rearrangements like in the Hox cluster. The multi-species comparisons provided strong evidence for gene models and functions are conserved despite sequence divergence across the Drosophila phylogeny.
An oncogene is a gene that has the potential to cause cancer. In tumor cells, these genes are often mutated or expressed at high levels. Most normal cells will undergo a programmed form of rapid cell death (apoptosis) when critical functions are altered and malfunctioning
Genetics is the study of genes, heredity, and genetic variation in organisms. Key aspects include:
- Gregor Mendel is considered the father of genetics for his work with pea plants and discovering genes assort and segregate in predictable patterns.
- DNA contains the genetic code and genes exist as sequences along DNA. DNA replication and cell division transfer genetic material to new cells.
- Genes generally express as proteins through transcription and translation, and expression can be regulated by transcription factors and epigenetics.
- Sexual reproduction and independent assortment increase genetic variation in offspring through recombination of parental chromosomes.
Genomics is the study of genomes, which are the complete set of genetic material within an organism. It has emerged through public funding and collaboration between academic and private research. There are two main eras - the genomic era focused on genome sequencing, while the current post-genomic era analyzes gene functions and regulation. Types of genomics include cognitive, comparative, functional, and personal genomics. It has various applications like drug discovery, conservation efforts, and understanding disease and human variation.
Comparative genomics involves analyzing and comparing the genomes of different organisms to understand evolution, gene function, and disease. Genomes can be compared at multiple levels, including overall structure, coding regions, and non-coding regions. Comparing gene location, structure, characteristics, and sequence similarity provides insights into how genomes have changed over time and what distinguishes species. Comparative genomics also aids in drug discovery by identifying potential drug targets and furthering our understanding of pathogenesis. The field has wide-ranging impacts on biology, agriculture, medicine, and conservation efforts.
genetic variations and its role in health/ pharmacologysrivani mandaloju
Here is the reference for the above topic. I have collected the maximum information that i got from the internet. If any one need the complete information comment here.
Personalized Medicine and the Omics Revolution by Professor Mike SnyderThe Hive
Personalized medicine is expected to benefit from the combination of genomic information with the global monitoring of molecular components and physiological states. To ascertain whether this can be achieved, we determined the whole genome sequence of an individual at high accuracy and performed an integrated Personal Omics Profiling (iPOP) analysis, combining genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, metabolomic, and autoantibodyomic information, over a 38-month period that included healthy and two virally infected states. Our iPOP analysis of blood components revealed extensive, dynamic and broad changes in diverse molecular components and biological pathways across healthy and disease conditions. Importantly, genomic information was also used to estimate medical risks, including Type 2 Diabetes, whose onset was observed during the course of our study. Our study demonstrates that longitudinal personal omics profiling can relate genomic information to global functional omics activity for physiological and medical interpretation of healthy and disease states.
Meet the speaker, Professor Michael Snyder (Stanford):
Michael Snyder is the Stanford Ascherman Professor, Chair of Genetics and the Director of the Center of Genomics and Personalized Medicine. He received his Ph.D. from the California Institute of Technology and postdoctoral training at Stanford University. He is a leader in the field of functional genomics and proteomics, and one of the major participants of the ENCODE project. His laboratory study was the first to perform a large-scale functional genomics project in any organism, and has launched many technologies in genomics and proteomics. These including the development of proteome chips, high resolution tiling arrays for the entire human genome, methods for global mapping of transcription factor binding sites (ChIP-chip now replaced by ChIP-seq), paired end sequencing for mapping of structural variation in eukaryotes, de novo genome sequencing of genomes using high throughput technologies and RNA-Seq. These technologies have been used for characterizing genomes, proteomes and regulatory networks. Seminal findings from the Snyder laboratory include; the discovery that much more of the human genome is transcribed and contains regulatory information than was previously appreciated, and a high diversity of transcription factor binding occurs both between and within species. He has also combined different state-of–the-art omics technologies to perform the first longitudinal detailed integrative personal omics profile (iPOP) of person and used this to assess disease risk and monitor disease states for personalized medicine. He is a co-founder of several biotechnology companies including; Protometrix (now part of Life Technologies), Affomix (now part of Illumina), Excelix, and Personalis, and he presently serves on the board of a number of companies.
Genetic toxicology involves assessing the effects of physical and chemical agents on DNA and genetic processes in living cells. It examines the health impacts of genetic alterations in somatic and germ cells, mechanisms that induce alterations like DNA damage and repair, and formation of gene mutations. A variety of assays are used to detect genetic alterations, with goals of identifying mutagenic chemicals and repair mechanisms. These assays examine DNA damage, mutations in nonmammalian and mammalian models, and chromosomal aberrations. Germ cell mutagenesis is also evaluated through assays measuring gene mutations and chromosomal alterations.
Next Generation Epigenetic Profiling for Environmental Health Sciences
The document discusses next generation epigenetic profiling technologies and their applications in environmental health sciences. It provides an overview of epigenetics and biology, next generation epigenetic profiling technologies like methylation arrays and sequencing, and applications in areas like nutrition, circadian rhythms, temperature stress, and small molecules. The technologies allow genome-wide analysis of epigenetic marks at higher resolution and lower cost than previous methods. This enables studying how environmental exposures may influence human health by altering epigenetic regulation of genes.
Trade-offs involve losing one quality or aspect in return for gaining another. Polymorphism refers to appearing in different forms. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are variations where a single DNA nucleotide differs between individuals. SNPs occur frequently and make each person genetically unique. They can influence disease susceptibility and drug response. Pharmacogenomics studies how genetic variations affect individual responses to drugs and is important for personalized medicine.
The document shows the precipitation reaction that occurs when solutions of silver nitrate and potassium chloride are mixed. Silver nitrate and potassium chloride dissociate into their respective ions in water. The silver and chloride ions then bond to form an insoluble salt, silver chloride, which precipitates out of solution leaving behind potassium nitrate in solution. The animation visually depicts the dissociation of the reactants and formation of the silver chloride precipitate at the molecular level.
This document is a resume for Srikanth Challapalli summarizing his experience and qualifications. He has over 9 years of experience in software development and project management using technologies like Java/J2EE, Hibernate, Spring, and web services. He is seeking a mid-senior level role in software engineering at a reputable tech or banking company. His experience includes several projects in roles such as lead developer and technical specialist at companies including Wells Fargo and JPMorgan Chase.
Genetic and environmental factors are the two keys that make human phenotype variations. When the genomic DNA sequences on equivalent chromosomes of any two individuals are compared, there is substantial variation in the sequence at many points throughout the genome. The term polymorphism was originally used to describe variations in shape and form that distinguish normal individuals within a species from each other. These days, geneticists use the term genetic polymorphisms to describe the inter-individual, functionally silent differences in DNA sequence that make each human genome unique. In order to better understand the phenomenon of genetic polymorphism, an emphasis has been laid on the structures and functions of nucleotides, genes and nucleic acids, including their relationship with polymorphism.
Polymorphism can be caused by factors such as mutation, which is defined as a permanent transmissible change in DNA sequence. Mutations are classified based on where they occur somatic and germ line mutations) and the length of the nucleotide sequences they affect (gene-level and chromosomal mutations). The various types of polymorphisms include; single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), small-scale insertions/deletions, polymorphic repetitive elements, microsatellite variation and haplotypes.
Variations in DNA sequences may have a major impact on how human beings respond to disease, bacteria, viruses, toxins, chemicals, drugs, and other therapies. Many clinical phenotypes observed in diseases seem to have considerable genetic components.
Determining genetic polymorphism can be based on morphological, biochemical, and molecular types of information. However, molecular markers have advantages over other kinds, where they show genetic differences on a more detailed level without interferences from environmental factors, and where they involve techniques that provide fast results detailing genetic diversity. Some of the techniques used in studying polymorphisms include; PCR based techniques and techniques involving DNA based markers.
Key words: Genetic polymorphism, effects in a population,
Genetic variation refers to differences in genes between individuals of a population. It arises due to mutations, recombination during meiosis, gene flow between populations, and environmental factors. Genetic variation is important for evolution and survival of species as it provides raw materials for natural selection. While some genetic variations are harmful, others can provide benefits like disease resistance. Variations in genes involved in drug metabolism can impact individual responses to medications. Understanding genetic diversity is important for personalized medicine and drug development.
Genetic variation and its role in health pharmacologyDeepak Kumar
Genetic variation exists at different scales, from single nucleotide polymorphisms within individuals of a species to larger structural differences between species. Genetic variation arises through mutations, recombination, gene flow, genetic drift, and the interaction of these processes over time. The effective population size of a species influences how genetic variation is shaped by these evolutionary forces.
Genetic variations can arise in bacteria through several mechanisms:
1. Point mutations or DNA rearrangements can occur spontaneously during DNA replication.
2. DNA can be transferred between bacteria through transformation, transduction, or conjugation. Transformation involves uptake of naked DNA. Transduction involves transfer via bacteriophages. Conjugation involves direct contact between bacteria.
3. These mechanisms allow for acquisition of new genes and increase genetic diversity, which can provide advantages like antibiotic resistance but also influence bacterial pathogenesis.
Introduction
Approaches to Gene Therapy
Vectors in Gene Therapy
Non-viral Methods
Physical Methods for Improving DNA Transfer
Chemical Methods for Improving DNA Transfer
Advantages and Disadvantages of Gene Therapy
Applications of Gene Therapy
Challenges
Comparative genomics involves comparing the genetic material and genome sequences of different species to understand evolution, gene function, and disease. For cereals like wheat, rice, maize, and barley, comparative genomics has revealed conserved gene order and colinearity between species, helping to map genes. While rice has a small genome and was fully sequenced first, studies compare features across cereal genomes of different sizes to understand genome structure and evolution in grasses. Comparative genomics is improving our ability to predict gene function and location in related species.
Genetic variation occurs both within and among populations and is brought about by mutation, recombination, migration, and genetic drift. There are four main types of genetic variation: mutation, genetic recombination, migration, and genetic drift. Genetic variation is important as it allows individuals and populations to adapt to their environments. It plays a key role in health and pharmacology, for example in gene therapy which aims to treat diseases by replacing, inactivating, or introducing new genes.
This document discusses mutagenesis and genetic toxicology. It begins with an overview of DNA and the central dogma of biology. It then defines mutation and different types of mutations such as substitution, deletion, and insertion. It discusses chromosomal aberrations and the phenotypic expressions of mutations. It defines mutagenesis as the process of generating genetic mutations, which can be induced by mutagens. Common mutagens include chemicals, UV radiation, and ionizing radiation. Genetic toxicology identifies and analyzes agents that cause toxicity directed toward genetic material. Tests of genetic toxicology include the Ames assay, in vitro assays to detect chromosomal damage, and in vivo assays to detect effects on chromosomes. The comet assay is also discussed
Comparative genomics allows scientists to compare the genomes of different organisms to better understand genome structure and function. By aligning homologous genes, researchers can identify regions of similarity and difference between species that provide insights into evolution, gene function, and disease. The Ensembl database facilitates comparative genomic analyses across 69 vertebrate and eukaryotic species by allowing users to search for similar sequences, view alignments and gene trees, and integrate external genomic data. Comparisons between human and mouse genomes reveal approximately 85% identity in coding regions and gene structures but more divergence in intron sequences and lengths.
This document discusses cancer genomics and tumor sequencing. It explains that tumor genotyping helps clinicians individualize cancer treatments by matching patients to the best treatment based on their tumor's DNA alterations. Next generation sequencing methods have made it possible to sequence entire cancer genomes and identify additional targets for new cancer therapies. Large-scale projects like The Cancer Genome Atlas and the International Cancer Genome Consortium are analyzing hundreds of cancer genomes to better understand the molecular changes driving different cancer types.
This document discusses comparative genomics and the evolution of genes using Drosophila species as a model. It summarizes that 12 Drosophila genomes were compared phylogenetically and this comparison revealed patterns of gene family expansion and contraction over time as well as structural changes and rearrangements like in the Hox cluster. The multi-species comparisons provided strong evidence for gene models and functions are conserved despite sequence divergence across the Drosophila phylogeny.
An oncogene is a gene that has the potential to cause cancer. In tumor cells, these genes are often mutated or expressed at high levels. Most normal cells will undergo a programmed form of rapid cell death (apoptosis) when critical functions are altered and malfunctioning
Genetics is the study of genes, heredity, and genetic variation in organisms. Key aspects include:
- Gregor Mendel is considered the father of genetics for his work with pea plants and discovering genes assort and segregate in predictable patterns.
- DNA contains the genetic code and genes exist as sequences along DNA. DNA replication and cell division transfer genetic material to new cells.
- Genes generally express as proteins through transcription and translation, and expression can be regulated by transcription factors and epigenetics.
- Sexual reproduction and independent assortment increase genetic variation in offspring through recombination of parental chromosomes.
Genomics is the study of genomes, which are the complete set of genetic material within an organism. It has emerged through public funding and collaboration between academic and private research. There are two main eras - the genomic era focused on genome sequencing, while the current post-genomic era analyzes gene functions and regulation. Types of genomics include cognitive, comparative, functional, and personal genomics. It has various applications like drug discovery, conservation efforts, and understanding disease and human variation.
Comparative genomics involves analyzing and comparing the genomes of different organisms to understand evolution, gene function, and disease. Genomes can be compared at multiple levels, including overall structure, coding regions, and non-coding regions. Comparing gene location, structure, characteristics, and sequence similarity provides insights into how genomes have changed over time and what distinguishes species. Comparative genomics also aids in drug discovery by identifying potential drug targets and furthering our understanding of pathogenesis. The field has wide-ranging impacts on biology, agriculture, medicine, and conservation efforts.
genetic variations and its role in health/ pharmacologysrivani mandaloju
Here is the reference for the above topic. I have collected the maximum information that i got from the internet. If any one need the complete information comment here.
Personalized Medicine and the Omics Revolution by Professor Mike SnyderThe Hive
Personalized medicine is expected to benefit from the combination of genomic information with the global monitoring of molecular components and physiological states. To ascertain whether this can be achieved, we determined the whole genome sequence of an individual at high accuracy and performed an integrated Personal Omics Profiling (iPOP) analysis, combining genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, metabolomic, and autoantibodyomic information, over a 38-month period that included healthy and two virally infected states. Our iPOP analysis of blood components revealed extensive, dynamic and broad changes in diverse molecular components and biological pathways across healthy and disease conditions. Importantly, genomic information was also used to estimate medical risks, including Type 2 Diabetes, whose onset was observed during the course of our study. Our study demonstrates that longitudinal personal omics profiling can relate genomic information to global functional omics activity for physiological and medical interpretation of healthy and disease states.
Meet the speaker, Professor Michael Snyder (Stanford):
Michael Snyder is the Stanford Ascherman Professor, Chair of Genetics and the Director of the Center of Genomics and Personalized Medicine. He received his Ph.D. from the California Institute of Technology and postdoctoral training at Stanford University. He is a leader in the field of functional genomics and proteomics, and one of the major participants of the ENCODE project. His laboratory study was the first to perform a large-scale functional genomics project in any organism, and has launched many technologies in genomics and proteomics. These including the development of proteome chips, high resolution tiling arrays for the entire human genome, methods for global mapping of transcription factor binding sites (ChIP-chip now replaced by ChIP-seq), paired end sequencing for mapping of structural variation in eukaryotes, de novo genome sequencing of genomes using high throughput technologies and RNA-Seq. These technologies have been used for characterizing genomes, proteomes and regulatory networks. Seminal findings from the Snyder laboratory include; the discovery that much more of the human genome is transcribed and contains regulatory information than was previously appreciated, and a high diversity of transcription factor binding occurs both between and within species. He has also combined different state-of–the-art omics technologies to perform the first longitudinal detailed integrative personal omics profile (iPOP) of person and used this to assess disease risk and monitor disease states for personalized medicine. He is a co-founder of several biotechnology companies including; Protometrix (now part of Life Technologies), Affomix (now part of Illumina), Excelix, and Personalis, and he presently serves on the board of a number of companies.
Genetic toxicology involves assessing the effects of physical and chemical agents on DNA and genetic processes in living cells. It examines the health impacts of genetic alterations in somatic and germ cells, mechanisms that induce alterations like DNA damage and repair, and formation of gene mutations. A variety of assays are used to detect genetic alterations, with goals of identifying mutagenic chemicals and repair mechanisms. These assays examine DNA damage, mutations in nonmammalian and mammalian models, and chromosomal aberrations. Germ cell mutagenesis is also evaluated through assays measuring gene mutations and chromosomal alterations.
Next Generation Epigenetic Profiling for Environmental Health Sciences
The document discusses next generation epigenetic profiling technologies and their applications in environmental health sciences. It provides an overview of epigenetics and biology, next generation epigenetic profiling technologies like methylation arrays and sequencing, and applications in areas like nutrition, circadian rhythms, temperature stress, and small molecules. The technologies allow genome-wide analysis of epigenetic marks at higher resolution and lower cost than previous methods. This enables studying how environmental exposures may influence human health by altering epigenetic regulation of genes.
Trade-offs involve losing one quality or aspect in return for gaining another. Polymorphism refers to appearing in different forms. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are variations where a single DNA nucleotide differs between individuals. SNPs occur frequently and make each person genetically unique. They can influence disease susceptibility and drug response. Pharmacogenomics studies how genetic variations affect individual responses to drugs and is important for personalized medicine.
The document shows the precipitation reaction that occurs when solutions of silver nitrate and potassium chloride are mixed. Silver nitrate and potassium chloride dissociate into their respective ions in water. The silver and chloride ions then bond to form an insoluble salt, silver chloride, which precipitates out of solution leaving behind potassium nitrate in solution. The animation visually depicts the dissociation of the reactants and formation of the silver chloride precipitate at the molecular level.
This document is a resume for Srikanth Challapalli summarizing his experience and qualifications. He has over 9 years of experience in software development and project management using technologies like Java/J2EE, Hibernate, Spring, and web services. He is seeking a mid-senior level role in software engineering at a reputable tech or banking company. His experience includes several projects in roles such as lead developer and technical specialist at companies including Wells Fargo and JPMorgan Chase.
2014 trends survey of child health care professionals on BreastfeedingGRIVEAS ASSOCIATES
A global online survey was conducted from September to December 2014 of 45,000 child healthcare professionals across 84 countries to identify trends in practices and guidelines related to various topics including breastfeeding. 667 healthcare experts responded, mostly general pediatricians (45.24%) working in general or children's hospitals or private practice. The document presents some results from the survey related to breastfeeding.
DNA barcoding can be useful for authenticating raw botanical materials but has significant limitations for finished botanical dietary supplements due to degradation of DNA during extraction. The New York Attorney General's investigation into supplement products inappropriately used DNA barcoding on extracts and may have lacked sufficient knowledge of testing complex botanical products. Without details on methodology, reference sequences, and quality controls, the conclusions that many products lacked labeled ingredients cannot be validated. DNA testing must be performed appropriately according to limitations of materials and methods to produce reliable results.
This document provides instructions for creating and formatting a basic PowerPoint presentation using Microsoft PowerPoint 2007. It discusses how to add and arrange slides, insert text boxes and objects, apply formatting and animation, customize slide design, and use the slide master view. The tutorial also covers how to set slide transitions, change the slide order, add notes, and present the slide show. The instructions aim to familiarize users with the main interface and tools in PowerPoint 2007.
Managerial accounting measures and analyzes financial and non-financial information to help managers make decisions to achieve organizational goals, whereas financial accounting focuses on reporting to external users in accordance with GAAP. Managerial accounting is used for internal decision making and is not required to follow GAAP. It focuses on the future and influencing employee behavior, while financial accounting has an external focus on the past. Management accounting helps with strategic questions about customers, competitors, capabilities, and cash flow to support the organization's strategy.
2014 trends survey of child health care professionals on HPV vaccinations GRIVEAS ASSOCIATES
Between September and December 2014 we have conducted a global online survey to 45,000 children healthcare professionals to identify discrepancies and regional trends on everyday practice, compliance with guidelines, education gaps and preferred education sources in a number of areas including, HPV and Meningitis Vaccinations, Rare Diseases, Breastfeeding and Skincare.
667 healthcare experts, mostly general pediatricians (45.24%) responded from 84 countries. Most respondents were clinically active at general hospitals (29.89%), children’s hospitals (23.65%), private practice (18.7 %), university (17.77 %), and primary care (7.26%).
The document discusses the anatomy, development, and functions of the appendix. It begins by describing how the appendix was first described in 1889 and its typical location in the lower right abdomen attached to the cecum. It then discusses how the appendix acts as lymphoid tissue and may help the immune system by exposing white blood cells to antigens in the gastrointestinal tract. The document also covers acute appendicitis, including symptoms, investigations, and treatments like appendectomy. It notes the appendix's role may decrease with age after the third decade.
To make a compass, you will need a magnetized needle and a piece of paper. Magnetize a needle using a magnet from something like your backpack or pencil case. Place the needle on a piece of paper floating in calm water. The needle will slowly turn to point north and south, though you won't know the exact direction and will need to determine north and south based on the general sun location for your area. With a magnetized needle and something to float it on, you can create a simple compass to help with navigation in the wilderness.
The document discusses several toys and tablets designed for toddler learning and entertainment. The Nabi 2 tablet delivers learning and entertainment experiences through games, music, movies and educational apps. The Vtech iDiscover App Activity Table combines tablet play with an activity table featuring learning games. The Mr. Pencil Stylus allows toddlers to practice writing with letter and shape apps on compatible tablets. The Vtech Tote & Go Laptop teaches letters, spelling, numbers and more through learning activities and online content. The Tech-Too Tech Set, Fun & Play Tablet, Vtech Sit to Stand Alphabet Train and Vtech Alphabet Activity Cube are additional toys that engage toddlers through educational games, songs and interactive elements.
Haiku Deck is a presentation platform that allows users to create Haiku-style slideshows. The document encourages the reader to get started creating their own Haiku Deck presentation on SlideShare by providing a link to do so. It suggests the reader may find inspiration to create a Haiku Deck presentation on SlideShare.
Tanushree Nandi is seeking a position that allows growth within a leading technology organization. She has over 6 years of experience in change management and transitioning projects. Currently working as an Assistant Manager at HCL Technologies, her responsibilities include implementing new applications, developing change strategies, and overseeing business readiness activities. She possesses strong communication, leadership, and business development skills. Nandi holds an MBA in HR and a B.Tech in IT.
Arntech Security - technical training series 1 completeAlison Budge
This document provides an overview of Lesson 1 of a technical training series on electricity from Arntech Security. The lesson aims to teach the basic concepts of electricity in a practical and theoretical manner. It covers topics like what electrical charge is and how it is formed, electric fields and their effect on charge, different types of electricity, and safety when working with electricity. The lesson introduces concepts like atoms, protons, electrons, conductors, insulators, static electricity, current electricity, AC and DC current. It emphasizes understanding these concepts in order to apply them to solving electrical problems.
Chromosomal banding patterns can be visualized through specialized staining techniques developed in the 1960s and 1970s. These techniques stain different regions of chromosomes different colors, revealing banding patterns. The bandings contain heterochromatin or histone-DNA complexes and interbandings contain active genes. Variations in staining techniques lead to different banding patterns that can be used to distinguish between species and characterize plant chromosomes, though plant chromosomes are more difficult to analyze than animal chromosomes due to reduced resolution. Banding patterns remain largely consistent within species but vary between populations and have been linked to karyotype evolution and adaptation to environmental conditions.
Molecular markers for measuring genetic diversity Zohaib HUSSAIN
Molecular markers for measuring genetic diversity
Introduction:
The molecular basis of the essential biological phenomena in plants is crucial for the effective conservation, management, and efficient utilization of plant genetic resources (PGR).
Determining genetic diversity can be based on morphological, biochemical, and molecular types of information. However, molecular markers have advantages over other kinds, where they show genetic differences on a more detailed level without interferences from environmental factors, and where they involve techniques that provide fast results detailing genetic diversity
Comparison of different methods
Morphological characterization does not require expensive technology but large tracts of land are often required for these experiments, making it possibly more expensive than molecular assessment. These traits are often susceptible to phenotypic plasticity; conversely, this allows assessment of diversity in the presence of environmental variation.
Biochemical analysis is based on the separation of proteins into specific banding patterns. It is a fast method which requires only small amounts of biological material. However, only a limited number of enzymes are available and thus, the resolution of diversity is limited.
Molecular analyses comprise a large variety of DNA molecular markers, which can be employed for analysis of variation. Different markers have different genetic qualities (they can be dominant or co-dominant, can amplify anonymous or characterized loci, can contain expressed or non-expressed sequences, etc.).
Genetic marker
The concept of genetic markers is not a new one; in the nineteenth century, Gregor Mendel employed phenotype-based genetic markers in his experiments. Later, phenotype-based genetic markers for Drosophila melanogaster led to the founding of the theory of genetic linkage. A genetic marker is an easily identifiable piece of genetic material, usually DNA that can be used in the laboratory to tell apart cells, individuals, populations, or species. The use of genetic markers begins with extracting proteins or chemicals (for biochemical markers) or DNA (for molecular markers) from tissues of the plant (for example, seeds, foliage, pollen, sometimes woody tissues).
Molecular markers In genetics, a molecular marker (identified as genetic marker) is a fragment of DNA that is associated with a certain location within the genome. Molecular markers which detect variation at the DNA level such as nucleotide changes: deletion, duplication, inversion and/or insertion. Markers can exhibit two modes of inheritance, i.e. dominant/recessive or co-dominant. If the genetic pattern of homozygotes can be distinguished from that of heterozygotes, then a marker is said to be co-dominant. Generally co-dominant markers are more informative than the
This document provides an overview of genome-wide association studies (GWAS). It defines key terms related to GWAS such as linkage disequilibrium, minor allele frequency, and odds ratio. It compares linkage mapping and association mapping. It describes the methodology of GWAS including identifying population structure, selecting case and control subjects, genotyping samples, and determining associated SNPs. It discusses challenges such as multiple hypothesis testing and population structure. It provides examples of successful GWAS in crops like maize and Arabidopsis. Overall, the document provides a comprehensive introduction and overview of GWAS.
This document discusses molecular markers and their use in plant breeding and genetics. It defines different types of markers, including morphological, biochemical, and molecular markers. Molecular markers are DNA sequences that can be easily detected and whose inheritance can be monitored. The document discusses different classes of molecular markers, including PCR-based techniques like RAPD, SSR, and AFLP, as well as applications like diversity analysis, genotyping, and linkage mapping. It also covers topics like genetic distance, linkage mapping, mapping populations, and scoring mapping populations to construct genetic maps.
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2. There are many sources of genetic variation within and between populations, including multiple alleles per locus, heterozygosity, and linkage disequilibrium between loci.
3. The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele and genotype frequencies remain stable over generations under certain conditions, but factors like non-random mating, genetic drift, migration and natural selection can cause evolutionary changes by altering these frequencies.
Chromosomal Variations, Continuous and Discontinuous Variations, Genotypic & ...Muhammad Mubashir Ali
Chromosomal Variations, Continuous and Discontinuous Variations, Genotypic & Phenotypic Variations. Hardy-Weinberg law of random mating, Recombination technology
It also explains the main points for a variation.
This document discusses molecular markers and their use in data interpretation. It begins by defining what markers are, noting they act as landmarks to identify specific gene regions. Molecular markers include morphological, biochemical, cytological, and molecular types. Morphological markers involve visible phenotypic traits, while biochemical markers examine protein variations detectable through electrophoresis. Cytological markers relate to chromosome changes. The document outlines characteristics and advantages and disadvantages of different marker types. It emphasizes molecular markers are inexpensive, unaffected by environment, robust, polymorphic, codominant, and informative. The document defines key genetic terms and principles like genes, alleles, loci, genotypes, haplotypes, polymorphisms, codominance, and Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium important for
This document discusses chromosome and gene mapping techniques. It describes how gene mapping is used to identify the location of genes and distances between genes on chromosomes. Two main types of maps are discussed - genetic maps based on linkage and physical maps using actual distances in base pairs. Molecular markers are described as polymorphic DNA sequences used to map genes. Methods for genetic mapping like linkage analysis and calculating recombination fractions are explained.
What is Genome,Genome mapping,types of Genome mapping,linkage or genetic mapping,Physical mapping,Somatic cell hybridization
Radiation hybridization ,Fish( =fluorescence in - situ hybridization),Types of probes for FISH,applications,Molecular markers,Rflp(= Restriction fragment length polymorphism),RFLPs may have the following Applications;Advantages of rflp,disAdvantages of rflp, Rapd(=Random amplification of polymorphic DNA),Process of rapd, Difference between rflp &rapd
A molecular marker is a fragment of DNA associated with a specific location in the genome that is used to identify a particular DNA sequence. An ideal molecular marker is highly polymorphic, codominantly inherited, frequently distributed throughout the genome, easy to detect, reproducible, and allows for easy exchange of data between laboratories. Molecular markers like SSRs have various applications including genetic diversity analysis, cultivar identification, phylogenetic analysis, gene mapping, marker-assisted selection, and sex determination in plants.
This document is a seminar submission by Varsha Gayatonde on the topic of genome wide association studies. It includes an introduction to genetic mapping, key terminology used in GWAS such as linkage disequilibrium and minor allele frequency. It then discusses the history and concepts of GWAS, including a comparison to biparental mapping. Specific examples of GWAS in crops such as Arabidopsis, rice, and maize are also mentioned.
despite of the enormous genomic diversity, the phage genome mapping is being done using a plethora of techniques,which includes both genetic mapping and physical mapping
1. Linkage occurs when genes located on the same chromosome fail to assort independently during meiosis. This causes traits to be inherited together in offspring.
2. Bateson and Punnett first reported linkage in 1906 while studying flower color and pollen shape in peas. They observed a deviation from expected Mendelian ratios, indicating linkage between the genes.
3. Morgan's studies of fruit flies provided the first evidence that linkage is due to genes being located on the same chromosome. Crossing over during meiosis can lead to new combinations of linked genes.
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Sexual selection and genetic colour polymorphisms in animals
1. Sexual selection and genetic colour
polymorphisms in animals
Akash Mali, India
Vytautas Magnus University,
Lithuania 1Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
2. We will Discuss
• The evidence of sexual selection on colour polymorphisms.
•The genetic architecture, molecular and developmental basis
underlying phenotypic colour diversification
•How the maintenance of such polymorphisms might be
facilitated or constrained
Why?
•Importance of tight clustering of colour loci with other trait
loci, such as in the case of inversions and supergene structures.
•Findings include linkage between colour loci and mate
preferences or sex determination, and the role of introgression
and regulatory variation in fuelling polymorphisms.
2Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
3. Introduction
To study evolutionary processes
Genetic colour polymorphisms
•Ubiquitous in nature
• Constitute ideal model systems
• Many colour morphs have a simple genetic basis and show high
heritability.
•Discrete colour morphs can be scored unambiguously in a large
number of individuals and thus provide easy visual markers for
examining selection in the wild.
3Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
4. •The two female colour morphs
of Ischnura elegans: infuscans ,
male-mimicking andro- chrome
(top right) in its juvenile phase
(rufescens).
•Colour morphs of Heliconius
numata with the numata
arcuella morph
•morph of Zonotrichia
albicollis.
•Recent studies on genetic colour polymorphisms where sexual
selection has been suggested to play a potential role in their
maintenance and the colour loci have been mapped to genomic
regions, or in some exceptional cases, even to mutations in genes
and the specific nucleotide substitutions
4Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
5. UNDERSTANDING
• lack of knowledge about the molecular genetic basis of colour in
most polymorphic systems has hampered our ability to develop deeper
insights into the evolution .
• Due to these advances, the genomic location of colour has recently
been described in several polymorphic species and in some cases the
underlying genes and mutations have been identified.
• we can improve the study of the evolutionary responses of colour
genes to selection in general, and sexual selection in particular.
The evolutionary response to selection on coloration will be
influenced according to whether the genes involved in pigmentation
show multiple pleiotropic effects, whether they are tightly linked to
other selected genes in the chromosomal vicinity, their dominance
patterns and/or whether they form central nodes in integrated gene
networks.
5Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
6. Evidence of colour assortative mating and
sexual selection on genetic colour
polymorphisms
• Most classic colour polymorphism studies on
the peppered moth Biston betularia and the
grove snail Cepaea nemoralis were conducted
in the British ecological genetics tradition in
terms of predation risk and in relation to
various abiotic factors.
•In fish, colour assortative mating has been demonstrated in cichlids
displaying the barred/gold and blotch/plain polymorphisms. The
barred/gold polymorphism is found in the Midas cichlid complex in
Nicaragua.(Amphilophus citrinellus)
6Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
7. Species Sex Colour
polymorphism
Sexual selection
on colour
Genetics of colour
Reptiles Uta
stansburiana,
Common side-
blotched
lizards
M,
F
Orange, yellow
and blue throat
colours (blue
mainly in males)
Strong male–male
competition that
overrides female
preferences for
same coloured
male
Throat colour is
heritable and
segregates like a
Mendelian factor with
three alleles. In males,
the o allele is the
dominant allele, while
the b allele is recessive
to the y allele.
Fish
Amphilophus
citrinellus,
Midas cichlids
M,
F
Barred dark morph
(~90%) and a rare
gold morph in both
sexes
Gold and normal
fish mate
assortatively and
genetic
divergence of
neutral markers
occurs between
the two morphs
Mendelian inheritance
pattern determined by
a two-allele single
locus model, with gold
being dominant
Poecilia
reticulata,
Millionfish
M Males display a
diversity of spots of
various colours,
NFDS caused by
rare- male mating
advantage. Extent
Linkage mapping and
QTL analyses showed
that most male colour7Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
8. • For this, it needs to be linked with heterozygote advantage such as
in the common buzzard, or co-occur with some form of
NFDS(negative frequency-dependent selection.) or correlational
selection.
•There is a lack of rigorous quantitative studies on colour
polymorphisms that have clearly separated sexual selection on
colour morphs and assortative mating between morphs.
•One case is the throat colour morphs of the side- blotched lizard Uta
stansburiana . Here, females show a preference for colour matching
in the laboratory , but this preference is overridden in the wild by
competitive exclusion of other males by the dominant male in their
social neighbourhood.
•In species with sex-limited colour variation, both female- and male-
limited colour polymorphisms are common
8Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
9. Emerging knowledge about genomics and genetic
architecture of colour
The genetic architecture of colour
(Supergenes, inversions and tight linkage)
•supergenes link multiple genes into one
segregating unit, thereby hard- coding for
separate yet complementary phenotypes
and preventing allelic combinations that
create nonoptimal intermediates
• The degree of linkage is depend on physical distance between loci,
effective recombination rate in the chromosomal region(chromosomal
inversions, deletions, insertions, duplications and translocations )
Heliconius numata
9Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
10. Gene duplications and introgression of colour genes
•An explicit role of gene duplications in the evolution of genetic
colour polymorphisms is more limited, but some evidence exists. For
example, the yellow/light and dark coat colours in many mammalian
species, some being intraspecific polymorphisms, are in some cases
caused by loss of function mutations in the melanocortin 1 receptor
• more than one gene copy may release one of the copies from
pleiotropic constraints, and this can in turn allow evolution of novel
functions of the newly derived paralogue.
• Copy number variation (CNV) is widespread across taxa, and one
extreme example includes the whole-genome duplication in teleost
fish, which is a case where CNV has been shown to be important for
the evolution of pigmentation gene families.
10Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
11. Molecular genetics and developmental basis of colour morph
Regulatory vs. protein-coding evolution
•Mutations in cis- and trans-regulatory mechanisms provide relatively simple
ways to produce coordinated phenotypic changes, but it is yet unknown how
frequent such regulatory changes are in relation to protein-coding mutations.
• Studies on zebrafish Danio rerio showed that this upregulation leads to fewer
and larger melanophores and exactly mimics the pattern of blotched female
morphs .
• This cis-regulatory mutation affects a transcription factor that coordinates
the development of melanocytes from neural crest precursors and leads to
pax7 upregulation
•In Heliconius butterflies, regulatory changes are causa- tive of colour patterns
in some geographic and sympatric colour variants. In H. melpomene, for
example, between race red colour differences have been narrowed down to an
150-kb region and analyses indicate that the homeobox transcription factor
optix is the causal factor . 11Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
12. Alternative splicing
• Alternative splicing is a fundamental mechanism for both gene
regulation and the generation of proteomic diversity, and works by
producing different mRNAs from the same gene.
•alternative splicing increases the total coding capacity of the
genome and enhances overall phenotypic diversity. For these
reasons, alternative splicing has great potential in the context of
colour polymorphisms, but with the most commonly used DNA-
sequencing techniques, differently spliced variants will go
undetected.
•This highlights the importance in colour polymorphic species to
study expression differences through RNA-seq analyses of mRNA
in the target species and target tissues. In cichlids, species specific
splicing patterns have been detected, but splicing differences have
not yet been related to differences in colour pattern
12Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
13. Linking genetic architecture and sexual selection
•The genetic architecture(number of loci affecting traits, the effect
size of such loci, the magnitudes of genetic variances)
•Cheverud (1984) suggested that genetic correlations between traits
would be expected to become aligned with the adaptive surface in the
direc- tion of maximum fitness hypothesis was confirmed.
•One explanation for this is that chronic correlational selection builds
up genetic correlations between disparate traits, even if they are
governed by separate sets of loci, through the formation of linkage
disequilibrium . Alternatively, chronic correlational selection can
favour the spread of pleiotropic mutations which impact both target
traits of correlational selection .
13Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
14. Conclusions and future
directions
•These studies offer the opportunity to integrate sexual selection
studies on colour polymorphisms with knowledge about the
molecular targets of selection
•A challenge for future studies in developmental genetics will be to
determine which of the genes residing within these clusters are
causative for the generation of novel colour phenotypes, as the tight
linkage within clusters makes it difficult to map genes to function.
• Deciphering the functional genetic properties of colour
polymorphisms and the suite of correlated factors (e.g. mutational
history, linkage disequilibrium, type of regulation and complexity of
gene expression networks) can help elucidate how and when colour
phenotypes may evolve in relation to natural and sexual selection. 14Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
15. • We predict that this field will flourish over the next years, but would
like to emphasize that progress in our understanding of sexual
selection on colour polymorphisms will only come from studies that
explicitly combine ecology with genetics.
•Future molecular studies should also aim to provide increased
insights into the genes in the vicinity of colour genes, which may be
exposed to different selection pressures, and reveal possible genetic
constraints on the effectiveness of sexual selection.
15Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas