- Frequency control is important to maintain required receiving end voltage and stable operation when systems are interconnected. Automatic generation control (AGC) is used to maintain power balance and constant system frequency as load changes.
- AGC has three components - primary control provides immediate response to load changes, secondary control corrects tie-line flows, and economic dispatch schedules units economically. It acts based on changes in generator speed and frequency.
- For multi-area systems, AGC must restore frequency and scheduled tie-line flows in each area while ensuring areas absorb their own load changes. Area control error (ACE) is used to adjust control settings to drive ACE to zero and balance the system.
True power factor (PF) and displacement power factor (DPF) both measure the efficiency of power delivery to a load but in different ways. DPF only considers the fundamental 60 Hz portion of the voltage and current waveforms, so it is not affected by harmonics. PF is the ratio of real power to apparent power and takes into account any harmonic distortion, making it a better measure of overall system efficiency. DPF should be used to evaluate reactive power issues and power factor correction, while PF accounts for the increased burden from harmonics and is useful for quantifying total system performance. When DPF and PF differ, harmonics are present requiring further investigation.
The document discusses power flow analysis, which determines voltages, currents, real power, and reactive power in a power system under steady-state load conditions. It describes the different types of buses in a power system and how they are modeled. The key component of power flow is the bus admittance matrix, which relates nodal voltages to branch currents based on Kirchhoff's current law. Solving the matrix equations provides the voltage magnitude and angle at each bus.
This document describes the fixed capacitor thyristor controlled reactor (FC-TCR), which uses a fixed capacitor and thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) to maintain the desired voltage at a high voltage bus. It contains the circuit diagram and operating characteristics of the FC-TCR, explaining how the capacitive VAR output of the fixed capacitor can be opposed by the inductive VAR output of the TCR through firing delay angle control. It also discusses how losses in the FC-TCR can be minimized by switching the fixed capacitor using mechanical breakers.
The significance of power factor correction (PFC) has long been visualized as a technology requirement for improving the efficiency of a power system network by compensating for the fundamental reactive power generated or consumed by simple inductive or capacitive loads. With the Information Age in full swing, the growth of high reliability, low cost electronic products have led utilities to escalate their power quality concerns created by the increase of such “switching loads.” These products include: entertainment devices such as Digital TVs, DVDs, and audio equipment; information technology devices such as PCs, printers, and fax-machines; variable speed motor drives for HVAC and white goods appliances; food preparation and cooking products such as microwaves and cook tops; and lighting products, which include electronic ballasts, LED and fluorescent lamps, and other power conversion devices that operate a variety of lamps. The drivers that have resulted in this proliferation are a direct result of the availability of low-cost switch-mode devices and control circuitry in all major end-use segments: residential, commercial, and industrial.
In order to keep power quality under the limits proposed by standards, it is required to incorporate some sort of compensation. There are two basic types of PFC circuits: active and passive. The simplest power factor correctors can be implemented using a passive filter to suppress the harmonics in conjunction with capacitors or inductors to generate or consume the fundamental reactive power, respectively. Active power factor correction circuits have proven to be more effective, generally integrated with the switch-mode circuitry, and actively control the input current of the load. This enables the most efficient delivery of electrical power from the power grid to the load. The demand for new smart, green products has set the stage for a worldwide migration from antiquated passive circuits to active correctors as well as from traditional analog technology to digital techniques. New digital active power factor correction delivers better full- and light-load power efficiency while lowering system costs, enabling smaller designs and providing a clear path for further feature enhancements and improved competitive positioning for a whole host of consumer and industrial products. Cirrus Logic’s novel advances in digital active PFC technology signify a major enabling element in the development of the newest generation of low cost, energy-efficient switch mode products.
A flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS) is a system composed of static equipment used for the AC transmission of electrical energy. It is meant to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability of the network. It is generally a power electronics-based system.
In conventional AC transmission system, the ability to transfer AC power is limited by several factors like thermal limits, transient stability limit, voltage limit, short circuit current limit etc. These limits define the maximum electric power which can be efficiently transmitted through the transmission line without causing any damage to the electrical equipments and the transmission lines. This is normally achieved by bringing changes in the power system layout. However this is not feasible and another way of achieving maximum power transfer capability without any changes in the power system layout. Also with the introduction of variable impedance devices like capacitors and inductors, whole of the energy or power from the source is not transferred to the load, but a part is stored in these devices as reactive power and returned back to the source. Thus the actual amount of power transferred to the load or the active power is always less than the apparent power or the net power. For ideal transmission the active power should be equal to the apparent power. In other words, the power factor (the ratio of active power to apparent power) should be unity. This is where the role of Flexible AC transmission System comes.
Power System Stability
Power system stability is the ability of an electric power
system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a
state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a
physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded
so that practically the entire system remains intact.
- Frequency control is important to maintain required receiving end voltage and stable operation when systems are interconnected. Automatic generation control (AGC) is used to maintain power balance and constant system frequency as load changes.
- AGC has three components - primary control provides immediate response to load changes, secondary control corrects tie-line flows, and economic dispatch schedules units economically. It acts based on changes in generator speed and frequency.
- For multi-area systems, AGC must restore frequency and scheduled tie-line flows in each area while ensuring areas absorb their own load changes. Area control error (ACE) is used to adjust control settings to drive ACE to zero and balance the system.
True power factor (PF) and displacement power factor (DPF) both measure the efficiency of power delivery to a load but in different ways. DPF only considers the fundamental 60 Hz portion of the voltage and current waveforms, so it is not affected by harmonics. PF is the ratio of real power to apparent power and takes into account any harmonic distortion, making it a better measure of overall system efficiency. DPF should be used to evaluate reactive power issues and power factor correction, while PF accounts for the increased burden from harmonics and is useful for quantifying total system performance. When DPF and PF differ, harmonics are present requiring further investigation.
The document discusses power flow analysis, which determines voltages, currents, real power, and reactive power in a power system under steady-state load conditions. It describes the different types of buses in a power system and how they are modeled. The key component of power flow is the bus admittance matrix, which relates nodal voltages to branch currents based on Kirchhoff's current law. Solving the matrix equations provides the voltage magnitude and angle at each bus.
This document describes the fixed capacitor thyristor controlled reactor (FC-TCR), which uses a fixed capacitor and thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) to maintain the desired voltage at a high voltage bus. It contains the circuit diagram and operating characteristics of the FC-TCR, explaining how the capacitive VAR output of the fixed capacitor can be opposed by the inductive VAR output of the TCR through firing delay angle control. It also discusses how losses in the FC-TCR can be minimized by switching the fixed capacitor using mechanical breakers.
The significance of power factor correction (PFC) has long been visualized as a technology requirement for improving the efficiency of a power system network by compensating for the fundamental reactive power generated or consumed by simple inductive or capacitive loads. With the Information Age in full swing, the growth of high reliability, low cost electronic products have led utilities to escalate their power quality concerns created by the increase of such “switching loads.” These products include: entertainment devices such as Digital TVs, DVDs, and audio equipment; information technology devices such as PCs, printers, and fax-machines; variable speed motor drives for HVAC and white goods appliances; food preparation and cooking products such as microwaves and cook tops; and lighting products, which include electronic ballasts, LED and fluorescent lamps, and other power conversion devices that operate a variety of lamps. The drivers that have resulted in this proliferation are a direct result of the availability of low-cost switch-mode devices and control circuitry in all major end-use segments: residential, commercial, and industrial.
In order to keep power quality under the limits proposed by standards, it is required to incorporate some sort of compensation. There are two basic types of PFC circuits: active and passive. The simplest power factor correctors can be implemented using a passive filter to suppress the harmonics in conjunction with capacitors or inductors to generate or consume the fundamental reactive power, respectively. Active power factor correction circuits have proven to be more effective, generally integrated with the switch-mode circuitry, and actively control the input current of the load. This enables the most efficient delivery of electrical power from the power grid to the load. The demand for new smart, green products has set the stage for a worldwide migration from antiquated passive circuits to active correctors as well as from traditional analog technology to digital techniques. New digital active power factor correction delivers better full- and light-load power efficiency while lowering system costs, enabling smaller designs and providing a clear path for further feature enhancements and improved competitive positioning for a whole host of consumer and industrial products. Cirrus Logic’s novel advances in digital active PFC technology signify a major enabling element in the development of the newest generation of low cost, energy-efficient switch mode products.
A flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS) is a system composed of static equipment used for the AC transmission of electrical energy. It is meant to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability of the network. It is generally a power electronics-based system.
In conventional AC transmission system, the ability to transfer AC power is limited by several factors like thermal limits, transient stability limit, voltage limit, short circuit current limit etc. These limits define the maximum electric power which can be efficiently transmitted through the transmission line without causing any damage to the electrical equipments and the transmission lines. This is normally achieved by bringing changes in the power system layout. However this is not feasible and another way of achieving maximum power transfer capability without any changes in the power system layout. Also with the introduction of variable impedance devices like capacitors and inductors, whole of the energy or power from the source is not transferred to the load, but a part is stored in these devices as reactive power and returned back to the source. Thus the actual amount of power transferred to the load or the active power is always less than the apparent power or the net power. For ideal transmission the active power should be equal to the apparent power. In other words, the power factor (the ratio of active power to apparent power) should be unity. This is where the role of Flexible AC transmission System comes.
Power System Stability
Power system stability is the ability of an electric power
system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a
state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a
physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded
so that practically the entire system remains intact.
This chapter deals with the reliability analysis of different power system parts which includes the generation, transmission and distribution systems. This slide is specifically prepared for ASTU 5th year power and control engineering students.
Modeling and Simulation of an electrical micro-grid using MATLAB Simulink Sum...Aodhgan Gleeson
This project involves developing an accurate dynamic model of a micro-grid in MATLAB/Simulink. The micro-grid model includes multiple energy sources like a diesel generator and photovoltaic array, various loads, faults, and a connection to the main electrical grid. Students created models of grid-tied inverters, synchronous machines, and developed a human interface device to interact with the simulation. The completed micro-grid simulation provides an educational platform to study different generation scenarios and observe associated power flow phenomena.
This document provides a comprehensive guide to electrical overcurrent protection and design considerations based on the 2014 National Electrical Code. It includes sections on fuseology, component protection, selective coordination, ground fault protection, electrical safety, motor circuit protection, and more. The guide is intended to help users select the proper protective devices and understand technical requirements for a variety of electrical systems and applications.
Factors to be considered while selecting CTParth Patel
The document discusses key factors to consider when selecting current transformers (CTs). It covers:
- CT functions such as supplying protective relays with proportional currents and isolating measuring devices from high voltages.
- Principles such as magnetic flux inducing proportional secondary currents and high current transformation ratios.
- Types including bar, wound, and window types based on construction and measuring vs protective functions.
- Additional factors like accuracy class, knee-point voltage, burden, short-time current rating, and accuracy limit factor which influence performance during faults. Proper consideration of these factors is important for specifying CTs suited for an application's requirements.
The document discusses key terms related to electrical power generation and load curves. It defines terms like connected load, demand factor, load factor, diversity factor, coincidence factor, loss factor, plant capacity factor, utilization factor, plant use factor, base load, and peak load. Load curves plot the variation in load over time and are important for understanding energy generation and demand. Base load refers to the minimum required electricity demand while peak load is the time of high demand.
The document describes the transfer reactances between a generator and infinite bus bar under various conditions, including pre-fault, during fault, and post-fault. It then asks to determine the maximum load that can be transferred without loss of stability if the fault is cleared when the rotor has advanced 600 electrical degrees from its prefault position. Through calculations using the reactance values and rotor position, it determines the maximum load is 127.3 MW.
This document discusses fault level calculations in electric power systems. It explains that fault level calculations are necessary to select protective devices, circuit breakers, and equipment that can withstand short circuit currents. The document outlines the procedure for calculating fault levels, which involves representing the system with a single line diagram, choosing a base MVA, calculating per unit reactances, determining the equivalent reactance to the fault point, and using formulas to calculate fault MVA and current. It also discusses how current limiting reactors can be used to insert additional reactance and reduce short circuit currents to match circuit breaker ratings.
The document discusses various aspects of power system reliability including adequacy, security, and stability. It defines adequacy as relating to having sufficient generation and transmission facilities to meet customer demand. Security pertains to how the system responds to disturbances like loss of generation or transmission. Stability refers to generators staying synchronized during disturbances. The document also discusses reliability assessment techniques like loss of load probability and expectation indices used to evaluate generation adequacy. Distribution reliability is assessed using indices that consider customer interruptions and outage times.
A company specialized in uninterruptible power supply systems developed and manufactured in 2006 a system comprising a 400kVA UPS unit.
The system was installed in a production facility manufacturing food packaging equipment and foil, located in northern Poland.
Frequent voltage dips and fluctuations were severely impairing the production process, causing downtimes of several-hour duration, which generated substantial losses. Restarting the production caused another losses resulting from the process specifi city.
Typically about 200 kg of material was lost until final product was compliant with standards.
Discover how the design engineers managed to find a solution for this process production line !
Gardu induk merupakan sub-sistem penting dalam sistem penyaluran listrik yang berperan mengubah tegangan listrik dan menyalurkan daya ke konsumen. Terdapat berbagai gangguan yang dapat terjadi pada gardu induk seperti gangguan alam, teknis, operasi, dan lainnya seperti hubung singkat, beban lebih, atau gangguan pada transformator.
The document discusses STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator), which is a shunt connected reactive power compensation device capable of generating and absorbing reactive power using a voltage source converter. It can improve power system performance by providing dynamic voltage control, damping power oscillations, improving transient stability, and controlling voltage flickering and reactive/active power. The principle of operation involves using a voltage source converter to generate a balanced set of three sinusoidal voltages to exchange reactive power with the system by varying the amplitude and phase angle of the output voltage.
Voltages and currents present at the generator's rated voltage and current are provided as examples. Sample relay setting calculations are shown for generator protection elements including 59N neutral overvoltage, 27TN third harmonic undervoltage, 46 negative sequence overcurrent, and coordination between protective devices. Formulas for calculating voltage and current settings from generator nameplate data are demonstrated.
This document provides an overview of the availability based tariff (ABT) mechanism and deviation settlement mechanism (DSM) in India. It discusses the constituents of the power grid in India and the evolution of the regional grids into a unified national grid. It then explains the constituents of ABT, including generators, transmission lines, load dispatch centers, and regulatory authorities. The key aspects of ABT are described, such as scheduling of generation and load, deviation charges for over-injection and under-injection to incentivize grid discipline. Finally, the document outlines the changes introduced in Maharashtra through the DSM regulations of 2019, bringing the state mechanism in line with the central electricity regulatory commission guidelines.
Power quality improvement using upqc with soft computing method: Fuzzy logicSakti Prasanna Muduli
Now a days problems regarding power quality is more in large inter connected power systems. There are many method to mitigate these problems but using the latest most efficient compensation method is some what impressive. Here is the brief explanations regarding UPQC using soft computing method(fuzzy logic). This was my academic project along with my friends.
örnek bir güneş enerji santrali raporu . bu rapor ile bazı başvurular yapılabilir. http://www.enerjibes.com/gunes-enerji-santrali-raporu-nasil-hazirlanir/
1) Over current occurs when electric current exceeds intended levels, potentially causing equipment damage from excess heat. It can be caused by short circuits, overloading, design flaws, or ground faults.
2) Over current relays contain a current coil. During normal operation, the magnetic effect is insufficient to trigger the relay. During over currents, the increased magnetic effect overcomes the restraint, moving the contact to isolate the circuit.
3) Over current relays come in instantaneous, definite time, and inverse time variations depending on their time of operation. Inverse time relays isolate faults faster for more severe over currents.
This chapter deals with the reliability analysis of different power system parts which includes the generation, transmission and distribution systems. This slide is specifically prepared for ASTU 5th year power and control engineering students.
Modeling and Simulation of an electrical micro-grid using MATLAB Simulink Sum...Aodhgan Gleeson
This project involves developing an accurate dynamic model of a micro-grid in MATLAB/Simulink. The micro-grid model includes multiple energy sources like a diesel generator and photovoltaic array, various loads, faults, and a connection to the main electrical grid. Students created models of grid-tied inverters, synchronous machines, and developed a human interface device to interact with the simulation. The completed micro-grid simulation provides an educational platform to study different generation scenarios and observe associated power flow phenomena.
This document provides a comprehensive guide to electrical overcurrent protection and design considerations based on the 2014 National Electrical Code. It includes sections on fuseology, component protection, selective coordination, ground fault protection, electrical safety, motor circuit protection, and more. The guide is intended to help users select the proper protective devices and understand technical requirements for a variety of electrical systems and applications.
Factors to be considered while selecting CTParth Patel
The document discusses key factors to consider when selecting current transformers (CTs). It covers:
- CT functions such as supplying protective relays with proportional currents and isolating measuring devices from high voltages.
- Principles such as magnetic flux inducing proportional secondary currents and high current transformation ratios.
- Types including bar, wound, and window types based on construction and measuring vs protective functions.
- Additional factors like accuracy class, knee-point voltage, burden, short-time current rating, and accuracy limit factor which influence performance during faults. Proper consideration of these factors is important for specifying CTs suited for an application's requirements.
The document discusses key terms related to electrical power generation and load curves. It defines terms like connected load, demand factor, load factor, diversity factor, coincidence factor, loss factor, plant capacity factor, utilization factor, plant use factor, base load, and peak load. Load curves plot the variation in load over time and are important for understanding energy generation and demand. Base load refers to the minimum required electricity demand while peak load is the time of high demand.
The document describes the transfer reactances between a generator and infinite bus bar under various conditions, including pre-fault, during fault, and post-fault. It then asks to determine the maximum load that can be transferred without loss of stability if the fault is cleared when the rotor has advanced 600 electrical degrees from its prefault position. Through calculations using the reactance values and rotor position, it determines the maximum load is 127.3 MW.
This document discusses fault level calculations in electric power systems. It explains that fault level calculations are necessary to select protective devices, circuit breakers, and equipment that can withstand short circuit currents. The document outlines the procedure for calculating fault levels, which involves representing the system with a single line diagram, choosing a base MVA, calculating per unit reactances, determining the equivalent reactance to the fault point, and using formulas to calculate fault MVA and current. It also discusses how current limiting reactors can be used to insert additional reactance and reduce short circuit currents to match circuit breaker ratings.
The document discusses various aspects of power system reliability including adequacy, security, and stability. It defines adequacy as relating to having sufficient generation and transmission facilities to meet customer demand. Security pertains to how the system responds to disturbances like loss of generation or transmission. Stability refers to generators staying synchronized during disturbances. The document also discusses reliability assessment techniques like loss of load probability and expectation indices used to evaluate generation adequacy. Distribution reliability is assessed using indices that consider customer interruptions and outage times.
A company specialized in uninterruptible power supply systems developed and manufactured in 2006 a system comprising a 400kVA UPS unit.
The system was installed in a production facility manufacturing food packaging equipment and foil, located in northern Poland.
Frequent voltage dips and fluctuations were severely impairing the production process, causing downtimes of several-hour duration, which generated substantial losses. Restarting the production caused another losses resulting from the process specifi city.
Typically about 200 kg of material was lost until final product was compliant with standards.
Discover how the design engineers managed to find a solution for this process production line !
Gardu induk merupakan sub-sistem penting dalam sistem penyaluran listrik yang berperan mengubah tegangan listrik dan menyalurkan daya ke konsumen. Terdapat berbagai gangguan yang dapat terjadi pada gardu induk seperti gangguan alam, teknis, operasi, dan lainnya seperti hubung singkat, beban lebih, atau gangguan pada transformator.
The document discusses STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator), which is a shunt connected reactive power compensation device capable of generating and absorbing reactive power using a voltage source converter. It can improve power system performance by providing dynamic voltage control, damping power oscillations, improving transient stability, and controlling voltage flickering and reactive/active power. The principle of operation involves using a voltage source converter to generate a balanced set of three sinusoidal voltages to exchange reactive power with the system by varying the amplitude and phase angle of the output voltage.
Voltages and currents present at the generator's rated voltage and current are provided as examples. Sample relay setting calculations are shown for generator protection elements including 59N neutral overvoltage, 27TN third harmonic undervoltage, 46 negative sequence overcurrent, and coordination between protective devices. Formulas for calculating voltage and current settings from generator nameplate data are demonstrated.
This document provides an overview of the availability based tariff (ABT) mechanism and deviation settlement mechanism (DSM) in India. It discusses the constituents of the power grid in India and the evolution of the regional grids into a unified national grid. It then explains the constituents of ABT, including generators, transmission lines, load dispatch centers, and regulatory authorities. The key aspects of ABT are described, such as scheduling of generation and load, deviation charges for over-injection and under-injection to incentivize grid discipline. Finally, the document outlines the changes introduced in Maharashtra through the DSM regulations of 2019, bringing the state mechanism in line with the central electricity regulatory commission guidelines.
Power quality improvement using upqc with soft computing method: Fuzzy logicSakti Prasanna Muduli
Now a days problems regarding power quality is more in large inter connected power systems. There are many method to mitigate these problems but using the latest most efficient compensation method is some what impressive. Here is the brief explanations regarding UPQC using soft computing method(fuzzy logic). This was my academic project along with my friends.
örnek bir güneş enerji santrali raporu . bu rapor ile bazı başvurular yapılabilir. http://www.enerjibes.com/gunes-enerji-santrali-raporu-nasil-hazirlanir/
1) Over current occurs when electric current exceeds intended levels, potentially causing equipment damage from excess heat. It can be caused by short circuits, overloading, design flaws, or ground faults.
2) Over current relays contain a current coil. During normal operation, the magnetic effect is insufficient to trigger the relay. During over currents, the increased magnetic effect overcomes the restraint, moving the contact to isolate the circuit.
3) Over current relays come in instantaneous, definite time, and inverse time variations depending on their time of operation. Inverse time relays isolate faults faster for more severe over currents.
Owner of Tsaina Lodge, Jeffery Scott Fraser also recently invested in employee matching company Job Pose. Through his involvement in this company, Jeffery S. Fraser supports the creation of new job candidate matching strategies.
Danilo Cruz-DePaula has over 30 years of experience managing economic development programs focused on value chains, competitiveness, and policy reform. He has led large USAID programs in Ukraine, Nicaragua, and Azerbaijan. As Chief of Party, he directed teams that generated over $100 million in investments, created thousands of jobs, and passed important laws and reforms. Cruz-DePaula also has extensive experience in investment banking, trade negotiations, and developing rural small businesses and cooperatives through his work with USAID, the U.S. Trade Representative, and as a Peace Corps volunteer.
Fazil Rahman K.A. is seeking a challenging position in marketing and sales or business development in Qatar. He has a diploma in electronics production technology engineering and Cisco Certified Network Associate certification. He has over 5 years of experience in network engineering, technical support, and project engineering roles in India and Qatar. Currently, he is assistant manager of business development at Al Emadi Security Services, where he guides customers, closes sales, and coordinates with managers on sales targets.
This document summarizes the collaboration between Al-Huson University College in Jordan and Red Rocks Community College in the US to develop new workforce education programs in renewable energy and occupational health and safety in Jordan. With support from USAID and engagement with private industry, the partners created degree programs in solar energy technology and occupational health and safety. They worked closely with industry stakeholders to design curriculum aligned with industry needs and standards through advisory committees. This ensured graduates were job ready. The partnerships helped establish dedicated labs and secured donations of equipment, expanding opportunities for experiential learning.
John Paul Pickavance has over 25 years of experience in futures trading and risk management. He has held roles at Marex Spectron, ING Barings, Morgan Grenfell, and ED&F Man International, where he gained experience in trading, risk management, operations, and client support. He is proficient in using various trading platforms and risk management systems.
Este documento proporciona instrucciones en 4 pasos para agregar texto con brillo a un blog usando el sitio web www.textosconbrillo.net. También proporciona instrucciones en 5 pasos para agregar un reloj a una página web usando el sitio www.websmultimedia.com, incluyendo seleccionar diseños, colores y tamaño antes de copiar el código HTML generado.
Akıllı Şebekeler Nedir? Nasıl Kontrol Edilir? Entegrasyonları Nasıl Sağlanır? Bu konudaki mevcut yönetmelikler nelerdir? Akıllı şebekelerle ilgili birçok sorunuzun cevabını sunumda bulabilirsiniz.
GPS Senkronlu Saat Sistemi - Satellite Synchronized Clock SystemErtugrul Eraslan
Baran Technology, zamanın önemli olduğu yerler için GPS uyduları üzerinden senkronize edilen, atomik
saat hassasiyetinde, MERKEZİ SAAT SİSTEMİ geliştirdi.
This document discusses the control structures and operating modes of different power plant types, including combined cycle, gas turbine, hydro, and coal-fired plants. It provides details on various operating modes like primary control, constant load control, and secondary control. It also presents example simulations of the dynamic response of different plant types to frequency deviations. The document stresses the importance of reserve and governor settings for frequency control and outlines directives for standardizing information exchange between power plants and system operators.
Turkiye Elektrik Sisteminde Frekans Kontrolu makale 2012
Sekonder Frekans Kontrolu
1. TEİAŞ-EKH TDEP, 12.12.2011
Oğuz YILMAZ, 12.12.2011, oguz.yilmaz@ieee.org 1/9
Sekonder Frekans Kontrolu: Tanımlar, Temel Prensipler
ve
AGC denetiminde Sekonder Frekans Kontrolu’ne Katılacak Üretim
Tesislerinde Uygulanacak Performans Test Prosedürü
TÜBİTAK UZAY-TEİAŞ EKH Teknik Destek ve Eğitim Projesi kapsamında,
TEİAŞ Elektrik Kalite Hizmetleri Müdürlüğü için,
Oğuz YILMAZ
Tübitak Güç Sistemleri Bölümü, Ankara
12.12.2011
1. Sekonder Frekans Kontrolu
Genel anlamıyla Sekonder Frekans Kontrolu sürecinde temel amaç, merkezi bir kontrol ile,
ani ya da sıradan üretim-tüketim dengesizlikleri sebebiyle oluşan elektrik sistemi şebeke
frekansındaki sapmaları ortadan kaldırarak nominal seviyeye getirmek ve senkron çalışılan
çevre ülke elektrik sistemleriyle olan yük akışlarını planlanmış seviyelerde tutmak olarak
özetlenebilir.
Türkiye’nin Avrupa Elektrik Sistemi’ne bağlantısı öncesi durumu, kendi içerisinde
enterkonnekte ama çevre elektrik sistemlerinden izole bir ada olarak değerlendirilirse, böyle
bir konfigürasyonda Sekonder Frekans Kontrolu’nun temel amacı, Primer Frekans Kontrol
süreci ile farklı bir denge frekans noktasında oluşan üretim tüketim dengesinin, tekrardan
şebeke frekansının nominal seviyesinde sağlanmasıdır. Yani bu konfigürasyonda ana hedef,
merkezi bir kontrol ile, frekansın belirlenmiş değerine regüle edilmesidir.
Birbirlerine senkron olarak bağlı elektrik sistemlerinde ise, her bir ülkenin ya da daha doğru
terimiyle kontrol alanının temel görevi, oluşan Alan Kontrol Hatası’nı (ACE)1
, kendi mevcut
SCADA/EMS sisteminin AGC2
fonksiyonu ile yürüttüğü Sekonder Kontrol süreci ile ortadan
kaldırmaktır. Böylelikle herhangi bir bölgede meydana gelebilecek ani üretim-tüketim
dengesizlikleri sonucu oluşacak frekans sapmasına verilecek primer tepki, tüm sistemin ortak
tepkisi iken, nihai durumda her ülke kendi üretim-tüketim dengesini sağlamak ve sorumlu
olduğu frekans sapmasını ortadan kaldırmak zorundadır.
Sonuç olarak bu amaçların gerçekleştirilmesi etkin bir Sekonder Kontrol Performansı, bu da
etkin çalışan bir AGC sistemi gerektirmektedir. Bir AGC sisteminin etkin çalışması kontrol
parametre ayarlarına bağlı olduğu kadar, bundan daha da fazla bu sistemin otomatik
denetimi altında olan ve gerekli rezervi sağlayan üretim tesislerinin performansına bağlıdır.
1
Alan Kontrol Hatası, (Area Control Error, ACE) bir ülkenin enterkonnekte olduğu sistemde meydana gelecek bir
frekans sapmasına ülke olarak vermesi beklenen primer tepkinin (K-Factor *Δf) ve hat akışlarında planlanan
seviyelerden oluşan sapmanın (ΔP) belirli bir işaret kabullenmesi doğrultusunda toplamından oluşmaktadır.
2
AGC, Automatic Generation Control (Otomatik Üretim Kontrolü): Belirli bir algoritma doğrultusunda, merkezi
bir yapıdan, üretim tesislerinin çalışma noktalarının değiştirilmesi suretiyle, sürekli bir şekilde, saniyeler
mertebesinden (≥ 30 sn) başlayarak dakikalar mertebesine uzanan (≤ 15 dak.) ve tekrarlanan denetimi.
2. TEİAŞ-EKH TDEP, 12.12.2011
Oğuz YILMAZ, 12.12.2011, oguz.yilmaz@ieee.org 2/9
2. AGC (Otomatik Üretim Kontrolü) Genel Sistem Mimarisi
Şekil 1: Genel sistem mimarisi prensip şeması
SCADA/EMS sisteminin AGC fonksiyonu, belirli zaman aralıkları için planlanmış akış bilgilerini,
bağlantı hatlarından gerçek zamanlı olarak ölçülen güç akışı verilerini ve anlık şebeke frekansı
verilerini alır. AGC, bu verileri belirli hesaplamalar doğrultusunda değerlendirerek, kontrolu
altındaki üretim tesislerine takip etmeleri gereken güç referans değerlerini belirli kriterler
doğrultusunda, ICCP3
protokolu vasıtasıyla, gerek fiber optik hatlar gerekse de PLC4
üzerinden iletir.
Normal koşullarda AGC denetimi altında olan bir üretim tesisinin, AGC sistemine iletmiş
olduğu veriler ve parametreler doğrultusunda (AGC denetiminde, sekonder kontrol için
ulaşılabilecek maksimum ve minimum güç değerleri, güç referansı değişim hızını belirleyen
yüklenme hızı değerleri vb.) kendisine iletilen güç referansını takip etmesi beklenir.
Bu amaçla ilgili üretim tesisinde; veri iletişimini sağlayacak bir RTU ya da ICCP protokolunu
değerlendirebilecek bir haberleşme arayüzü, gelen veriyi değerlendirerek üretim tesisindeki
ünitelere iletecek bir santral kontrol sistemi, (DCS ya da sırf bu amaca yönelik bir PLC) ve bu
kontrol sisteminde çalışacak, gerekli hesaplamaları yapacak ve tasarımında dikkat edilmesi
gereken bir kontrol döngüsü olmalıdır.
3
ICCP: “Inter Control Center Protocol” ya da “Telecontrol Application Service Element” (TASE.2). Mevcut
sistemde haberleşme için kullanılan protokol
4
PLC: Power Line Carrier. Elektrik iletim hatları üzerinden haberleşme
.
.
.
SCADA/EMS
AGC
MYTM
RTU
BYTM_1
RTU
BYTM_9
Üretim Tesisi_A
RTU
Santral
Kontrol
Sistemi
Ünite_1
Ünite_n
Üretim Tesisi_N
RTU
Ünite_1
Ünite_n
.
.
.
RTU
TM_n
Bağlantı
hatları
Santral
Kontrol
Sistemi
3. TEİAŞ-EKH TDEP, 12.12.2011
Oğuz YILMAZ, 12.12.2011, oguz.yilmaz@ieee.org 3/9
3. AGC denetiminde Sekonder Frekans Kontolu’ne Katılım için
Temel Performans Kriterleri
SCADA/EMS sisteminin AGC fonksiyonu altında otomatik olarak Sekonder Frekans Kotrolu’ne
katılacak üretim tesislerinin, AGC’den güç referansı iletilen birim5
bazında (çok üniteli
santral/kombine çevrim bloğu/ünite) sağlaması gereken temel performans kriterleri aşağıda
belirtilmiştir.
3.1 Yüklenme Hızları
Sekonder Frekans Kontrolu’ne katılım kapsamında AGC denetiminde otomatik olarak
güç referansı iletilecek üretim biriminin (santral/blok/ünite) sağlaması gereken
yüklenme hızı değerleri Şebeke Yönetmeliği Madde 126/A’da ve ENSTSO-E Operation
Handbook Policy1 Appendix16
’de [1] belirtilmiştir.
TEİAŞ tarafından aksi istenmedikçe, otomatik kontrol altında “gerektiğinde”7
ulaşılması beklenen maksimum yüklenme hızları aşağıda belirtilmiştir:
o Motorin, fuel oil ve doğal gaz yakıtlı üretim tesisleri için nominal gücün
dakikada en az %6’sı kadar; (dolayısıyla örnek olarak ele alabileceğimiz,
AGC’den güç referansı giden 750 MW nominal güçlü bir doğal gaz kombine
çevrim bloğu, tüm gaz türbinleri devrede iken gerektiğinde 45 MW/dak ile
yüklenebilmelidir. Bu değer devrede olan gaz türbin sayısına göre
güncellenmelidir.)
o Rezervuarlı hidroelektrik üretim tesisleri için nominal gücün saniyede %1.5 ile
%2.5’u arasında; (bu değer pratik anlamda çok yüksek bir değer olup, TEİAŞ
tarafından tercih edilen gerektiğinde ulaşılması beklenen maksimum
yüklenme hızları nominal gücün dakikada %20-30’u arasında
gerçekleşmektedir. AGC’den güç referansı giden 2400 MW nominal güçlü
rezervuarlı bir hidroelektrik santralı, tüm üniteleri devrede iken 480 MW/dak
ile yüklenebilmelidir. Bu değer devrede olan türbin sayısına göre
güncellenmelidir.)
o Yakıt olarak taş kömürü kullanan üretim tesisleri için nominal gücün dakikada
%2 ile %4’ü arasında; (örnek olarak, AGC’den güç referansı giden 660 MW
nominal güçlü taş kömürü yakıtlı bir ünitede, gerektiğinde ~20 MW/dak ile
yüklenebilmelidir.)
5
AGC’den güç referansı iletilen üretim biriminin Uzlaştırmaya Esas Veriş Çekiş Birimi olması esastır. Bir üretim
tesisi birbiri ile eşdeğer tüm üniteleri ile tek bir UEVÇB olabileceği gibi bir den fazla bloklu bir doğal gaz kombine
çevrim santrali, her bir bloğu AGC’den ayrı güç referansı alan birden fazla UEVÇB olabilir.
6
https://www.entsoe.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/_library/publications/entsoe/Operation_Handbook/Policy_1_
Appendix%20_final.pdf
7
Bu değerler gerektiğinde ulaşılması istenen değerler olup, AGC’nin normal işleyişi sırasında daha düşük
değerler (daha yavaş çıkış gücü referans değişimleri) gerçekleşebilir.
4. Oğuz YILMAZ, 12.12.2011, oguz.yilmaz@ieee.org
o Yakıt olarak linyit kullanan üretim tesisleri için nominal gücün
%2’si arasında; (örnek olarak,
güçlü dört üniteli
gerektiğinde ~20 MW/dak ile yüklenebilmelidir. Bu değer devrede olan türbin
sayısına göre güncellenmelidir. Eğer AGC’den 360 MW’lık tek bir üniteye güç
referansı gönderiliyor ise bu değerin bir ünite için
beklenir.)
3.2 Üretim Tesislerinin Sekonder Frekans Kontrolu için AGC Denetiminde
kullanılacak Rezerv Miktarları
Şebeke yönetmeliği Madde 125’de bir ünite için belirtilen figür
değeri giden bir üretim
Şekil 2: Rezerv ve çalışma noktası gösterimi
TEİAŞ-EKH
, oguz.yilmaz@ieee.org
Yakıt olarak linyit kullanan üretim tesisleri için nominal gücün
%2’si arasında; (örnek olarak, AGC’den güç referansı giden
dört üniteli taş kömürü yakıtlı bir santral, tüm üniteleri devrede iken
20 MW/dak ile yüklenebilmelidir. Bu değer devrede olan türbin
sayısına göre güncellenmelidir. Eğer AGC’den 360 MW’lık tek bir üniteye güç
referansı gönderiliyor ise bu değerin bir ünite için ~5 MW/dak olması
retim Tesislerinin Sekonder Frekans Kontrolu için AGC Denetiminde
kullanılacak Rezerv Miktarları
Şebeke yönetmeliği Madde 125’de bir ünite için belirtilen figür, AGC’den güç referans
değeri giden bir üretim birimi (santral/blok/ünite) için yorumlanırsa
Şekil 2: Rezerv ve çalışma noktası gösterimi
EKH TDEP, 12.12.2011
4/9
Yakıt olarak linyit kullanan üretim tesisleri için nominal gücün dakikada %1 ile
AGC’den güç referansı giden 1440 MW nominal
iteleri devrede iken
20 MW/dak ile yüklenebilmelidir. Bu değer devrede olan türbin
sayısına göre güncellenmelidir. Eğer AGC’den 360 MW’lık tek bir üniteye güç
5 MW/dak olması
retim Tesislerinin Sekonder Frekans Kontrolu için AGC Denetiminde
AGC’den güç referans
(santral/blok/ünite) için yorumlanırsa;
5. TEİAŞ-EKH TDEP, 12.12.2011
Oğuz YILMAZ, 12.12.2011, oguz.yilmaz@ieee.org 5/9
Pmax AGC’den referans değer giden üretim biriminin devrede olan üniteleri ile
çıkabileceği maksimum çıkış gücü seviyesini
Pmin AGC’den referans değer giden üretim biriminin devrede olan üniteleri ile
inebileceği minimum çıkış gücü seviyesini,
PmaxRS AGC’den referans değer giden üretim biriminin sekonder frekans kontrol
hizmeti kapsamında çıkabileceği azami çıkış gücü seviyesini,
PminRS AGC’den referans değer giden üretim biriminin sekonder frekans kontrol
hizmeti kapsamında inebileceği asgari çıkış gücü seviyesini,
PmaxRT AGC’den referans değer giden üretim biriminin tersiyer kontrol hizmeti
kapsamında sunabildiği azami çıkış gücü seviyesini,
PminRT AGC’den referans değer giden üretim biriminin tersiyer kontrol hizmeti
kapsamında sunabildiği asgari çıkış gücü seviyesini
2×= RPRPA (1)
2×= RSRSA (2);
RSRT PPRT maxmax −=+
(3); (eğer RT+
=0 => PmaxRS =PmaxRT)
RTRS PPRT minmin −=−
(4); (eğer RT-
=0 => PminRS =PminRT)
olacak şekilde göstermektedir.
Tüm bu tanımlar göz önüne alındığında; AGC denetiminde kendisine gönderilecek güç
referansına göre Sekonder Frekans Kontrolu’ne katılacak bir üretim tesisinin, sürekli
olarak; AGC sistemine ilettiği PminRS ve PmaxRS değerleri doğrultusunda, kendisine bu
değerler arasında iletilen güç referansını takip etmesi beklenmektedir.
Gün içerisinde oluşan üretim-tüketim dengesizliklerini giderilmesi ve bağlantı hatlarında
saat başlarında değişen planlanmış yük akışlarının yeni değerlerinin sağlanabilmesi ülke
için belirlenen performans kriterleri doğrultusunda gerçekleştirilmelidir. Bu sebeple
üretim tesislerince sunulan AGC denetimideki tüm rezervin belirlenmiş bir süre içerisinde
sunulması gereklidir.
Madde 3.1’de belirtilen üretim teknolojisine göre belirlenen, gerektiğinde ulaşılması
beklenen yüklene hızları doğrultusunda, AGC’den güç referansı giden bir üretim
biriminin PminRS seviyesinden PmaxRS seviyesine en geç 5 dakika içerisinde çıkabilmesi
kriteri TEİAŞ tarafından etkin bir AGC uygulaması için esas alınmalıdır. Üretim tesisleri
tarafından daha üzün sürede sağlanabilecek rezerv değerlerinin ülke genelindeki
sekonder kontrol rezervine dahil edilmesi, hem gün içerisinde efektif anlamda
değerlendirilmeyen atıl rezerv oluşumuna hem de AGC sisteminde performans kaybına
sebep olacaktır.
Bu sebeplerle, AGC denetimindeki bir üretim tesisinin, belirlenmiş mevcut yüklenme
hızına göre minimumdan maksimuma kadar, en geç 5 dakika içerisinde
gerçekleştirebileceği değişim miktarı doğrultusunda (RSA) PminRS ve PmaxRS seviyelerini,
dolayısıyla da Sekonder Rezerv (RS) bildirimini belirlemesi esas olmalıdır.
6. TEİAŞ-EKH TDEP, 12.12.2011
Oğuz YILMAZ, 12.12.2011, oguz.yilmaz@ieee.org 6/9
(Örneğin yüklenme hızı nominal gücünün %6’sı olarak belirlenmiş AGC’den güç referansı
alan bir birim için RSA maksimum %30 olabilirken, bu değer %1 olarak belirlenmiş bir
birim için RSA en fazla %5 olabilir.)
ENSTSO-E Operation Handbook Policy18
’de [2] belirtilen ve büyük bir üretim tüketim
dengesizliği sonucu, Alan Kontrol Hatası’nın minimize edilmesi, dolayısıyla da frekans ve
yük akışlarının referans değerlerine en geç 15 dakika içerisinde getirilmesi hedefi, bir
performans hedefi olarak değil, en zor durumda dahi aşılmaması gereken bir süre olarak
değerlendirilmelidir. Örneğin, hat akışlarında planlanan yeni program değerlerine
ulaşılması için belirlenmiş süre, değişim miktarından bağımsız olarak 10 dakika ile
sınırlandırılmıştır.
8
https://www.entsoe.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/_library/publications/entsoe/Operation_Handbook/Policy_1_f
inal.pdf
7. TEİAŞ-EKH TDEP, 12.12.2011
Oğuz YILMAZ, 12.12.2011, oguz.yilmaz@ieee.org 7/9
4. AGC denetiminde Sekonder Frekans Kontrolu’ne Katılacak
Üretim Tesislerinde Uygulanacak Performans Test Prosedürü
4.1 Dikkat Edilmesi Gereken Temel Noktalar
Burada belirtilen test prosedürü, Sekonder Frekans Kontrolü’ne katılacak ve AGC
sisteminden güç referansı iletilecek birimin, belirlenen performans kriterlerini sağlayıp
sağlamadığını değerlendirmek için üretim tesisinde gerçekleştirilecek test metodolojisini
belirlemektedir. Bu testleri başarıyla geçen bir üretim tesisi, ilgili hizmeti sağlamak
doğrultusunda TEİAŞ’a başvurabilir.
(İlgili üretim birimine AGC sisteminden güç referansı iletilebilmesi için gerekli sinyal
alış- verişinin sağlıklı bir şekilde gerçekleştirilip gerçekleştirilmediğine dair yapılacak
testler, gerekli haberleşme altyapısının oluşturulmasının ardından TEİAŞ tarafından
yapılmalıdır.)
Şekil 3: İlgili üretim biriminde test sinyali uygulama noktasının (S) prensip gösterimi
Üretim tesisinde gerçekleştirilecek testler, Santral Kontrol Sistemi üzerinde ya da bu
amaç için tesis edilmiş bir platformda çalışan Santral Güç Kontrol Sistemi Lokal Güç
Referansını değiştirmek suretiyle yapılacaktır. Bu amaçla testin gerçekleştirileceği üretim
tesisinde gerekli kontrol sistemi tasarımının uygulanmış olması esastır. Kontrol altındaki
ünitelerin frekans değişimlerine verdikleri primer tepkilerini olumsuz yönde
etkilemeyecek ve üniteler arasında en uygun yük dağılımını sağlayacak başarılı bir kontrol
sistemi tasarımı üretim tesisinin sağlıklı işleyişi açısından da önemlidir.
Testler AGC sisteminden güç referansı iletilecek üretim biriminin bu amaçla
kullanılabilecek tüm üniteleri devrede ve her biri otomatik denetim altında olacak
şekilde, yani ilgili tesis için maksimum sekonder kontrol rezervi ve yüklenme hızları
geçerli iken gerçekleştirilmelidir.
Üretim Tesisi_A
RTU
Santral
Kontrol
Sistemi
Ünite_1
Ünite_n
S
8. TEİAŞ-EKH TDEP, 12.12.2011
Oğuz YILMAZ, 12.12.2011, oguz.yilmaz@ieee.org 8/9
İlgili test raporunda, devrede olan ya da santral kontrol sistemi vasıtasıyla otomatik
denetim altında olan ünite sayısı değiştikçe, ulaşılabilecek maksimum sekonder rezerv
miktarı (RSA) ve yüklenme hızı (MW/dak), olabilecek her bir durum için ayrıca
belirtilmelidir.
Her bir durum için, belirlenmiş mevcut yüklenme hızına göre, minimumdan
maksimuma kadar, en geç 5 dakika içerisinde gerçekleştirilebilecek değişim miktarının
dikkate alınarak RSA seviyesinin, dolayısıyla da ileride olabilecek Sekonder Rezerv (RS)
bildirimlerinin belirlenmesi esas olmalıdır.
4.2 Test Süreci
Sekonder Frekans Kontrolü sürecinde güç referansı iletilecek üretim biriminin bu amaçla
kullanılabilecek tüm üniteleri devrede ve her biri otomatik denetim altında iken, Bölüm
3.2’de belirtilen açıklamalar doğrultusunda (teknolojiye göre yönetmelikte belirlenmiş
yüklenme hızı doğrultusunda sağlanabilecek rezerv miktarı), belirtilen koşulları sağlayan
PminRS ve PmaxRS değerlerini belirleyin ve birimi güç kontrol sistemi vasıtasıyla PminRS
seviyesine getirin.
(Testin birinci aşamasında ilgili üretim biriminin öncelikle güç referansı değişimlerine
verdiği tepki değerlendirileceği için, bu süreçte primer tepki devre dışı bırakılabilir.)
İlgili üretim tesisi için geçerli olan yüklenme hızı doğrultusunda, Şekil 4’te belirtilen güç
referansı (Pset) uyarınca PminRS seviyesinden PmaxRS seviyesine ve PmaxRS seviyesinden PminRS
seviyesine getirin. Tepkinin Şekil 4’te belirtilen band içerisinde olması beklenmektedir.
Şekil4: Uygulanacak test sinyali ve gerçekleşmesi beklenen tepki için tolerans değerleri
Pset
Ptol+
Ptol-
t=0 t=t1 t=t2 t=t3 t=t4 t=t5 t=t6 t=t7 t=t8
Ts Tp
Ɛ Ɛ
Tt Td
t=t9
Oguz Yilmaz, 2011,Ankara
PminRS
PmaxRS
Ts= 120 sn
Tp=t2-t1=t6-t5= 20 sn
Tt=t4-t1=t8-t5 <= 300 sn
Td=t5-t4=t9-t8=180 sn
Ɛ= %1*Pnom. ilgili üretim tes.
9. TEİAŞ-EKH TDEP, 12.12.2011
Oğuz YILMAZ, 12.12.2011, oguz.yilmaz@ieee.org 9/9
Şekil 4’te belirtilen grafik şablonu doğrultusunda gerçekleşen tepkiyi görsel olarak
oluşturun. Test raporuna ekleyin. Gerçekleşen tepki belirtilen tolerans bantlarının dışında
kaldığı takdirde test başarısız olarak değerlendirilecektir.
(PmaxRS - PminRS)/Tt = RR değerini elde edin. Elde edilen değeri MW/dak ve Güç Referansı
değiştirilen birimin nomilan gücünün dakika başına değişim yüzdesi (%/dak) olarak ifade
edin. Bu değerin şebeke yönetmeliğinde belirtilen değerler ile örtüşmesi beklenmektedir.
Test raporunda, devrede olan ya da santral kontrol sistemi vasıtasıyla otomatik denetim
altında olan ünite sayısı değiştikçe oluşan konfigürasyonlar için, ulaşılabilecek maksimum
sekonder rezerv miktarı (PmaxRS - PminRS =RSA) ve yüklenme hızı (MW/dak) değerleri ayrıca
belirtilmeli ve bu değerlerin gerektiğinde sağlanacağı taahhüt edilmelidir.
Test verileri TEİAŞ Elektrik Kalite Hizmetleri Müdürlüğü’nün üretim tesislerinin frekans
kontrolüne katılım hizmetini izlenmesi için kullanılan veri formatında sunulmalıdır.
Güç Referansı değişim testinin ardından, üretim tesisinin mevcut santral güç kontrol
döngüsü altında, primer tepki aktive edilerek, 24 saat boyunca yine aynı formatta elde
edilmiş verisi değerlendirilmeli ve sağlanması gereken primer tepkinin başarıyla
sağlandığı gösterilmelidir.
Oğuz YILMAZ, 12.12.2011, Ankara